Before the 1700s alchemists and some scientists believed that one substance could be changed into another, and they tried to prove it by transforming such common metals as lead into gold and silver. Robert Boyle, one of the first modern chemists, knew that these assertions were incorrect and believed that theories must be proved by careful experiments, the experimental results must be reported publicly, and other scientists must be able to repeat the experiments and confirm the results. Thus, Boyle became one of the pioneers of modern scientific methods. Boyle was fortunate enough to be born into one of the wealthiest aristocratic families of his day. He was a gifted and industrious student, and after attending an excellent school in England, he and his brother studied in Europe for several years, accompanied by a personal tutor. In Italy Boyle became acquainted with Galileo's experimental work, which was a...