Richter magnitude scale

The Richter magnitude scale, or more correctly local magnitude M_L scale, assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy released by an earthquake. It is a base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by calculating the logarithm of the combined horizontal amplitude of the largest displacement from zero on a seismometer output. Measurements have no limits and can be either positive or negative. The energy released is also logarithmic, but the base is approximately 32. Thus a two unit increase on a unit equals an increase in released energy of over 1000 (≈32²) times.

Development

Developed in 1935 by Charles Richter in partnership with Beno Gutenberg, both of the California Institute of Technology, the scale was originally intended to be used only in a particular study area in California, and on seismograms recorded on a particular instrument, the Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer. (Many^{[attribution needed]} scientists and historians feel it should be known as the Richter-Gutenberg scale.) Richter originally reported values to the nearest quarter of a unit, but decimal numbers were used later. His motivation for creating the local magnitude scale was to separate the vastly larger number of smaller earthquakes from the few larger earthquakes observed in California at the time. His inspiration was the apparent magnitude scale used in astronomy to describe the brightness of stars and other celestial objects. Richter arbitrarily chose a magnitude 0 event to be an earthquake that would show a maximum combined horizontal displacement of 1 micrometre on a seismograph recorded using a Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer 100 km from the earthquake epicenter. This choice was intended to prevent negative magnitudes from being assigned. However, the Richter scale has no upper or lower limit, and sensitive modern seismographs now routinely record quakes with negative magnitudes. Because of the limitations of the Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer used to develop the scale, the original M_L cannot be calculated for events larger than about 6.8. Investigators have proposed extensions to the local magnitude scale, the most popular being the surface wave magnitude m_S and the body wave magnitude m_b. These traditional magnitude scales have largely been superseded by the implementation of methods for estimating the seismic moment and its associated moment magnitude scale.

Richter magnitudes

The Richter magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs (adjustments are included to compensate for the variation in the distance between the various seismographs and the epicenter of the earthquake). Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude; in terms of energy, each whole number increase corresponds to an increase of about 32 times the amount of energy released. Events with magnitudes of about 4.6 or greater are strong enough to be recorded by any of the seismographs in the world. The following describes the typical effects of earthquakes of various magnitudes near the epicenter. This table should be taken with extreme caution, since intensity and thus ground effects depend not only on the magnitude, but also on the distance to the epicenter, the depth of the earthquake's focus beneath the epicenter, and geological conditions (certain terrains can amplify seismic signals).

(Based on U.S. Geological Survey documents.)^[1] Great earthquakes occur once a year, on average. The largest recorded earthquake was the Great Chilean Earthquake of May 22, 1960 which had a magnitude (M_W) of 9.5.^[2] The following table lists the approximate energy equivalents in terms of TNT explosive force^[3] - though note that the energy here is that of the underground energy release (ie a small atomic bomb blast will not simply cause light shaking of indoor items) rather than the overground energy release; the majority of energy transmission of an earthquake is not transmitted to and through the surface, but is instead dissipated into the crust and other subsurface structures.

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References

1. ^ USGS: FAQ- Measuring Earthquakes
2. ^ USGS: List of World's Largest Earthquakes
3. ^ ^{a b} What is Richter Magnitude?, with mathematic equations

See also

• Seismic scale
• Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale
• Order of magnitude

External links

• IRIS Real-time Seismic Monitor of the Earth
• USGS simplified description of the Richter magnitude scale
• USGS: magnitude and intensity comparison
• USGS: 2000-2006 Earthquakes worldwide
• USGS: 1990-1999 Earthquakes worldwide
• Alaska Railroad Earthquake with a table of yield-to-magnitude relations.