Applied behavior analysis

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Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the applied research of behavior from a natural science perspective. It is one of four domains of behavior analysis: the philosophy of behavior analysis, basic research, applied research, and practice guided by the science. ABA provides the technology for application in a wide range of settings from individuals with autism to organizational improvement.

Contents 1 Definition 1.1 Seven dimensions of applied behavior analysis 1.2 Behavior as a subject 1.3 Research Methodology 2 Techniques 2.1 Task analysis 2.2 Chaining 2.3 Prompting 2.4 Fading 3 Thinning 3.1 Generalization 3.2 Shaping 3.3 Video modeling 3.4 Interventions based on a functional behavioral assessment 4 Criticisms 5 History 5.1 Historical controversies 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links

Definition

Applied Behavior Analysis is defined as the science in which tactics derived from the principles of behavior are applied systematically to improve socially significant behavior and experimentation is used to identify the variables responsible for change.^[1] Baer, Wolfe, and Risley's 1968 article is still used as the standard description of ABA.^[2] and it describes the seven dimensions of ABA; application, a focus on behavior, the use of analysis, a technological approach, conceptually systematic, effective, and generality. Applied behavior analysis now encompasses treatments in applied settings in things as varied as leisure skills development, improving sports performance, cigarette smoking cessation, increasing exercise, and other areas.

Seven dimensions of applied behavior analysis

• Applied: Applied behavior analysis focuses on areas that are of social significance. In doing this, ABA scientists must take into consideration more than just the short-term behavior change, but also look at how behavior changes can affect the consumer, those who are close to the consumer, and how any change will affect the interactions between the two.
• Behavioral: ABA must be behavioral, i.e.: behavior itself must change, not just what the consumer SAYS about the behavior. It is not the goal of applied behavior analysis to get their consumers to stop complaining about behavior problems, but rather to change the problem behavior itself. In addition, behavior must be objectively measured. A behavior scientist can not resort to the measurement of non-behavioral substitutes.
• Analytic: The behavior scientist can demonstrate believable control over the behavior that is being changed. In the lab, this has been easy as the researcher can start and stop the behavior at will. However, in the applied situation, this is not always as easy, nor ethical, to do. According to Baer, Wolf, and Risley, this difficulty should not stop a science from upholding the strength of its principles.^[3] As such, they referred to two designs that are best used in applied settings to demonstrate control and maintain ethical standards. These are the reversal and multiple baseline designs. The reversal design is one in which the behavior of choice is measured prior to any intervention. Once the pattern appears stable, an intervention is introduced, and behavior is measured. If there is a change in behavior, measurement continues until the new pattern of behavior appears stable. Then, the intervention is removed, or reduced, and the behavior is measured to see if it changes again. If the behavior scientist truly has demonstrated control of the behavior with the intervention, the behavior of interest should change with intervention changes.
• Technological: This means that if any other researcher were to read the study's description, that researcher would be able to "replicate the application with the same results".^[3] This means that the description must be very detailed and clear. Ambiguous descriptions do not qualify. Cooper et al. describe a good check for the technological characteristic: "have a person trained in applied behavior analysis carefully read the description and then act out the procedure in detail. If the person makes any mistakes, adds any operations, omits any steps, or has to ask any questions to clarify the written description then the description is not sufficiently technological and requires improvement."^[4]
• Conceptually Systematic: A defining characteristic is in regards to the interventions utilized; and thus research must be conceptually systematic by only utilizing procedures and interpreting results of these procedures in terms of the principles from which they were derived.^[4]
• Effective: An application of these techniques improve behavior under investigation. Specifically, it is not a theoretical importance of the variable, but rather the practical importance (social importance) that is essential.^[3]
• Generality: It should last over time, in different environments, and spread to other behaviors not directly treated by the intervention. In addition, continued change in specified behavior after intervention for that behavior has been withdrawn is also an example of generality.

Behavior as a subject

The components of any behavior are as follows:^[5]

• Antecedent: environmental conditions or stimulus changes that exist before the behavior of interest, these may be either internal or external to the subject.
• Behavior: the behavior of interest emitted by the subject. Future instances of this behavior will be influenced by both antecedents and consequences.
• Consequence: a stimulus change that follows the behavior of interest. In controlled situations the consequence depends on the subject's behavior and goal of the program and can include reinforcement of desired behavior, no response or punishment.

Research Methodology

A signature of both the basic and applied field of behavior analysis is the almost exclusive use of Single Subject Design.

Techniques

Task analysis

Task analysis is a process in which a task is analyzed into its component parts so that those parts can be taught through the use of chaining: forward chaining, backward chaining and total task presentation. Task analysis has been used in organizational behavior management, a behavior analytic approach to changing organizations.^[6] Bergan conducted a task analysis of the behavioral consultation relationship^[7] and Thomas Kratochwill developed a training program based on teaching Bergan's skills.^[8] A similar approach was used for the development of microskills training for counselors.^[9][10] Ivey would later call this "behaviorist" phase a very productive one^[11] and most would agree the microskills approach revolutionized counselor training. Task analysis was also used in determining the skills needed to access a career.^[12] In education, Englemann (1968) used task analysis as part of the methods to design the Direct Instruction curriculum.^[13]

Chaining

Main article: Chaining

The skill to be learned is broken down into small units for easy learning. For example, a person learning to brush teeth independently may start with learning to unscrew the toothpaste cap. Once the he or she has learned this, the next step may be squeezing the tube, etc.^[14][15] For problem behavior chains can also be analyzed and the chain can be disrupted to prevent the problem behavior.^[16] Some behavior therapies, such as Dialectical Behavior Therapy, make extensive use of behavior chain analysis ^[17]

Prompting

The parent or therapist provides assistance to encourage the desired response from the student. Prompts are faded systematically and as quickly as possible from a more intrusive prompt to the least intrusive prompt, with completely independent responding as the goal.^[18][19] The following are prompt levels:

• Verbal prompts: Utilizing a vocalization to indicate the desired response. Ex: Saying "Take the toothpaste cap off" (Should be avoided when possible as verbal prompts are the hardest to fade);
• gestural prompts: Utilizing a physical gesture to indicate the desired response. Ex: pointing at the toothpaste;
• Modeling: Modeling the desired response for the student. ex: taking the cap off to show the student how it is done
• Physical prompts: Physically manipulating the student to produce the desired response. Ex: hand-over-hand manipulation of a faucet handle to begin hand-washing.

Fading

The overall goal is for an individual eventually not to need prompts. This is why the least intrusive prompts are used, so the student does not become overly dependent on them when learning a new behavior or skill. Prompts are gradually faded out as then new behavior is learned. Learning to unscrew the toothpaste lid may start with physically guiding the child's hands, to pointing at the toothpaste, then just a verbal request.

Thinning

Thinning is often confused with fading. Fading refers to a prompt being removed, where thinning refers to the spacing of a reinforcement schedule getting larger.^[20] Some support exists that a 30% descrease in reinforcement can be an efficient way to thin.^[21]

Generalization

Once a skill is learned in a controlled environment (usually table-time), the skill is taught in more general settings. Perhaps the skill will be taught in the natural environment. If the student has successfully mastered learning colors at the table, the teacher may take the student around the house or his school and then re-teach the skill in these more natural environments. Behavior analysts have spent considerable amount of time studying factors that lead to generalization.^[22]

Shaping

Main article: Shaping (psychology)

Shaping involves gradually modifying the existing behavior into the desired behavior. If the student engages with a dog by hitting it, then he or she could have their behavior shaped by reinforcing interactions in which he or she touches the dog more gently. Over many interactions, successful shaping would replace the hitting behavior with patting or other gentler behavior. Shaping is based on a behavior analyst's thorough knowledge of operant conditioning principles and Extinction (psychology). Recent efforts to teach shaping have used simulated computer tasks ^[23]

Video modeling

One teaching technique found to be effective with some students, particularly children, is the use of video modeling (the use of taped sequences as exemplars of behavior). It can be used by therapists to assist in the acquisition of both verbal and motor responses, in some cases for long chains of behavior.^[24][25]

Interventions based on a functional behavioral assessment

Critical to behavior analytic interventions is the concept of a systematic behavioral case formulation with a functional behavioral assessment or analysis at the core.^[26][27] This approach should apply a behavior analytic theory of change (see behavioral change theories). This formulation should include a thorough functional assessment, a skills assessment, a sequential analysis (behavior chain analysis),an ecological assessment, a look at existing evidenced-based behavioral models for the problem behavior (such as Fordyce's model of chronic pain)^[28] and then a treatment plan based on how environmental factors influence behavior. Some argue that behavior analytic case formulation can be improved with an assessment of rules and rule governed behavior.^[29][30][31] Some of the interventions that result from this type of conceptualization invlove training specfic communication skills to replace the probelms behavior as well as specific setting, antecedent, behavior, and consequece strategies.^[32]

Criticisms

Applied behavioral analysis has been criticized for several perceived failings:

• Effectiveness: There is evidence that ABA can effectively modify the behavior of autistic individuals to be indistinguishable from their peers,^[33] and that gains made are sustained over several years,^[34] studies on the relative merits of ABA versus other interventions have both positive^[35] and negative^[36] results
• Outcomes:The long term outcomes of ABA therapy on quality of life, relationships and employment have not been established and are still being debated scientifically and in courts.^[37]
• Language: ABA and discrete trials are seen as less effective for improving the ability to use language to communicate effectively. Best practices for learning language now involve naturalized teaching that mimics the functions of language: requesting, labeling and obeying commands.^[38]

History

Applied behavior analysis is the applied side of the experimental analysis of behavior. It is based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning and represents a major approach to behavior modification. Its origin can be traced back to Teodoro Ayllon and Jack Michael's 1959 article "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer"^[39] as well as to initial efforts to implement teaching machines.^[40] The research basis of ABA can be found in the theoretical work of behaviorism and radical behaviorism originating with the work of B. F. Skinner. In 1968, Baer, Wolf, and Risley wrote an article^[3] that was the source of contemporary applied behavior analysis, providing the criteria to judge the adequacy of research and practice in applied behavior analysis. Work in respondent conditioning (what some would term classical conditioning) began with the work of Joseph Wolpe in the 1960s. It was improved by the work of Edna B Foa who did extensive research on exposure and response prevention for obessive compulsive disorder. In addition, she worked on exposure therapy for post traumatic stress disorder. Over the years most behavior analysts have existed and conducted research in many area and University departments including behavior analysis departments, psychology, special education, regular education, speech-language pathology and communication disorders departments, school psychology, criminal justice, and family life. They have belonged to many organizations including the American Psychological Association. They have most often found a core intellectual home in the Association for Behavior Analysis International. With a core focus on enhanced functioning and skill development, behavior analytic interventions under the heading behavior therapy have come to form the core of evidenced based practices in speech-language pathology, organizational behavior management, education, and mental health & addictions treatments. In the area of mental health & addictions a recent article looked at APA's list for well established and promising practices and found a considerable number of them based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning.^[41] A 1985 meta-analysis of social skills training methods found operant conditioning procedures had the largest effect size, the greatest generalization, and the shortest training time; modeling, coaching, and social cognitive techniques, respectively, had smaller and smaller effect sizes.^[42] Behavior analysis remains one of the most active research areas in all of psychology, counseling, special education, developmental disability and mental health. Current research in behavior analysis focuses on expanding the tradition by looking at setting events, behavioral activation, the Matching law, relational frame theory, stimulus equivalences, Verbal Behavior (book), Skinner's model of rule-governed behavior^[43][44] and covert conditioning. Behavior analysis has moved past just basic interventions for problems and into more comprehensive analyses of child development. In the 1960s, Bijou and Bear began to apply behavior analytic principles to child development.^[45] Over the last few decades, longitudinal studies have lent credence to the idea that the use of reinforcement and punishment over extended periods of time lead to the development of prosocial behavior,^[46] antisocial behavior,^[47][48][49] and sick behavior.^[50] In the field of education, in 1968, Englemann used operant conditioning techniques, a task analysis of curriculum, and combined them with rule learning to produce the Direct Instruction curriculum.^[13] In addition, Fred Keller used similar techniques to develop programmed instruction. Skinner developed a programmed instruction curriculum for teaching hand writing. One of Skinner's student Ogden Lindsley developed a standardized method of tracking behavior called the "celeration chart" because it would track exponential changes either increases or decreases. This approach became known as precision teaching.^[51] Probably one of the most interesting applications of behavior analysis in the 1960s was its contribution to the space program.^[52] Research in this area is used to train astronauts including the chimpanzees sent into space. Continued work in this area focuses on ensuring that astronauts who live in confined areas and space do not develop mental health problems ^[53]

Historical controversies

Initially, ABA used aversives such as shouting and slaps to reduce unwanted behaviors.^[54] Ethical opposition to such aversive practices caused them to fall out of favor and has stimulated development of less aversive methods. In general, aversion therapy and punishment are now less frequently used as ABA treatments. In 1973 the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, yet it kept "ego dystonic" homosexuality as a condition until the DSM III-R (circa 1985). In 1974 Ole Ivar Lovaas, pioneer of the use of ABA to treat autism, was second author on an journal article describing the use of ABA to reduce 'feminine' behaviors and increase 'masculine' behaviors of a male child in an effort to prevent adult transsexualism.^[55] Treatments designed to uphold traditional sex-role behaviors were opposed by some behavior analysts who argued that the intervention was not justified.^[56] In the late 1960s, Wolpe refused to treat homosexual behavior, arguing that it was easier and more productive to treat the religious guilt than the homosexuality. He instead provided assertiveness training to a homosexual client.^[57] Most behavior analysts and behavior therapists have not worked in sexual reorientation therapy since Davison argued that the issue was not one of effectiveness but of ethics.^[58] When he wrote the paper presenting this position, Davison was president of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, and thus his views carried much weight. Davison argued that homosexuality is not pathological, and is only a problem if it is regarded as one by society and the therapist. The issues of responsibility have led many behavior analysts to call for licensure of the professional practice of behavior analysis. Such licensing would set a minimal level of competence and establish an organization for consumers and families to turn to if they believe abuse has occurred.

See also

• Autism therapies
• Educational psychology

References

Further reading

• Cooper JO, Heron TE, Heward WL (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-142113-1. 
• Critchfield TS, Kollins SH (2001). "Temporal discounting: basic research and the analysis of socially important behavior". J Appl Behav Anal 34 (1): 101–22. doi:10.1901/jaba.2001.34-101. PMID 11317983.
• Gresham FM, McIntyre LL, Olson-Tinker H, Dolstra L, McLaughlin V, Van M (2004). "Relevance of functional behavioral assessment research for school-based interventions and positive behavioral support". Res Dev Disabil 25 (1): 19-37. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2003.04.003. PMID 14733974.
• Kennedy CH, Caruso M, Thompson T (2001). "Experimental analyses of gene-brain-behavior relations: some notes on their application". J Appl Behav Anal 34 (4): 539–49. doi:10.1901/jaba.2001.34-539. PMID 11800198.
• Maple TL (2007). "Toward a science of welfare for animals in the zoo" (PDF). J Appl Anim Welf Sci 10 (1): 63–70. PMID 17484680.
• Matson JL, Matson ML, Rivet TT (2007). "Social-skills treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders: an overview". Behav Modif 31 (5): 682–707. doi:10.1177/0145445507301650. PMID 17699124.
• Stahmer AC, Ingersoll B, Carter C (2003). "Behavioral approaches to promoting play". Autism 7 (4): 401–13. doi:10.1177/1362361303007004006. PMID 14678679.
• Schoneberger T (2006). "EIBT research after Lovaas (1987): a tale of two studies" (PDF). J Speech Lang Pathol Appl Behav Anal 1 (3): 207–7.
• Steege MW, Mace FC, Perry L, Longenecker H (2007). "Applied behavior analysis: beyond discrete trial teaching". Psychol Schools 44 (1): 91–9. doi:10.1002/pits.20208.
• Wiegand DM (2007). "Exploring the role of emotional intelligence in behavior-based safety coaching". J Safety Res 38 (4): 391–8. doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2007.03.010. PMID 17884425.

External links

• Applied Behavioral Analysis: Overview and summary of scientific support.
• Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis