. Suger, the mid-12th-century abbot of Saint-Denis, described the new ambulatory of his church as shining “with the wonderful and uninterrupted light of most luminous windows, pervading [its] interior beauty” (De consecratione 4). Filled with richly colored and painted glass, the round-headed windows of the Saint-Denis ambulatory chapels transformed natural sunlight into a re
Chartres (Eure-et-Loir), Notre-Dame, west façade lancet, Tree of Jesse. Photograph courtesy of Grover A.Zinn.
splendent gloom interpreted to reveal the Divine Presence. This association of God with light, critical to the understanding of medieval stained glass, was grounded in the Gospels (e.g., John 1:4–9; 8:12) and was further elaborated in the writings of the early church fathers. While Bernard of Clairvaux (1090/91–1153), the founder of the Cistercian order, similarly embraced early Christian analogues of God as light, Cistercian glazings eschewed color, using instead uncolored glass arranged in symmetric interlace patterns. Whether colored or not, these hovering windows of light altered the very nature of a church interior from substance to the immaterial, mirroring the transmutation of the corporeal to the spiritual, thereby creating a vision for the worshiper and a paradise in which to encounter the Divine. Just as Suger recalled “dwelling” in meditation within “some strange region of the universe that neither exists entirely in the slime of the earth nor entirely in the purity of Heaven” (De administratione 33), stained-glass windows were construed as a mystical conduit for the illumination of the soul. Stained glass, the preeminent form of monumental painting of the Gothic period, was inexorably tied to its ecclesiastical and architectural context, the juncture intended to reveal Heaven on earth. Within this medieval construct of the Heavenly Jerusalem, glass and stone could not be separated but were conceived of as mutually dependent components of a whole: just as architectural masonry articulated the shape of a Gothic church, so light transmitted through its glazing defined and unified its sacred space.
Modern knowledge of medieval stained-glass production is indebted to the step-by-step instructions provided by a German monk writing under the pseudonym of Theophilus (ca. 1100). Current use of the term “stained glass” technically refers to pot-metal glass, that is, molten glass colored by the addition of metallic oxides. Glass itself is a fluid material composed of sand with additions of potash as a flux. In his manual, De diversis artibus, Theophilus recommends that scaled designs for windows be drawn on a flat whitewashed board, which could serve both as a surface for cutting and a workbench for assembly. The molten glass was blown either into an open cylinder shape (called “muff”) or crown, a process in which the glass was transferred from the blowpipe to a pontil iron and spun into a circle. Once a flat surface was obtained, individual pieces of glass were cut by tracing the desired shape with a hot iron, followed by tracing the pattern with cold water, thus causing the glass to crack. The piece was subsequently shaped by edging bits of glass off the rim with the aid of a grozing iron (a handle with a small hook at the end) and pincers. The pieces of colored glass were in turn painted with a vitreous paint composed of iron filings and ground glass, bound by either wine or urine. Painting was used to indicate facial features, drapery folds, or intricate design patterns. Depending on the amount used, the liquid binder could make a thick black paint used for detailing or it could create a light grey wash for modeling. The pieces were then fired, affixing the paint to the glass surface. Theophilus suggests that the painter work in a three-layered process, beginning by laying down a wash and working up to the details.
With the introduction of silver stain at the beginning of the 14th century, this process changed dramatically. Composed of silver-oxide, silver stain is a paint that turns a range of hue from pale yellow to fiery orange depending on the length of time it is fired. The advantage of this painting technique was the ability to obtain a varied palette without having to cut and join different colors together with lead strips. Flashed glass (clear glass laminated with color) also gained popularity in the later Middle Ages, although this process had always been used for red, as the color is too opaque for light to penetrate when made of pot-metal glass. Once the painting was fired, pieces of glass were joined to one another by flexible lead cames, H-shaped strips grooved with channels to accommodate the edges. The panel was assembled by sequentially pinning each piece of glass to the board. Lead joints were soldered and an encircling frame of iron provided to give the panel stability. The completed panel was puttied for weatherproofing and fixed within the armatures, the iron skeletal frame set within the masonry of the window.
Glazing windows with patterns of colored glass was an ancient Roman tradition that continued into the early Middle Ages. Prior to the 9th century, numerous documents speak of decorative compositions in windows installed as far afield as Constantinople, Rome, Syria, and Northumberland. As early as the 5th century, the French bishop Sidonius Apollinaris described such a decorative glazing in the church of the Maccabees at Lyon. Yet the art of painting on glass, a distinctly medieval invention, survives in only a handful of fragments dated prior to the cycle of prophets at Augsburg cathedral (ca. 1130). The extensive ambulatory glazing (1144) at Saint-Denis is the earliest surviving stained-glass program in France. With this masterly ensemble and the nearly contemporaneous windows of the west façade of Chartres cathedral (ca. 1150), painted stained glass was firmly entrenched as a defining component of French Gothic art. The placement of windows was carefully considered within the architectural complex. For example, the axial choir bay glazed with the
Chartres, Notre-Dame, Good Samaritan and Genesis window. Photograph courtesy of Whitney S.Stoddard.
Chartres, Notre-Dame, north transept windows. Photograph courtesy of Whitney S.Stoddard.
Crucifixion (ca. 1180) from the abbey church of Saint-Remi in Reims and the Crucifixion-Ascension window (ca. 1165–70) in the axial bay of the chevet at Poitiers are both painted in monumental scale commanding the longitudinal vista from the nave. Placement could also be governed by the precious regard for certain stained-glass windows, as witnessed by the retention and reinstallation of early compositions into renovated or new architectural contexts. The “Notre-Dame de la Belle Verrière” (ca. 1180) from Chartres was recovered after the fire of 1194 and reset into the new 13th-century cathedral. Portions of the original nave glazing of Rouen, the so-called “Belles Verrières” (ca. 1200), were salvaged in the late 13th century and reinstalled into newly constructed nave-chapel windows. The admiration for stained glass also prompted concern for its upkeep. Suger mentions that a master glazier was appointed to maintain the windows at Saint-Denis (De administratione 34 A).
Stained-glass imagery was often conditioned by window placement. Historiated subjects, predominantly located in nave-aisle windows, contrasted with large standing or seated figures generally depicted in the upper reaches of the clerestory or with eschatological and cosmological subjects portrayed in rose windows. Early historiated windows in France generally focused on christological narrative, similar to those in the west façade windows at Chartres, or on emblematic discourse, such as the Allegories of St. Paul window at Saint-Denis and the typological Crucifixion from the abbey church of Orbais (1190?). The pictorialization of Isaiah’s prophecy of Christ’s lineage, known as the Tree of Jesse, had also been well established by 1200. Hagiographical narrative appeared in the 12th century, as in the St. Nicholas panels from Troyes (ca. 1170–80) or the legend of St. Catherine from Angers (ca. 1180). In the 13th century, historiated windows were increasingly devoted to the depiction of saints’ lives, Marian narrative, and Old Testament cycles. While 13th-century legendary windows could be expansively discursive (at the Sainte-Chapelle, the story of Esther and Ahasuerus is recounted in 129 scenes), by the early 14th century narrative was reduced to only the most crucial scenes.
Clerestory windows were most often glazed with single figures to facilitate being read at a distance. The range of subject matter was wide, including the genealogy of Christ, as at the abbey church of Saint-Yved at Braine (ca. 1200); prophets, Apostles, and bishops, like those at Bourges cathedral (ca. 1220–30); or saints, as at Beauvais (1340s). Occasionally, these large standing figures would be cast in narrative tableaux, as in the choir at Chartres (1210–25), while historiated scenes, as at Tours (ca. 1255–60), were adopted by the second half of the 13th century.
Marking the interior termini of ecclesiastical space, rose windows were glazed with eschatological or cosmological themes, such as the Last Judgment at Mantes (ca. 1220), the Apocalypse at Chartres south (1221–30) and at the Sainte-Chapelle (ca. 1485), or the west rose (ca. 1220) at Notre-Dame in Paris, with its portrayal of the zodiac, Virtues, and Vices surrounding the Virgin and Apostles. In keeping with the widespread Marian dedication of Gothic cathedrals, the Glorification of the Virgin, as at Laon (1210–15), was also a popular theme. The 15th century witnessed the introduction of new themes as well, such as the Apostles’ Creed at Riom (ca. 1460) and Signs of the End of the World in the north rose at Angers cathedral (1451).
What do we know about the artists of these windows? Not only are signatures virtually unknown, but written documentation is sparse until the end of the 13th century. The only portrait of a glass painter from this time comes from the German abbey of Arnstein (ca. 1160; now in Münster), showing the painter Gerlachus holding his brush and paint pot, praying for the gift of light. A signature of a certain Clement of Chartres survives on a banderole in the Joseph window (ca. 1235) from the cathedral of Rouen. Stylistic evidence tells us that several painters sometimes worked on the same window, while other windows indicate a single, coherent style. Though a window was often the product of more than one individual, not enough is known about how artists prior to the 15th century collaborated or about how the labor was divided. While archival records list artists, such as a certain Étienne who lived in Bourges ca. 1220, it is impossible to link these names with extant windows. Late-medieval tax rolls provide additional demographic information, including the names of women, such as Jehanne la Verrière and Ysabellot la Verrière. Guild records offer lists of members, as well as
Paris (Seine), Sainte-Chapelle, upper chapel. Photograph courtesy of Whitney S.Stoddard.
transcribe regulations governing the practice of glass painting. In the 15th century, the names of glass painters, like other artists, survive with increasing frequency in conjunction with their windows, such as the court painter André Robin, who worked at Angers.
Throughout the Middle Ages, the status of the patron eclipsed that of the artist. Seeking to elucidate sacred or theological precepts associated with a site or to express personal devotion, remembrance, political prestige, or a combination of these qualities, patrons of stained-glass windows encompassed a broad spectrum of French society. Donor portraits testify to this diversity, whether monastic, episcopal, noble, or lay. They are shown in supplication, as in the depiction of Suger at the feet of the Virgin, or holding a model of their window, like the portrait of Canon Raoul de Ferrières in Évreux (ca. 1325). The beguiling representations of artisans at the base of windows, such as the shoemakers, wine carriers, furriers, and bakers at Chartres, attest to the influence wielded by laypeople as well. Heraldry, too, was a major means for importing the patron’s identity. The fleurs-de-lis and castles of Castile filling the interstices of the north rose at Chartres (ca. 1235) signify the royal sponsorship of Blanche of Castile and her son Louis IX, while the arms below the cathedral’s south rose indicate the prestige of the noble Dreux-Bretagne family.
The style and appearance of medieval French windows were directly related to the window design. The
Paris, Saint-Germain-des-Prés, St. Vincent. Courtesy of the Walters An Gallery, Baltimore.
round-headed lancet openings of the later 12th century demanded an orthogonal arrangement for armatures, with the panels frequently arranged in sequential rows of circles or in alternating patterns of circles and squares, as in the west-façade windows at Chartres. Blue and red contrasting backgrounds predominated, as in the expansive setting of the Ascension (ca. 1140–45) from the cathedral of Le Mans, where brilliantly alternating blocks of diaphanous blue and ruby-red backgrounds accent the upward motion of the composition. The preciousness associated with color was emphasized by Suger, who extolled the resonant blue used at Saint-Denis as “sapphire glass” (De administratione 34), a reference to its inestimable luminous quality. Typically, a vivid palette of greens, pinks, yellows, and blues complemented this emphasis. Wide jewellike borders, evoking contemporary metalwork, customarily framed these 12th-century compositions. The painting style of later 12th-century windows varied, depending on its regional origin. It can generally be characterized as bearing a stylized, graphic approach to the delineation of elongated figures and drapery folds and the rendering of often highly expressive facial features.
With the introduction of double-lancet windows in the early 1200s, the organization of window designs, particularly historiated windows in the nave aisles, was increasingly defined by armatures molded into highly complex, centrifugal patterns of alternating squares and circles. Epitomized by the windows of Chartres and Bourges, these molded armatures played an integral role not only in window design but also in directing the eye in reading the composition. Dispensing with single grounds of color, historiated scenes were surrounded by mosaic grounds linked by ornamental bosses. The Saint-Chéron window (1220–25) in the ambulatory of Chartres departed from this model by returning to an orthogonal arrangement of its armatures with its scenes arranged in horizontal registers. By the mid-13th century, window designs varied. Molded armatures were still employed at the Sainte-Chapelle (1244–48), while the orthogonal arrangement was contemporaneously used for the Lady Chapel glazing at the abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés (ca. 1247). The Sainte-Chapelle, built by Louis IX to house the sacred relic of the Crown of Thorns, represents the culminating effect of deeply saturated light created by 13th-century windows. Virtually a reliquary “turned outside in,” the Sainte-Chapelle interior is lit by walls of glass windows whose narrative both glorifies the relics acquired by Louis and chronicles the course of human history recounted in the Bible. In the second half of the 13th century, orthogonal armatures and simplified compositions were favored, as windows became increasingly elongated and subdivided. Similarly, the painting style became open and summary, with a few salient lines sufficing to delineate gesture, drapery folds, and fa-cial expressions. Bold color backgrounds again distinguished these compositions, replacing mosaic grounds popular in the earlier part of the century. Ornamentation was also simplified, with thinner borders composed of abstracted foliate motifs. Blue and red continued to dominate the color palette, with light pinks, purples, blues, and yellows used for contrast.
Grisaille windows, compositions of cut glass in its natural green, pink, or white state arranged into intricate patterns and painted, were also integral components of glazings at this time. Distinct from ornamental windows created with colored glass, grisaille windows are characterized by interlocking floral or geometric designs often set against dense cross-hatching. Favored by Cistercian foundations, such as Obazine (ca. 1150), grisaille windows were also adopted by other ecclesiastical foundations, as at Saint-Jean-aux-Bois (ca. 1230s). Colored bosses and borders were incorporated into grisaille windows toward the middle of the 13th century. Ensembles of grisaille and saturated glass were also combined at this time, as at Saint-Germain-des-Prés, where the colored hemicycle windows of the Lady Chapel contrasted with grisaille in the straight bays of the nave. By the third quarter of the 13th century, a new attitude was evident. In tandem with increasing ornamentation of interior church surfaces and window tracery, glazings contained greater amounts of grisaille glass, juxtaposing uncolored and colored figural panels in the same window. At the abbey church of Saint-Père at Chartres (second half of the 13th c.), grisaille and colored lights were installed vertically side by side, while at Tours (ca. 1260) figural panels were placed as a horizontal register between the grisaille (called band windows). The great masterpiece of this style is the collegiate church of Saint-Urbain (ca. 1270) in Troyes. Built by Pope Urban IV on the site of his birthplace, the church and its glazing are a resplendent ensemble of luminosity, pattern, and color—far different from the mysterious ambience that so moved Abbot Suger.
As so many of France’s 14th- and 15th-century windows have been destroyed, it is difficult to study them in any kind of comprehensive fashion. In general, stained glass of the later Middle Ages in France became increasingly pictorial and painterly in style. To a large degree, this approach was facilitated by the advent of silver stain around the beginning of the 14th century. With the thin window lancets of the Late Gothic period, mixed glazings of grisaille and colored glass became the norm. Historiated scenes were simplified to only one episode or figure per lancet. Architectural canopies became increasingly important as an organizing compositional device. The mixed glazing of the abbey church of Saint-Ouen (1318–39) in Rouen is among the most arresting programs of the period. Its historiated panels, framed by elaborate arcades and backed by damascene grounds, are elegantly delineated with mannered line and light, vibrant colors. The bordering grisaille panels are composed of clear, white glass enlivened with botanically accurate plant renderings, including periwinkle, strawberry, columbine, and buttercup. The technical mastery of glass painters in the subsequent century, as well as the pervasive influence of Netherlandish painters like Jan van Eyck, is evident in the Annunciation window (1448–50) presented by Jacques Cœur to Bourges cathedral.
Our knowledge of medieval French stained glass relies on only a tiny fraction of the number of windows actually produced. Victims to changes in taste as well as iconoclasm and political revolt, stained-glass windows were destroyed in vast quantities during the 18th century and in the aftermath of the Revolution. Modern warfare reduced their number even more. Today, pollution continues to threaten these irreplaceable monuments of French patrimony.
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Brown, Sarah. Stained Glass: An Illustrated History. London: Studio Éditions, 1992.
——, and David O’Connor. Glass-Painters. London: British Museum, 1991.
Caviness, Madeline H. “Biblical Stories in Windows: Were They Bibles for the Poor?” In The Bible in the Middle Ages, ed. Bernard S.Levy. Binghamton: Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies, 1992, pp. 103–47.
——. Sumptuous Arts at the Royal Abbeys in Reims and Braine. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.
——, with Evelyn Ruth Staudinger. Stained Glass Before 1540: An Annotated Bibliography. Boston: Hall, 1983.
Cothren, Michael. “Suger’s Stained Glass Masters and Their Workshop at Saint-Denis.” In Paris: Center of Artistic En-lightenment. Papers in Art History from the Pennsylvania State University, Vol. 4(1988), pp. 46–75.
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.“Monastic Stained Glass: Patronage and Style.” In Monasticism and the Arts, ed. Timothy G.Verdon. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1984, pp. 207–54.
——. Rainbow Like an Emerald: Stained Glass in Lorraine in the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries. University Park: University of Maryland Press, 1991.
——. The Armor of Light: Stained Glass in Western France 1250–1325. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
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The volumes produced under the sponsorship of the Corpus Vitrearum Medii Aevi, an international group of scholars dedicated to the study and documentation of stained glass, are essential to the study of medieval French stained glass. Relevant titles include: Marcel Aubert et al., Les vitraux de Notre Dame et de la Sainte-Chapelle de Paris (Paris, 1959), and Jean Lafond with the assistance of Françoise Perrot and Paul Popesco, Les vitraux de l’église Saint-Ouen de Rouen, Vol. 1 (Paris, 1970). In the series Études: Louis Grodecki, Les vitraux de Saint-Denis: étude sur le vitrail au XIIe siècle (Paris, 1976); Colette Manhes-Deremble with the assistance of Jean-Paul Deremble, Les vitraux narratifs de la cathédrale de Chartres: étude iconographique (Paris, 1993). In the series Recensements des Vitraux Anciens de la France, sponsored in conjunction with the Inventaire Général: Les vitraux de Paris, de la région parisienne, de la Picardie, et du Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Vol. 1 (Paris, 1978); Les vitraux du Centre et des Pays de la Loire, Vol. 2 (Paris, 1981); Les vitraux de Bourgogne, Franche-Comté et Rhône-Alpes, Vol. 3 (Paris, 1986); Les vitraux de Champagne-Ardenne, Vol. 4 (Paris, 1992).
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