Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics
non-verbal communication [Lat. verbum ‘word’]
All non-linguistic phenomena in inter-human communication processes which are studied in psychology (or psychiatry), sociology, ethnology, and linguistics (to the extent that spoken language can only be fully understood and described by considering non-linguistic communication). Two distinctions are made in the signals of non-verbal communication: (a) vocal features such as the volume and pitch of the human voice, the rhythm of speech, laughing, coughing, etc., the study of which is collectively called paralinguistics (occasionally, ‘paralinguistics’ is used to refer to all types of non-verbal communication); (b) non-vocal (motor) phenomena such as mimicry, gestures, body language, eye contact, external appearance, and clothing, the study of which is also collectively known as kinesics. Structurally determined and freely variable components, which may overlie linguistic communication (such as intonation and speech tempo) or occur independently of it, are found together in both domains. Fundamental to the description of non-verbal communication is the question of the ‘character of the code,’ that is, the systematic nature of non-verbal communication which suggests a distinction between intentionally directed non-verbal communication and unconscious, independent behavior having no communicative intention. In analogy to the structural characteristics of verbal codes, Trager (1958) and Birdwhistell (1954) interpret vocal, gesticulatory, and mimic phenomena as communicative systems, while various functional approaches (above all those of Ekman and Friesen 1969 and Scherer (1978) try to describe the purpose and effect of non-verbal communication within the scope of all types of communication and to describe their mutual conditions and dependencies. Scherer (1978) distinguishes between four ‘parasemantic’ functions of non-verbal communication: (a) in ‘substitution,’ the non-verbal signal replaces the verbal semantic content, e.g. nodding one’s head in agreement instead of saying yes; (b) in ‘amplification,’ non-verbal communication serves to make the verbal expression clearer, e.g. directional gesture together with over there; (c) in ‘contradiction,’ an inconsistency arises between the non-verbal communication and the verbal content, e.g. nodding one’s head in agreement while refusing or denying something (
double-bind theory); (d) in ‘modification,’ verbal content regarding the speaker’s attitude is changed, e.g. ironic laughing while stating agreement. ( also animal communication, face-to-face interaction, semiotics, sign language)
References
Argyle, M. 1975. Bodily communication. London.
Birdwhistell, R.L. 1954. Introduction to kinesics. Louisville, KY.
——1970. Kinesics and context. Philadelphia, PA.
Capella, J.N. and M.T.Palmer, 1989. The structure and organisation of verbal and nonverbal behaviour: data for models of reception. JLSP 8. 167–92.
Ekman, P. and W.V.Friesen. 1969. The repertoire of nonverbal behaviour: categories, origins, usage and coding. Semiotica 1. 49–98.
Ellgring, H. 1981. Nonverbal communication: a review of research in Germany. German Journal of Psychology 5. 59–84.
Feldman, R.S. and B.Rimé. 1991. Fundamentals of nonverbal behavior. Cambridge.
Harper, R.G., A.N.Wiens, and J.D.Matarazzo. 1978. Nonverbal communication: the state of the art. New York.
Hinde, R.A. (ed.) 1972.
Non-verbal communication. Cambridge.
Key, M.R. (ed.) 1980. The relationship of verbal and nonverbal communication. The Hague.
——(ed.) 1982. Nonverbal communication today: current research. The Hague.
Knapp, M.L. 1978. Nonverbal communication in human interaction, 2nd exp. edn. New York.
Laver, J. and P.Trudgill. 1979. Phonetic and linguistic markers in speech. In K.R.Scherer and H.Giles (eds), Social markers in speech. Cambridge. 1–32.
Papousek, H., M.Papousek, and U.Jurgens (eds) 1992. Nonverbal vocal communication. Cambridge.
Patterson, M.L. 1983. Nonverbal behavior: a functional perspective. New York.
Poyatos, F. (ed.) 1992. Advances in non-verbal communication: sociocultural, clinical, esthetic and literary perspectives. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA.
Scherer, K.R. 1970. Non-verbale Kommunikation: Ansätze zur Beobachtung und Analyse der 
Aspekte von Interaktionsverhalten. Hamburg.
——1978. Die Funktionen des nonverbalen Verhaltens im Gespräch. In D.Wegner (ed.), Gesprächsanalysen. Hamburg. 273–95.
——1982. Vokale Kommunikation: nonverbale Aspekte des Sprachverhaltens. Weinheim.
Scherer, K.R. and P.Ekman (eds) 1982. Handbook of methods in nonverbal research. Cambridge.
Scherer, K.R. and H.G.Wallbott (eds) 1979. Nonverbale Kommunikation. Weinheim. (2nd edn 1984.)
Trager, G.L. 1958. Paralanguage: a first approximation. SiL 13. 1–12.
Umiker-Sebeok, J. and T.A.Sebeok (eds) 1981. Semiotic approach to nonverbal communication. The Hague.
Weitz, S. (ed.) 1974. Nonverbal communication. New York.
Wolfgang, A. (ed.) 1979. Nonverbal behavior: applications and cultural implications. New York.
Journal
Journal of Nonverbal Behavior.
animal communication, face-to-face interaction, semiotics, sign language
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