The main functions of non-fiction reading and writing are to describe, inform, explain, persuade and instruct about aspects of the real world and all its phenomena. However, the best children’s texts also often entertain and awaken a child’s sense of wonder and curiosity. Learning to control the different kinds of non-fiction, whether print, software, CD-ROM or from the Internet, is a most important part of becoming literate. Supporting children’s journey towards becoming confident readers and writers of non-fiction is a central requirement of both the National Curriculum English orders (DfEE, 1999) and the Primary Framework for literacy and mathematics, 2006 in the United Kingdom. The six non-fiction genres referred to in these official documents – recount, report, discussion, instruction (procedural), explanation and persuasive – match with the work of David Wray and Maureen Lewis on the EXEL project and it is helpful to read one of their many books, for example Extending Literacy: Children Reading and Writing Non-Fiction (1997). At text level, helpful questions to ask about a non-fiction text are: what type of text is it – report, persuasive text and so on – how is the text structured; what kind of authorial voice is adopted and what are the graphic conventions used. Work at sentence and word level explores the syntax of the different non-fiction texts and their distinctive vocabulary. Some of DfEE’s guidance material provides detailed advice about this, see for example, Grammar for Writing (DfEE, 2000). For a helpful analysis of how to go about studying non-fiction at text, sentence and word level I recommend the non-fiction chapters in Angela Wilson’s book Language Knowledge for Primary Teachers (2005). In Chapter 12, ‘Looking at information books’, Jane Medwell et al. provide a comprehensive account of what trainee teachers need to know about the organisational features of the different non-fiction text types (Medwell et al., 2001).
I have considered the different kinds of non-fiction and criteria for judging their quality in some detail under the separate entries. Study skills and library skills and the work of the Exeter Extending Literacy project are all covered under the appropriate entries. Here I consider some ways of helping children make progress in this difficult aspect of literacy. In doing so I use the model of non-fiction reading and writing set out in my book Making Facts Matter (Mallett, 1992) and discussed critically alongside the EXIT model in Riley and Reedy’s book Developing Writing for Different Purposes (2000).
But just before I do this I want to mention some of the issues that arise when we start to think about which strategies best support this kind of reading and writing. Should the emphasis be on the teaching of study and library skills? Researchers of any age know these are essential tools to help us find out from secondary sources. The sheer amount of information that we can now access from print and electronic sources can be overwhelming and children certainly need skilful help to find what they need and then to use it and finally present it. The trouble is that too often this approach can lead to de-contextualised ‘finding out’ exercises which can be extremely dreary. Too much time spent on identifying the genre features of different texts can also be mechanistic and joyless. Two very interesting and profound analyses help us get our minds round the issues here. First Margaret Meek’s Information and Book Learning (1996) and second Helen Arnold’s ‘Do the blackbirds sing all day?’ (After Alice, 1992).
An alternative approach starts from the young learners – their questions, comments, wonderings and curiosity about the topic in hand. The desire to know is a powerful motivator and work organised round this is likely to arouse a high level of interest and commitment. But we know that while much project work of the 1970s and 1980s was excellent, some lacked a clear enough focus and neglected to include teaching about necessary research skills and strategies (see entry on Cross-curricular projects). The challenge is to combine the best of both these approaches by harnessing our teaching of study skills to children’s concerns and purposes. The teachers and children in the classroom case studies in my book Young Researchers try to achieve this balance (Mallett, 1999).
This brings me to another issue. So often it is lessons across the curriculum which provide the most exciting contexts for research and yet a great deal of children’s reading and writing now happens in Literacy Time. Fortunately, a flexible approach allows for some of the same texts that the children are using for research in history, geography and science to be explored from a language perspective in Literacy Time. The renewed Framework (2006) encourages making imaginative links across lessons. There is a strong example of children using their history research – on child labour in Victorian times – to produce letters ‘in role’ as protesting Victorian citizens in the Centre for Literacy in Primary Education’s video-film Communities of Writers. The teacher of the Year 5 class involved, Clare Warner, considered this writing task provided the children with a standpoint from which to select their material (CLPE, 1999). I now offer a model for non-fiction reading and writing, newly expanded and annotated, for discussion and for comparison with the EXIT model which is more detailed in the later stages. Although my model is presented as linear, the stages overlap. As Riley and Reedy point out, ‘it may be the discovery of a new piece of information that makes us reflect on our previous knowledge and thus raise questions that need to be answered’ (Riley and Reedy, 2000, p. 145).
A model for reading and writing non-fiction
Organising prior experience
Whenever a teacher begins a new topic it helps the children to organise what they already know by discussion and sharing. This is sometimes termed ‘brainstorming’ and making a topic web on a board or flip chart of all the ideas and issues may help. This involves the children in their own learning from the outset, but of course it is the teacher’s skilful intervention which helps make the talk focused and valuable (Mallett, 2007).
Offering new experience
The younger the children the less satisfactory it is to go straight to secondary sources.* Much better to offer an interesting experience which might be an outing, a talk by an expert, consideration of an artefact or reading a picturebook or poem. I used a BBC video-film about a baby squirrel reared by a cat with her kittens as the ‘new experience’ for a study of squirrels within a ‘Living Things’ science project (Mallett, 1992).
Formulating questions
The new experience combined with the ‘prior experience’ talk usually gives rise to a large number of questions. These questions can be displayed in the literacy corner or written down in children’s jotters. The important thing is that they put the children in the driving seat and make it much less likely that they will be overwhelmed by the texts. I find it also makes children take up a critical approach: do these texts answer my questions? Children learn that some of the most interesting questions (sometimes ethical ones) can be the most difficult to find answers to. I remember a six year old trying to find some insight on ‘Is it wrong to kill a spider that gets into your bath?’
Discussion and planning
The children begin to search in books and it is important to keep meeting together as a class to share findings and puzzles and to clarify purposes and ways of representing their findings. Collaborating over ‘finding out’ makes it less lonely and often infuses energy into the learning. It also recognises the powerful role of the spoken language in getting our minds round new and sometimes challenging ideas.
Study skills and retrieval devices
By now the children have much commitment to their work. They are ready for some modelling and demonstration of both library and study skills either in or outside of Literacy Time. Finding their way round the library and understanding how to use retrieval devices in print and electronic text are most important. I have found encouraging children to share their experiences and frustrations in group discussion very valuable here.
Summarising, reformulating and reflecting
This stage includes oral summary and learning how to make notes and bullet points to provide material for extended writing later on. Copying and closely paraphrasing from books is less likely if children work from notes. Teachers can use scaffolding strategies to support children’s efforts to make oral summaries – ‘what three main things did you find most interesting?’ and also offer support like the ‘writing conference’ of the process model and writing frames (see under entries on Process approach to writing and Writing frames). In the case of the Squirrel work, the children’s questions led to them creating contents pages which structured their findings.
Above all children enjoy sharing all they have learnt both orally and in writing. The nine year olds in the Squirrel Project referred to above made books to share with the six year olds in the school. The time spent reading their books aloud to the younger children and explaining the concepts was a highlight of the work.
* There are of course occasions in Literacy Time and outside it when children carry out worthwhile directed activities round texts (DARTs) sometimes using text on the computer.
Arnold, Helen (1992) ‘Do the blackbirds sing all day?’ in Styles, Morag et al. After Alice London: Cassell.
Communities of Writers: Writing at Key Stage 2 (1999). A video-film from the Centre for Literacy in Primary Education’s Learning to be Literate series (CLPE, Webber Street, London SE1 8QW).
Mallett, Margaret (1992) Making Facts Matter: Reading Non-fiction 5–11 London: Paul Chapman.
Mallett, Margaret (1999) Young Researchers: Informational Reading and Writing in the Early and Primary Years London: Routledge.
Mallett, Margaret (2003) Early Years Non-fiction: a guide to helping young researchers use and enjoy information texts London: Routledge.
Mallett, Margaret (2007) Active Encounters: Inspiring young readers and writers of non-fiction, 4–11 UKLA minibook.
Medwell, Jane, Moore, George, Wray, David and Griffiths, Vivienne (2001) Primary English: Knowledge and Understanding (Course book meeting 4/98 Standards) Exeter: Learning Matters.
Meek, Margaret (1996) Information and Book Learning Stroud: The Thimble Press.
Neate Publishing (2000), Literacy and Science series A basic dictionary of plants and gardening, Teacher and parent version with activity flaps, details from www.neatepublishing.co.uk
Riley, Jeni and Reedy, David (2000) Developing Writing for Different Purposes London: Paul Chapman.
Wilson, Angela (2005, third edition) Language Knowledge for Primary Teachers London: David Fulton.
Wray, David and Lewis, Maureen (1997) Extending Literacy: Children Reading and Writing Non-fiction London: Routledge.
