The Qur‘an: an Encyclopedia
Early Islamic ethical trends modified the old Arabian ideal of 
(manliness) into a new ideal of virtuous happiness in this world and the hereafter. Morality refers to the degree of conformity to the moral principles acquired by a society. Good manners and morality provide are building bricks of a noble character. Sins that are committed under the impulse of man’s lust conflict with Islamic morality and human nature, especially the element of shame (haya), which prevents people from doing wrong. Through a process of Islamic education, this shame can be nurtured in such a way that it acts as a deterrent.
Early Arab virtues
A good starting point for understanding the morality of the 
is to learn about the morality of pre-Islamic Arabia. Many of the moral qualities of the pagan Arabs were transformed with their conversion to Islam, with the period before the 
revelation known in Arabia as the age of ‘ignorance’ (jahiliyya).
However, Goldziher argues that the term should be translated as ‘barbarism’, because Muhammad intended to contrast Islam with barbarism rather than ignorance. The word ‘ignorance’ also connotes the ‘reckless temper’ of the pagan Arabs, which is the antithesis of Islamic hilm (forbearance, self-mastery). The pagan Arabs were torn between ignorance and forbearance: they lost their temper easily and were prone to violence, yet they admired the quality of forbearance and self-control (Goldziher, 1967:202ff.).
Concerning impetuousness, the 
states:
The expression ‘fierceness of paganism’ (hamiyyat al-jahiliyya) in the 
refers to the haughty spirit of the tribal Arab, which inspired many blood feuds in pre-Islamic Arabia. The 
verse above contrasts this to the calm, tranquil and forbearing way of religion. Connected to this, blind anger is the pagan ‘manliness’, which also subsumes under it the qualities of generosity (jud) and honour (karam) (Izutsu, 1959:23ff.).
The meaning of 
a changed with Muhammad, who taught the pagan Arabs that forgiveness is not a vice, but the highest virtue of 
(Levy, 1969:193ff.). Thus, the term covers both the physical and spiritual qualities of man: the physical aspect started with the pagans and the spiritual aspect with Islam.
Pre-Islamic morality was tied up with tribal loyalty, but the 
transformed it into a personal morality. ‘No burdened soul shall bear the burden of another, and every person will be accountable on the Day of Judgement for himself (29.13; 16.25). Islam favoured a universal brotherhood in which kindness and equity should count for more than custom and law. The morality of the 
may be summed up as: ‘Believe and do right’ (18.105). Belief in one God is fundamental to Muslim ethics: it is the foundation of man’s accountability to God and of his happiness in this world and the next.
Of all the human virtues, the 
insists most frequently and most urgently on benevolence to the poor, the needy, the stranger, the slave and the prisoner. This is expressed in the form of compulsory alms-giving (zakat) and, more importantly, in the form of voluntary charity (sadaqa).
Morality in the 
Any kind of Islamic ethics, whether religious or philosophical, is ultimately based on the 
The term should be understood in this broad sense. Islamic philosophers gave Greek ethical concepts a new meaning based on the 
Therefore, to appreciate the later development of Islamic ethics, one should first understand the nature of ethics in the 
The ethical dimensions of the 
are integral to the social context in which it was revealed. That is, both the context of the pagan Arabs and the early Companions of the Prophet. The various religious, legal and moral obligations are interconnected as they are subsumed under God’s will. However, there is also a teleological dimension, in terms of which people obey God because he is good, and seek, by means of their innate character (fitra), to progress towards happiness and to become the best community among humankind.
As mentioned, through the impact of the 
the vengeful spirit of the Arabs was transformed into a positive quality of hilm, which became the dominant virtue in the 
In a certain sense the spirit of hilm dominates the ethos of the 
as a whole. The constant exhortation to kindness (ihsan), the emphasis laid on justice 
the forbidding of wrongful violence (zulm), the adherence to abstinence and the control of passions, the criticism of groundless pride and arrogance—all are concrete manifestations of this spirit of hi lm (Izut su, 1 959:
The following 
verse refers to hilm: ‘The servants of the Merciful are those who walk humbly upon the earth, and when the ignorant address them, say “Peace”’ (25.63). Socially, hilm is the great ethical quality, but forbearance does not only come from noble character, but also from man’s relationship with God (Denny, 1985:115).
There are many ethical virtues in the 
that are also formulated in the spirit of hilm, but suffice it to mention Luqman’s advice to his son:
Goodness (khayr) and Righteousness (birr)
The term khayr (goodness) is used comprehensively, covering the material and religious field. It also connotes wealth, as when a rich man asked the Prophet:
The term also connotes pious work: ‘Perform the prayer and give the almstax. Whatever good (khayr) you do for your own sake, you will find it with Allah, surely Allah is cognizant of what you do’ (58.13).
The word birr (righteousness) is inseparable from social justice and love for others:
Justice and responsibility
Justice is a supreme virtue in Islam to the extent that it stands in order of priority after belief in the Oneness of God and the truth of the Prophet. There are many verses in the 
that command believers to adopt it as a moral ideal: ‘God commands you to deliver trusts to their owners, and if you judge between people, to judge justly’ (4.58); ‘O believers, be upholders of justice, witnesses for Allah, even if it be against yourselves, your parents or kinsmen. Whether rich or poor, Allah takes better care of both. Do not follow your desire to refrain from justice’ (4.135). The 
not only calls to faith, but also to moral action. Believers are required to obey God and his Prophet, who is the standard of moral conduct and piety.
On marriage and eating
Islamic law prescribes marriage, and commends the one who marries to have children. Procreation outside marriage is unlawful and marriage is described as essential for the survival of the human race. The fornicator is like one who wastes water for fun, not for the cultivation of land. The worst fornication is sodomy. Fornication or adultery (zina) is like planting a seed on someone else’s land, sodomy is like wasting the seed (al-Isfahani, 1987:313–317).
Sodomy leads to the breakdown of the family and to sexually transmitted diseases. So whatever excites the passions, and leads to illicit sexual relations, is prohibited. The 
states: ‘And approach not adultery, for it is a shameful deed and an evil, opening the road to other evils’ (17.32).
There are two kinds of food. One is essential for the health of the body, but should be taken moderately. Eating more than what is required is medically and legally detestable. The Prophet said: The most contemptible container is a glutted stomach of lawful food and drink.’ A full stomach fortifies passion, Satan’s sturdy stalwart. The other kind of food is inessential for the body, and the lack of it will cause no harm. Alcohol is an example of this kind of food, and it incites the lower senses. A believer eats enough for the day, and fills a third of his stomach with food (al-Isfahani, 1987:313).
The work ethic
Islam is a world-affirming religion. The Prophet was himself a merchant and used to pasture sheep, and encouraged others to do likewise to earn a living. The 
has a strong work ethic, stating that ‘Man will get nothing but what he strives for’ (53.39) and ‘For men is the benefit of what they earn. And for women is the benefit of what they earn’ (4.32).
Lawful work is a religious obligation, and even religious duties should not interfere with it. The 
urges Muslims to return to work after the Friday congregational worship (62.10). We work for wealth, but wealth should not be pursued as an end in itself. Wealth should be spent frugally, and a portion should go for charity so no poverty can creep into the midst of plenty. On frugality, the 
states: ‘And squander not [your wealth] wastefully. Surely the squanderers are the devils’ brethren. And the devil is ever ungrateful to his Lord’ (17.26–27). Thus, the 
promotes spending without wasting, and being moderate: ‘And those who, when they spend, are neither extravagant nor niggardly, but hold a just [balance] between those [extremes]’ (25.67). Thus, Islam affirms this world, requires one to do lawful work, and to be moderate in spending one’s wealth.
References and further reading
Denny, F.D. (1985) ‘Ethics and the 
Community and World View’, in R.G. Hovannisian (ed.) Ethics in Islam, Malibu: Undena Publications, 103–21.
Donaldson, M.D. (1953) Studies in Muslim Ethics, London: SPCK.
Fakhry, M. (1991) Ethical Theories in Islam, Leiden: E.J.Brill.
Goldziher, I. (1967) Muslim Studies, London: George Allen & Unwin, Vol. 1.
al-Isfahani, R. (1987) 
ila m akarim 
Cairo: Dar al-wafa’.
Izutsu, T. (1959) The Structure of the Ethical Terms in the Koran, Tokyo: Keio Institute of Philological Studies.
Levy, R. (1969) The Social Structure of Islam, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mohamed, Y. (2004) The Path to Virtue, Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC.
See also: 
‘adl; character; fitra; khayr; knowledge
YASIEN MOHAMED
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