The does not initiate a calendar, although it includes comments upon several calendrical elements. It informs believers that God has specified twelve months (9.36) but, beyond that, assumes the pre-Islamic lunar calendar. It does, however, refocus certain elements of that calendar within an overall context that stresses divine manifestations in nature as signs for humanity. God is described as the one who brings daybreak, who has made the night for rest, and the sun and moon for keeping time (6.96). The explains that God made the moon and established its stages so that people could count the years and regulate time (10.5). The new moon is specifically described as a means of regulating time for human beings (2.189; also: 14.33; 16.12; 31.29; 35.13; 36.39; 39.5).
The mentions two months by name. Ramadan (the month of ‘scorching heat’) is identified as the month ‘in which the was revealed as guidance for humanity’ and one during which believers should fast as a sign of worship (2.185). The month of pilgrimage is described as ‘well known’ (referred to in this instance in the plural: ) and ‘sacred’ (haram) (2.197, 194; 5.97). This is a reference to the fact that the practice of making pilgrimage to the in Mecca during specified months was already established by the time of Prophet Muhammad. The then proceeds to discuss regulations concerning conduct of the pilgrimage itself and the prohibition of fighting during the month(s) of pilgrimage. It specifically prohibits the preIslamic practice of postponing the month of pilgrimage in order to avoid the prohibition against fighting (9.37).
The point from which the pre-Islamic Arabian calendar begins is unclear. Frequently, significant events were used as reference points. One of the several terms used by the for the word ‘year’ is hijjaj which, derived from the term for pilgrimage, could indicate that a year simply is measured from one pilgrimage to the next, since the month of pilgrimage is the final month of both the pre-Islamic and the Islamic calendars. Significant events also served as reference points for measuring years. The year of Prophet Muhammad’s birth is identified as ‘the Year of the Elephant’, when Mecca was attacked by invaders accompanied by an elephant. The event was already auspicious; according to the God saved the Meccans from this overwhelming force by sending a swarm of birds that pelted the invaders with clay stones and drove them away (105.1–6).
The fact that it is the year of Prophet Muhammad’s birth made the Year of the Elephant even more important and the early Muslim community appears to have continued using the Year of the Elephant as a calendrical reference point. Caliph (d. 644 CE) changed that practice, identifying the Prophet’s pilgrimage from Mecca to Medina (622) as the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Since then the Islamic calendar is known as the Hijri (or Hegirian) calendar.
The Islamic calendar retains the twelve months of the pre-Islamic calendar, and the principle of beginning each month with the physical sighting of the new moon. Days therefore are assumed to run from sunset to sunset, and each month is 29–30 days long. In cases in which cloud cover makes physical sighting of the new moon impossible, the new month is assumed to begin after the thirtieth day of the previous month.
Although the calendar is lunar, the names of some of the months reflect a system of recognizing the seasons. The first month is called ‘sacred’ (Muharram), and the second called ‘empty’ (Safar). But the third and fourth months are called the first and second months of spring (Rabi‘ al-Awwal and Rabi‘ alThani), and the fifth and sixth months are called the first and second months of drought (Jumada al-Ula and Jumada alThaniyya). The seventh month is called the month of ‘awe’ (Rajab), and the eighth is the month of ‘separation’ or ‘division’ But the ninth and tenth months return to season-specific references: As noted, Ramadan is the month of ‘scorching heat’; Shawwal is the month of hunting. The year draws to a close with the month of ‘rest’ and concludes with the month of pilgrimage (Dhu al-Hijja). The names of the months in the Islamic calendar therefore reflect diverse pre-Islamic influences, as well as modifications to existing patterns initiated by the
Friday is designated as the day of congregational prayer by the (62.9), but it is not specified as a day of rest. Believers are told to cease their business when called to collective prayer on that day and, after the prayer is finished, to ‘disperse in the land and seek God’s grace’. Saturday retains the designation of Sabbath day (Yawm alSabt), presumably a day of rest. The repeatedly criticizes those who do not keep the Sabbath (2.65; 4.154) although it does not specify regulations for doing this. The rest of the days of the week are simply identified by number, counting Sunday as the first day. As with the identification of months, then, the identification of specific days in the reflects both pre-Islamic and uniquely Islamic elements.
In the modern era, the essential elements of the calendar as described in the have been maintained with only a few exceptions. Most countries accept regularization of the beginnings of months based on astronomical calculations. Only in the case of the beginning of the month of fasting, Ramadan, is the tradition of sighting the new moon retained. Several holidays have also been added to the calendar based on events, including commemoration of the ‘Night Journey’ (Laylat celebrated on 27 Rajab), Prophet Muhammad’s miraculous ascent from Mecca through Jerusalem to heaven; Laylat al-Qadr (the ‘Night of Power’ when the is believed to have been sent to the Prophet Muhammad), celebrated 27 Ramadan; (Eid) al-Fitr (‘Feast of Breaking the Fast’), celebrated at the end of Ramadan; and the Feast of the Sacrifice ( al-Adhha, celebrated 10 Dhu al-Hijja), commemorating Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son on the command of God.
TAMARA SONN
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does not initiate a calendar, although it includes comments upon several calendrical elements. It informs believers that God has specified twelve months (9.36) but, beyond that, assumes the pre-Islamic lunar calendar. It does, however, refocus certain elements of that calendar within an overall context that stresses divine manifestations in nature as signs for humanity. God is described as the one who brings daybreak, who has made the night for rest, and the sun and moon for keeping time (6.96). The 
explains that God made the moon and established its stages so that people could count the years and regulate time (10.5). The new moon is specifically described as a means of regulating time for human beings (2.189; also: 14.33; 16.12; 31.29; 35.13; 36.39; 39.5).
mentions two months by name. Ramadan (the month of ‘scorching heat’) is identified as the month ‘in which the 
was revealed as guidance for humanity’ and one during which believers should fast as a sign of worship (2.185). The month of pilgrimage is described as ‘well known’ (referred to in this instance in the plural: 
) and ‘sacred’ (haram) (2.197, 194; 5.97). This is a reference to the fact that the practice of making pilgrimage to the 
in Mecca during specified months was already established by the time of Prophet Muhammad. The 
then proceeds to discuss regulations concerning conduct of the pilgrimage itself and the prohibition of fighting during the month(s) of pilgrimage. It specifically prohibits the preIslamic practice of postponing the month of pilgrimage in order to avoid the prohibition against fighting (9.37).
for the word ‘year’ is hijjaj which, derived from the term for pilgrimage, could indicate that a year simply is measured from one pilgrimage to the next, since the month of pilgrimage is the final month of both the pre-Islamic and the Islamic calendars. Significant events also served as reference points for measuring years. The year of Prophet Muhammad’s birth is identified as ‘the Year of the Elephant’, when Mecca was attacked by invaders accompanied by an elephant. The event was already auspicious; according to the 
God saved the Meccans from this overwhelming force by sending a swarm of birds that pelted the invaders with clay stones and drove them away (105.1–6).
(d. 644 CE) changed that practice, identifying the Prophet’s pilgrimage from Mecca to Medina (622) as the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Since then the Islamic calendar is known as the Hijri (or Hegirian) calendar.
But the ninth and tenth months return to season-specific references: As noted, Ramadan is the month of ‘scorching heat’; Shawwal is the month of hunting. The year draws to a close with the month of ‘rest’ 
and concludes with the month of pilgrimage (Dhu al-Hijja). The names of the months in the Islamic calendar therefore reflect diverse pre-Islamic influences, as well as modifications to existing patterns initiated by the 
(62.9), but it is not specified as a day of rest. Believers are told to cease their business when called to collective prayer on that day and, after the prayer is finished, to ‘disperse in the land and seek God’s grace’. Saturday retains the designation of Sabbath day (Yawm alSabt), presumably a day of rest. The 
repeatedly criticizes those who do not keep the Sabbath (2.65; 4.154) although it does not specify regulations for doing this. The rest of the days of the week are simply identified by number, counting Sunday as the first day. As with the identification of months, then, the identification of specific days in the 
reflects both pre-Islamic and uniquely Islamic elements.
have been maintained with only a few exceptions. Most countries accept 
events, including commemoration of the ‘Night Journey’ (Laylat 
celebrated on 27 Rajab), Prophet Muhammad’s miraculous ascent from Mecca through Jerusalem to heaven; Laylat al-Qadr (the ‘Night of Power’ when the 
is believed to have been sent to the Prophet Muhammad), celebrated 27 Ramadan; 
(Eid) al-Fitr (‘Feast of Breaking the Fast’), celebrated at the end of Ramadan; and the Feast of the Sacrifice (
al-Adhha, celebrated 10 Dhu al-Hijja), commemorating Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son on the command of God.
