Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics
Largest Semitic language, spoken in North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and in the Middle East (approx. 150 million speakers); the cult language of Islam. A panregional form of Arabic exists which is broadly similar to the language of the Koran (Classical Arabic), as well as various regional dialects (main dialects: Egypt, West North Africa, Syria, Iraq, Arabian Peninsula; Maltese is strongly influenced by Italian). The term ‘Old South Arabian’ is used for the old independent languages in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula. A unique alphabet developed from Aramaic (consonantal writing system with restricted ability to mark vowels) in two versions: the block letter Kūfī writing and the cursive form Nashī more often used.
Characteristics: rich consonant system (including uvular, pharyngeal and laryngeal sounds) contrasting with a simple vowel system. For its morphology 
Semitic. Word order VSO; in the dialects often SVO.
References
Bloch, A.A. 1991. Studies in Arabic syntax and semantics, 2nd rev. printing. Wiesbaden.
Eid, M. et al. (eds) 1990–4. Perspectives on Arabic linguistics, 6 vols. hitherto. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA.
Fischer, W. and H.Gätje (eds) 1982. Grundriss der arabischen Philologie, vol. I: Sprachwissenschaft. Wiesbaden.
Classical Arabic
Fischer, W. 1987. Grammatik des Klassischen Arabisch, 2nd edn. Wiesbaden.
Wright, W. 1955. A grammar of the Arabic language, 3rd edn, 2 vols. Cambridge.
Modern Standard Arabic
Cantarino, V. 1974–5. Syntax of Modern Arabic prose. Bloomington, IN and London.
Holes, C. 1994. Modern Arabic. London.
Stetkevych, J. 1970. The Modern Arabic literary language: lexical and stylistic developments. Chicago and London.
Individual dialects
Ahmed, M. 1992. Lehrbuch des Ägyptisch-Arabischen, 3rd rev. and enlarged edn. Wiesbaden.
Aquilina, J. 1973. The structure of Maltese: A study in mixed grammar and vocabulary. Msida.
Behnstedt, P. and M.Woidich. 1985–8. Die ägyptisch-arabischen Dialekte, 3 vols. Wiesbaden.
Blau, J. 1988. Studies in Middle Arabic and its Judaeo-Arabic variety. Leiden.
Cowell, M.W.
1964. A short reference grammar of Syrian Arabic. Washington, DC.
Erwin, W.M. 1963. A short reference grammar of Iraqi Arabic. Washington, DC.
Fischer, W. and O.Jastrow. 1980. Handbuch der arabischen Dialekte. Wiesbaden.
Harrell, R.S. 1962. A short reference grammar of Moroccan Arabic. Washington, DC.
Holes, C. 1989. Gulf Arabic. London.
Mitchell, T.F. 1956. An introduction to colloquial Egyptian Arabic. London.
Owens, J. 1984. A short reference grammar of Eastern Libyan Arabic. Wiesbaden.
——1993. A grammar of Nigerian Arabic. Wiesbaden.
Prochazka, T. 1988. Saudi Arabian dialects. London and New York.
Qafisheh, D.A. 1977. A short reference grammar of Gulf Arabic. Tucson, AZ.
Rice, F.A. and F.A.Majed. 1979. Eastern Arabic: an introduction to the Arabic spoken by Palestinian, Syrian, and Lebanese Arabs, re-issue. Washington.
Talmoudi, F. 1984. The diglossic situation in North Africa: a study of Classical Arabic/dialectal Arabic diglossia with sample text in ‘Mixed Arabic.’ Göteborg.
Tapiero, N. 1979. Manuel d’arabe algérien moderne. Paris.
Dictionaries
Deboo, J. 1989. Jemenitisches Wörterbuch: Arabisch-Deutsch-Englisch. Wiesbaden.
Piamenta, M. 1990–1. A dictionary of post-classical Yemeni Arabic, 2 vols. Amsterdam and Philadelphia.
Ullmann, M. et al. 1970–. Wörterbuch der Klassischen Arabischen Sprache. Wiesbaden.
Wehr, H. 1979. A dictionary of Modern written Arabic: Arabic—English, ed. J.M.Cowan, 4th edn. Wiesbaden.
Bibliographies
Bakalla, M.H. 1983. Arabic linguistics: an introduction and bibliography. London.
Woidich, M. 1989. Bibliographie zum Ägyptisch-Arabischen. Amsterdam.
Journals
Al-‛Arabiyya: Journal of the American Association of Teachers of Arabic.
Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik.
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