Three Kingdoms Period
Korea's Three Kingdoms period is generally considered to have lasted seven centuries—from the first century BCE into the seventh century CE. State institutions and autonomy, however, did not appear until the early fourth century. The three kingdoms developed out of the tribal leagues, which progressed to a stage of state-building and overpowered the Han Chinese commanderies situated on the Korean Peninsula. The combined territory of the Koguryo (37 BCE–668 CE), Paekche (18 BCE–663 CE), and Shilla (57 BCE–935 CE) kingdoms covered the entire peninsula and an even larger area to the north.
The Koguryo kingdom, by far the largest, occupied the mountainous north, including a large part of Manchuria, whereas the Paekche and Shilla kingdoms divided the southern coastal plains. In addition, a tribal league known as Kaya occupied a wedge of territory in the south but was gradually absorbed by neighboring Paekche and Shilla. The three kingdoms were fiercely competitive, and each maintained close ties with China in hopes of gaining an advantage over the other kingdoms.
The warring kingdom of Koguryo was the first to firmly establish itself by overpowering China and Puyo and the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia. Led by a strong military aristocracy, it expanded to include all the lands north of Seoul and reached deep into Manchuria. Koguryo established a Confucian academy to educate the nobility and compiled a state history consisting of one hundred volumes before it adopted Buddhism as the royal creed in 372 CE. The Koguryo kingdom reached the height of its expansion in the fifth century during the reign of King Kwanggaet'o (reigned 391–413) and his successor, King Changsu (reigned 413–491).
The Paekche kingdom developed out of the confederated Mahan states of the southwestern part of the peninsula. Due to fighting with both Koguryo and China, many people of Puyo fled to the southwest. Being more advanced than the indigenous population, they gained control, and the kingdom evolved. Paekche also developed a highly sophisticated state organization and adopted Confucian and Buddhist hierarchical structures. Constantly bothered by Koguryo incursions into its northern territory and by Shilla in the east, Paekche allied itself with the Japanese and the North and South dynasties of China. Through these alliances, Paekche served as a conduit of culture from China to Japan. Paekche had significant influence on the culture of the Asuka period by sending diplomats, scholars, artists, and craftsmen to Japan from the middle of the fourth century.
Growing out of a confederation of Chinhan states in the southeastern portion of the peninsula, Shilla was the last of the three kingdoms to develop. It was centered around the walled city-state of Saro, later known as Kumsong and now as Kyongju. Because its territory was situated farthest from China, it was less influenced by China and did not accept Confucianism and Buddhism until the sixth century. Because of constant pressure and attacks from the Japanese as well as Koguryo and Paekche, Shilla strengthened its military. This buildup featured the Hwarang (Flower of Youth Corps), elite young soldiers with a chivalric code of leadership, unquestioned service to the kingdom, and religious and ethical zeal. Shilla absorbed the neighboring Kaya federation in the mid-sixth century and skillfully allied itself with Tang China, Koguryo's fierce enemy. Tang aid first helped Shilla defeat Paekche and then Koguryo to unify the Korean Peninsula under Shilla rule in 668.
Further Reading
Eckert, Carter J., Ki-baik Lee, Young Ick Lew, Michael Robinson, and Edward W. Wagner. (1990) Korea: Old and New. Seoul: Ilchokak Publishers.
Han, Woo-keun. (1970) The History of Korea. Trans. by Lee Kyung-shik. Seoul: Eul-yoo Publishing.
Henthorn, William E. (1971) A History of Korea. New York: Free Press.
Lee, Ki-baik. (1984) A New History of Korea. Trans. by Edward W. Wagner. Seoul: Ilchokak Publishers.
Nahm, Andrew C. (1988) Korea: Tradition & Transformation. Elizabeth, NJ: Hollym.
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