Qajar Dynasty

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The Qajar dynasty in Persia (present-day Iran) spanned 130 years, beginning with Agha Mohammad Qajar in 1795 and ending with Ahmad Shah in 1925. It was a period in Persian history that saw substantial British and Russian regional influences that eventually created a backlash over time in the form of the Constitutional Revolution.

Before the establishment of the Qajar dynasty, Persia was in a state of chaos following the demise of the Safavid empire (1501–1722/1736) as power struggles intensified among several tribes (Qajars, Zands, Afshers, and others). In 1794, Agha Mohammad Qajar (1742–1797) was able to eventually defeat the last Zand ruler and proclaim himself shah (king) of the country. However, his reign did not last long, as he was murdered just a year later during a second trip to Georgia. He was succeeded by his nephew Fath Ali Shah.

Fath Ali Shah ruled for thirty-seven years and was able to bring certain measures of stability to the country. Nonetheless, this was the era when Britain and Russia began to encroach on the regional political scene. Persia lost two wars to Russia, resulting in two treaties (the Treaty of Gulistan in 1812 and the Treaty of Turkmanchai in 1828) that relinquished substantial territory in the Caucausus to Russia. Furthermore, Britain kept Persia from exercising its authority in Afghanistan. Finally, both Russia and Britain were able to obtain favorable trading agreements. In fact, their influence was so great that they were able to name Fath's successor in 1834. Fath's grandson Mohammad Ali took the reins and governed for fourteen years until he died in 1848. As his grandfather had done, he emphasized the supremacy of the monarch's respect for the divine Islamic order and continued the consolidation of power.

Naser al-Din Shah succeeded Mohammad Ali in 1848 and reigned for forty-eight years. He faced growing European influence, which was difficult to combat due to the weakness of the Persian government. Government revenues were so low that they could not cover the lavish expenditures of the royal court, a situation that led the ruling class to accept bribes from outside power sources in exchange for favors that were contrary to national interests. The prime minister, Mirza Taqi Khan Amir Kabir, tried to correct this situation by taking measures to centralize power. He also created new offices, reformed the tax system, and established a chain of command within the bureaucracy and provinces. Unfortunately, his efforts were halted due to jealousy and fear of his growing popularity and power. He was fired and ultimately assassinated in 1851.

Closer association with European powers also had another impact. It led to the emergence of reformistssuch as Malkam Khan, who advocated that Persia could be strengthened politically and economically if it emulated and mastered the European methods. This line of thinking led to the creation of a cabinet modeled after those found in Europe.

Meanwhile, financial difficulties compelled Naser al-Din Shah to give lucrative concessions to both Britain and Russia. In 1890, the monarch gave Britain a monopoly on the tobacco trade in the country, and this turned out to be the straw that broke the camel's back. Upset with the constant submission to outside interests, the entire nation boycotted tobacco, which forced the shah to revoke the monopoly concession. However, this was not enough to appease the people, who continued to oppose the monarch's policies. Finally, he was assassinated in 1896 at the alleged urging of the well-known Islamic leader Jama al-Din al-Afghani. Soon, Naser al-Din Shah's son Muzaffar alDin was proclaimed king.

Muzaffar al-Din Shah was often physically ill and was politically unable to reverse the tide of political and economic turmoil that had begun during his father's reign. On the contrary, he exacerbated the situation by his extravagant expenditures. He received two major loans from Russia, which he promptly spent on luxury items, including a trip to Europe. Meanwhile, masses of Persians were suffering from inflation and mounting poverty. This caused the populace to question, criticize, and finally revolt against the monarchy. Strikes took place all over, and religious services were withheld in protest. The monarch was unable to receive assistance from Russia, which was dealing with its own internal strife. Therefore, he had no choice but to promise the people a constitution. Soon they formed an assembly, composed of Qajar princes, merchants, religious leaders, artists, and landowners, to write a constitution, which was completed in the fall of 1906. Muzaffar al-Din Shah signed it on 30 December and died just days later. This constitution limited the powers of the royal family and supplanted it with the Majlis (Parliament) and a cabinet whose members had to be approved by the Majlis.

This constitution, however, faced challenges before it became a reality. After Muzaffar al-Din Shah's death, his successor, Mohammad Ali Shah, was able to garner Russian support and close down the Majlis. This started a prolonged struggle between the monarch and supporters of the constitution. Eventually, the supporters of the constitution were able to raise armies to march on Tehran and overthrow the new king, who was exiled to Russia. His eleven-year-old son, Ahmad Shah, was chosen as the shah, and the Majlis was repaired of the damages incurred in the military struggle. The country was in a vulnerable position, which the deposed king tried unsuccessfully to exploit in 1911.

The new constitutional system did not survive. Under the 1907 Anglo-Russian Agreement, Britain and Russia split the country into spheres of influence: Russia took the northern part of Persia, while Britain took the south and east. Faced with financial ruin, the Majlis had hired Morgan Shuster, an American administrator, to help put their finances in order. Both the Persian elite and the Russians criticized his hiring. The latter did not appreciate tax collectors approaching them in their sphere of influence. In fact, Russia demanded Shuster be fired. When the Majlis refused, Russian troops shut it down and with this action destroyed any hope for a constitutionally based system.

Ahmad Shah was powerless against the British and Russian influence. In 1914, World War I started, and the Qajar monarch had no choice but to remain neutral. This, however, was not enough to keep Persia secure. British, Ottoman, and Russian armies fought on Persian soil and brought death and destruction to innocent Persian civilians; the war also gave the local population the opportunity to rise up against the Qajar monarch. At the end of World War I, Russia had its own revolution to contend with and was unable to maintain its influence in Persia. This provided the British with an opportunity to bring an order in their own favor. They supported Reza Khan (Reza Shah Pahlavi, 1878–1944) in a coup against Ahmad Shah. Reza Khan became the defense minister first, then prime minister, and ultimately the first shah of the Pahlavi dynasty, which formally ended Qajar rule.

Amanat, Abbas. (1997) Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.

Bosworth, Clifford Edmond, and Carole Hillenbrand, eds. (1983) Qajar Iran, 1800–1925: Political, Social, and Cultural Change. Edinburgh, U.K.: Edinburgh University Press.

Cleveland, William L. (1994) A History of the Modern Middle East. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Wright, Denis. (1977) The English amongst the Persians during the Qajar Period 1787–1921. London: Heinemann.

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