During the classical period of mathematics in the ancient world, many fundamental branches of mathematics originated and were developed to a remarkable degree. However, due to various catastrophes, much of this ancient mathematical learning was lost, particularly in medieval Europe. The period between 700 and 1449 was a time of recovery for European mathematics, with many ancient texts restored, copied, and translated. However, it was also a period of innovation in many other parts of the world, and the mathematical knowledge of many cultures were exchanged. By chance, as well as design, European mathematics was to become the greatest benefactor of this process of recovery and melding, and social and cultural forces would give European mathematics the impetus to rapidly develop in the following centuries.

Mathematics has a long history, dating back at least as far as the Mesopotamian culture (in modern-day Iraq) over 4,000 years ago...