Muslims, Shiʿite | Research & Encyclopedia Articles

Shiʿite Muslims make up the second largest sect of the Islamic community after the Sunni Muslims, and they are the predominant Muslim population in Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Iraq, and Iran. There are also significant Shiʿite minorities in India and Pakistan and in several Arab states. Today there are approximately one hundred million Shiʿites worldwide; they account for approximately 10 percent of the world's Muslim population.

When the Prophet Muhammad died in 632 CE, the Muslim community erupted into disputes about his successor. Soon a split occurred over the criteria for the legitimate ruler. A powerful coalition of leaders chose Abu Bakr, one of Muhammad's uncles and disciples, as caliph or successor, against the objections of those who believed Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, ʿAli ibn Abi Talib, should have been chosen. The former are known as Sunni Muslims, while the latter are known as Shiʿite Muslims.

Abu Bakr was succeeded by ʿUmar and then by ʿUthman. When ʿUthman was assassinated, ʿAli was finally made caliph, but a relative of ʿUthman, Mu'awiya, who was also the governor of Damascus and one of the last companions of Muhammad, contested his rule, charging that ʿAli had been responsible for ʿUthman's death. The ensuing conflict ended with a truce of sorts; Mu'awiya ruled in Syria, Egypt, and northern Mesopotamia, and Ali ruled over the Arabian Peninsula and the east. When ʿAli was assassinated in 661, Mu'awiya quickly seized control of ʿAli's region, naming his family, the Umayyads, the ruling family. The Umayyad dynasty ruled the Islamic world from 661 to 750.

The Shiʿite Muslims believed that ʿAli was the first imam (spiritual leader) and that his descendants were the only rightful leaders of the Islamic community. They considered imams spiritual and physical beings with the duty and right to rule the community after the Prophet. ʿAli's son Hasan became the second imam, and Hasan's brother Husayn became the third imam when Hasan was poisoned in 670. Ten years later Husayn and most of his family were killed by the Umayyads, leaving only his son Zayn al ʿAbidin to carry on as the fourth imam. Zayn al ʿAbidin's son Yahya became the fifth imam. The attack on Husayn and his family outraged the public, already tired of many policies of the Umayyads. Eventually, in 750, the Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasids, a Hashimite family that was a branch of the Prophet's own clan. During the Abbasid era (750–1258) the Shiʿites grew in number, since they were not systematically persecuted.

Jaʿfar al-Sadiq was the sixth imam, and he had two sons, Ismaʿil and Musa. Once again, a dispute over leadership occurred among Muslims, but this time among the Shiʿite Muslims. Ismaʿil was initially named to succeed Jaʿfar, who later named Musa as successor. However, one group of people followed Ismaʿil, believed him to be seventh imam, and thought that the line of imams ended with him. These Shiʿite Muslims are called the Seveners or Ismailis.

Others, however, believed Musa was the seventh imam and followed his lineage until the twelfth imam, Madhi, who disappeared as a child in the city of Samarra in 873; this disappearance is also referred to as an occultation or absenting from the earth. According to the Twelvers sect of Shiʿite Muslims, the rulers of Islam must reign in the name of the twelfth imam, Madhi, the one who vanished. This sect is known as Twelvers because it honors the twelve imams.

The Twelvers believe that Mahdi will return one day to bring salvation and a new era of peace and prosperity to the world. The sect of Seveners also believes in the imam's returning to usher in a new era of peace and prosperity, except that the imam will be Ismaʿil.

For both sects the ideal government is run by clerics well versed in Islamic law and philosophy. Originally this idea was interpreted to mean that Islamic religious leaders would play a role in guiding and advising governments to adhere to Islamic principles. Over the years, however, others decided that Islamic religious leaders should actually run the government. The concept of vilayet-i faqih, or the rule of religious jurisprudence, was fully articulated and explained by Ayatollah Khomeini (1900–1989) in his book Hukkkumet-i Islami (Islamic Government), and he preached these views to the masses. Vilayet-i faqih was finally made a political reality when Ayatollah Khomeini proclaimed Iran an Islamic republic in 1979.

By the end of the ninth century Shiʿite believers grew in number. The Seveners were strong in North Africa due to the affiliation of the Fatimid dynasty (909–1171), which ruled not only in North Africa but also in Egypt, Syria, and Hijaz. The Fatimids had hoped to firmly establish their religion in Egypt, but met with little success as the Sunni Muslims there resisted strongly. In another part of the Islamic community, the Buyid dynasty (c. 945–1055) subscribed to the teachings of the Twelvers. This dynasty was unable to convert most of its subjects, but helped spread Shiʿism by protecting its followers and commemorating Husayn's murder.

The Twelvers received a tremendous boost when the Safavid dynasty (1502–1736) of Iran named Shiʿism its state religion. By the time the Safavid dynasty fell, most Iranians had converted to Shiʿism, which is still their belief today.

Shiʿite clerics are trained in Islamic seminaries. Qum and Mashhad in Iran are currently prominent centers of Shiʿite teaching. A cleric's standing in the Islamic community is determined by his religious education and how he applies his knowledge to his people and to the government. The highest level of acclaim to be achieved is considered to be the title "ayatollah." Those clerics who do not achieve such prominence either teach the message of Islam to villagers or serve in an administrative capacity at mosques or seminaries.

Algar, Hamid. (1991) "Religious Forces in Twentieth-Century Iran." In The Cambridge History of Iran, edited by Peter Avery, Gavin Hambly, and Charles Melville. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 7:732–764.

Khomeini, Ruhollah. (1981) Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini. Translated and annotated by Hamid Algar. Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press.

Sachedina, Abdulaziz A. (1988) The Just Ruler in Shiite Islam. New York: Oxford University Press.

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