Mozi
(flourished 479–438 BCE), Chinese philosopher. Master Mo (Mozi) may have been a native of the state of either Song or Lu in China. He was a high official in Song. Because he is believed to have been an artisan and because of the practical nature of his philosophy and the many images and analogies drawn from the technical crafts, it is believed that Mozi came from the lower classes. King Hui of Chu (488–432 BCE) refused to grant Mozi an audience supposedly because of his low status. Some claim that Mozi studied Confucius's teachings when he was young; his essays clearly attack the major tenants of Confucianism. Ancient texts do not present Mozi in debate with Confucian scholars; rather he debated with the artisan Gongshu Ban regarding his wall-scaling ladder. Mozi convinced the king of Chu not to employ the ladder militarily against Song, which represents his values of loving everybody and defending the underdog.
The text of Mozi clearly and sharply attacked Confucian values. Mozi and his followers opposed the extravagant use of music and rituals. They especially opposed elaborate funeral ceremonies that were an important part of Confucian ancestor veneration. The Mohists advocated a utilitarian approach and rejected elaborate court music, ritual, and funerals because state resources were wasted on these activities when those resources could benefit the people. They also repudiated offensive warfare. Mozi rejected the Confucian concept of ming (destiny), and his text makes no mention of the aristocratic Confucian distinction between the "prince of virtue" or gentleman and the "petty person." Mozi especially spurned the Confucian clan value of graded love, advocating jianai (love for everyone). His idea of love for everyone was possibly derived from the Confucian ideal of shu (empathy). Love for everyone is based on treating other states, families, and persons as if they were one's own. Mozi's idea of love for everyone is not correctly translated as universal love because jian implies "for each," not "for all," and love in this context is moral concern, not deep emotional affection. Mozi considered concern for everyone to be the unifying principle of morality. For later Mohists, love for everyone entailed a notion of moral equality but not social equality.
During the fourth and third centuries BCE the Mohist school was well organized under a grand master. By the end of that period the school split into three sects that denounced each other as heretics. The three sects differed in interpretation of the teachings of Mozi. There were the purists, the compromisers, and the reactionaries. Mohists who took office were expected to donate funds to the organization, and the grand master could remove them from office. The sects taught ten basic principles contained in the ten core essays of the Mozi, namely, Elevation of the Worthy; Conforming Upwards; Concern for Everyone; Rejection of Aggression; Thrift in Utilization; Thrift in Funerals; Heaven's Intent; Elucidating Ghosts; Rejection of Music; and Rejection of Destiny. Many chapters have three versions, which are probably derived from the three sects.
Mohist doctrines were new. So they had to argue on their own behalf, which began systematic debate in ancient China. The expressions "to argue out alternatives" and "to distinguish" or "rational discourse" are first used in the Mozi. The Mozi also proposes that the correctness of an idea does not depend on the person who thought it. Where the Confucians expect thinkers to both talk about and exemplify the way, Mohists discuss ideas based on their own merits regardless of who presents them.
Mozi delineated three criteria to evaluate arguments: the roots, evidence, and use. A position is accepted if one can trace its roots to practices of the ancient sages. It is assented to if it is in accord with the understanding of the masses and if, when applied in the administration of the state or in punishing of wrongdoers, it brings benefit to the people. The practical and utilitarian focus of Mozi's philosophy is notable. Mozi is unique among ancient moralists in the belief that if an idea or practice has been handed down from the ancient sages but does not benefit the people, then he rejects it. Utilitarianism is the basis of many of his criticisms of Confucianism.
Further Reading
Chan Wing-tsit. (1963) A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Fung Yu-lan. (1952) History of Chinese Philosophy. Vol. 1. Trans. by Derk Bodde. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Graham, Angus C. (1978) Later Mohist Logic, Ethics and Science. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press; London: School of Oriental and African Studies.
——. (1989) Disputers of the Tao. La Salle, IL: Open Court. Hsiao Kung-chuan. (1979) A History of Chinese Political Thought. Trans. by Frederick Mote. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Mei Yi-pao. (1980) The Works of Motze. Taipei, Taiwan: Confucius Publishing.
Watson, Burton, trans. (1967) The Basic Writings of Mo Tzu, Hsun Tzu, and Han Fei Tzu. New York: Columbia University Press.
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