Mencius
(c. 371–c. 289 BCE), Confucian philosopher. The influence of Mencius in defining ancient Confucianism is second only to that of Confucius(551–479 BCE). The Records of the Historian (Shiji) of the second century BCE tells us that Meng Ke (Mencius) was from the state of Zou, which neighbored the state of Lu. He studied with a disciple of Confucius's grandson, Zisi (492–431 BCE). Like Confucius, Mencius traveled to various states looking for a worthy ruler. He held a minor post without any authority as guest minister or teacher under King Xuan of Qi (319–301 BCE). Unable to influence the political climate, he retired with Wan Zhang (flourished fourth century BCE) and other disciples to write the book of philosophy known as the Mencius.
The
Book of Mencius is one of the
Four Books. After the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), the
Mencius eclipsed the
Xunzi. Unlike the
Analects (Lunyu), the
Mencius contains developed prose essays and detailed arguments. In keeping with most ancient Chinese texts, the
Mencius employs arguments based on an appeal to the authority of the sage rulers of antiquity. It also makes regular use of argument by analogy.
This classic portrait of Mencius dates to the eighteenth century. (ARCHIVO ICONOGRAFICO, S.A./CORBIS)Mencius believed that a person's moral integrity is a matter of the heart-mind (xin). The emphasis on the inner quality of a person's moral life marked a change from Confucius, who clearly delineated the inner from the outer. Person-to-person care or humanity (ren) remained the core value, the innermost quality of the heart-mind, and first among the four cardinal virtues. For Confucius, ren meant everything noble in the well-bred person, disinterested concern for others, and other subtle qualities. For Mencius, ren meant simply benevolence. According to Mencius, the other virtues such as rightness (yi), ritual action (li), and moral wisdom (zhi) are also qualities of one's heartmind. In contract to Confucius's general and vague teachings, Mencius's design for humane rulership is practical and effective. Mencius advocated abating punishments, reducing taxes, improving crop yields, and ensuring that the people are trained in moral cultivation. Mencius explicated the notion that human character is basically good, an idea that is only implied in the Analects.
Mencius was rediscovered in the Song dynasty (960–1279) by the Neo-Confucians, especially Zhu Xi (1130–1200). As Neo-Confucianism spread across East Asia, the Koreans and Japanese were reintroduced to Mencius's teachings. Emphasis on the inner quality of the heart-mind, the four cardinal virtues, use of education to develop a person's inner nature, and the practice of humane government are characteristics of Chinese, Korean, and Japanese Neo-Confucianism that were originally derived from the ideas of Mencius. It is not an exaggeration to say that East Asian culture was shaped by the Kong-Meng (Confucius and Mencius) teachings.
James D. Sellmann
Further Reading
Allan, Sarah. (1997) The Way of Water and Sprouts of Virtue. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Ames, Roger T. (1991) "The Mencian Conception of Ren Xing: Does It Mean Human Nature?" In Chinese Texts and Philosophical Contexts, edited by Henry Rosemont. La Salle, IL: Open Court, 143–178.
Chan, Wing-tsit. (1963) A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Fung, Yu-lan. (1952) History of Chinese Philosophy. Vol. 1. Trans. by Derk Bodde. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Graham, Angus C. (1986) "The Background of the Mencian Theory of Human Nature." In Studies in Chinese Philosophy and Philosophical Literature. Singapore: Institute of East Asian Philosophies, 7–66.
—— (1989) Disputers of the Tao. La Salle, IL: Open Court.
Hsiao, Kung-chuan. (1979) A History of Chinese Political Thought. Trans. by Frederick Mote. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Lau, D. C., trans. (1970) Mencius. Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin Books.
Legge, James, trans. (1960) The Chinese Classics. 5 vols. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong.
Munro, Donald J. (1969) Concept of Man in Early China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Nivison, David S. (1996) The Ways of Confucianism: Investigations in Chinese Philosophy. Edited by Bryan W. Van Norden. Chicago: Open Court.
Richards, I. A. (1932) Mencius on the Mind. London: Routledge.
Waley, Arthur. (1956) Three Ways of Thought in Ancient China. Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books.
This complete Mencius contains 669 words. This
article contains 758 words (approx. 3 pages at 300
words per page).
