Laksamana
Laksamana is a Malay honorific title given to the supreme military commander, the counterpart of the highest Malay state official, the bendahara. This is expressed in the saying "The bendahara rules the land, the laksamana rules the sea." Since the Malay states were generally maritime empires, the position of laksamana became equated with "admiral." He was the "ruler of the sea" and the "warden of the coast." It is unknown when the term first came to be used, but it probably derives from Laksmana, the name of Rama's half-brother in the Ramayana. The oldest written Malay version of the Indian Ramayana dates from between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries. In this epic it is told that Laksamana drew a magic figure (baris Laksamana, i.e., "Laksamana's line") to protect Sita against the assaults of Ravana.
At the court of Perak (and perhaps also at other Malay courts) the laksamana, when ashore, was also in charge of the sultan's harem. During processions the laksamana's post was by the sultan's palanquin. When the sultan rode in state upon an elephant the laksamana followed, bearing the ruler's sword. Considering the laksamana's position and functions, it is worth noting that in the Ramayana, Laksamana behaves toward Rama more like a servant than a prince. In the Malay version of the Ramayana, Laksamana is furthermore presented as a great ascetic, which might explain why he could be entrusted with the task of looking after the sultan's harem.
According to the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals), which depicts the world of Melaka in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, the association of the name with the office was fortuitous. Hang Tuah, the legendary fifteenth-century Malay hero, was always comparing himself to the epic Laksamana. In time he was nicknamed Laksamana and finally given the name as a title. This title later went to his successors with his office of warden of the coast. In the Sejarah Melayu, which were probably commissioned by a Melaka bendahara, the activities of the bendahara steal the spotlight from all other senior officials. The importance of the laksamana's office, however, cannot be ignored, because of his military prominence, commanding the orang laut fleets. The Orang Laut—the sea and river peoples in the western half of the Malay-Indonesian archipelago—were crucial to Melaka's security and prosperity, for they represented a strong naval power and transported sea products to Melaka's busy market. After the Portuguese conquered Melaka in 1511, the laksamana's position in the sultanate of Johor, Melaka's successor state, became more important than that of the bendahara's.
Bendahara
Further Reading
Andaya, Barbara Watson, and Leonard Y. Andaya. (1982) A History of Malaysia. London: Macmillan Education.
Gonda, J. (1973) Sanskrit in Indonesia. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture.
Wilkinson, R. J. (1959) A Malay-English Dictionary (Romanised). New York: St. Martin's Press.
Zieseniss, A. (1937) "Funktion und Stellung des Laksamâna am Hofe der malaiischen Sultane." Acta Orientalia 15: 72–75.
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