Jupiter
JUPITER. The name Iuppiter is made up of two elements: the first, Iou-, stems from the Indo-European *dyeu, the root of dies, or "day"; while in the second element we find the Latin word pater, meaning "father." Iuppiter therefore identifies the "god of heavenly light." Many of the ancients were aware of this meaning; Paulus-Festus for example, describes the epithet Lucetius, referring to the god, this way: "Lucetium Iovem appellabant quod eum lucis esse causam credebant" (Jupiter was called Lucetius since he was believed to be the author of light). The name Iuppiter belongs to the Indo-European domain, and is semantically related to the Greek Zeus, which stems from *dyeus.
All Italians recognized Jupiter as their god, particularly the Latins, who honored him under the title of Jupiter Latiaris during the Feriae Latinae. This feast was celebrated each year under the auspices of Alba Longa on the summit of the Alban Hills. It continued in this location as a movable feast (feriae conceptivae) after Rome replaced Alba as the supervisor of this federal ceremony. Moreover, Jupiter is present in the Umbrian ritual of the Bronze Tables of Iguvium. This feast celebrates Jupiter, Mars, and Vofionus; Table VI lists the three identical prayers accompanying the sacrifices of three oxen, one to each of the deities. Tinia, the great god of the Etruscan pantheon, was equivalent to Zeus-Jupiter; he controlled three kinds of lightning. This supreme deity was often represented on mirrors, accompanied by Uni (Juno) and Menrva (Minerva), with background images from Greek mythology.
Ancient Rome honored Jupiter as the supreme god. His preeminence was never called into question, not even when syncretism brought in the ritus Graecus (Greek rite): in the lectisternium of 217 BCE, Jupiter, along with Juno, held the highest rank. Jupiter served as the keystone in the ancient triad of gods, along with Mars and Quirinus; later, in the Capitoline triad, his companions became Juno and Minerva. According to Latin and Greek historiography, and also according to archaeological evidence, the Capitoline temple of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva with its three cellae was built at the end of the sixth century by Etruscan kings, the Tarquinii. Some scholars have also speculated on an Etruscan origin for the Latin triads, or another triad associating Ceres, Liber, and Libera (whose temple was dedicated on the Aventine at the beginning of the Republic).
The Jupiter of the archaic epoch, specified as Jupiter Feretrius—an epithet that the ancients traced to either ferre (to bear, carry) or ferire (to slay, strike)—was venerated in a chapel located on the summit of the Capitoline thought to have been built by Romulus. There, the first king of Rome consecrated the first spolia opima (spoils seized from a slain enemy commander) to Jupiter. According to Paulus-Festus, the sanctuary of Jupiter Feretrius contained "sceptrum per quod iurarent et lapidem silicem quo foedus ferirent" ("a sword for swearing oaths and a flintstone for concluding treaties"). Livy records that the Roman Fetialis, the college of priestly officials responsible for ritual declarations of war or peace, concluded a treaty in the name of the Roman people with the Alban people they prayed precisely to Jupiter Feretrius to smite (ferire) the Roman people if they should deviate from the treaty, similar to the way the priest would strike the sacrificial pig with the flintstone. Plutrach records that near the sanctuary of Jupiter Feretrius, the Ludi Capitolini (Capitoline games) were celebrated each year on the ides of October; they consisted of hand-to-hand combat and foot races.
Jupiter is linked with Roman triumph. Romans believed their victories arose from two factors: the excellence of the general and from the favor of the supreme god who, as optimus and maximus, ensured the prosperity of the Roman Empire. Victory processions were directed towards Capitolium, where the victor would present a solemn offering to Iuppiter Optimus Maximus; the triumphator (victor) appeared to have achieved the rank of a god. The triumphator was clothed in the vestis triumphalis: the tunica palmata, thus called because of the palm-branches embroidered on it; and the toga picta, a name also owed to its rich embroidery; on his head, he wore the corona laurea, or crown of laurels, the symbol of the triumph. Scholars differ in their interpretations of the figure of the triumphator and the meaning of his insignia: some scholars saw the personification and embodiment of the god Jupiter, but others traced back the insignia triumphalia to the regal robes; consequently, they recognized the former rex in the triumphator. By wearing the ornatus Iovis and the corona Etrusca, by having his face painted with the red lead, and by exclaiming triumpe, the triumphator is viewed as the god manifesting himself. This idea may have originated in Etruscan kingship and thus can be explained against the background of Etruscan religion. These robes, which had originally become the state robes of the king when they had turned into ornatus Iovis, were, on the very day of the triumph, taken back from the god by the king, who then was characterized as both Jupiter and king.
Being god of heaven, Jupiter protected all the ides, or "days of full light," so called because those days were prolonged by a full moon. The ides were the thirteenth day of most months, but the fifteenth day in March, May, July, and October. On these days, the Romans offered Jupiter a sacrificial lamb (ovis Idulis). His cult was maintained by the flamen Dialis, who was "in the god's permanent service," and was "celebrated every day." His principal feast was celebrated on the Vinalia, which were divided into the Vinalia Rustica (August 19), marked by the consecration of grapes, and the Vinalia Priora (April 23), marked by the offering of wine. The feast of the Meditrinalia (October 11), celebrating the magical and medical power of the vinum novum also honored Jupiter. Together with Venus, he was venerated as the sovereign god, protector of the Romans. From a naturalistic point of view, scholars point to the gift of the wine to Jupiter as a proof of an "agrarian" god; in fact, Latin peasants honored Jupiter because his powers could endanger their crops and the vineyards. The link between Jupiter and wine and Jupiter and Venus (who is associated with Jupiter in the Vinalia) indicates his sovereignty and preeminence.
Many other epithets illustrate different aspects of Jupiter. Some correspond to his atmospheric manifestations, such as Jupiter Tonans (the thunderer) or Jupiter Fulgur (he who throws lightning). Others refer to his magical or juridical interventions, such as Jupiter Stator (he who immobilizes or Jupiter Fidius (loyalty warranter). During the historical epoch, however, his principal title was officially Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The anniversary of the founding of his temple on the Capitoline fell on the ides of September, and it was followed by the Ludi Romani (Roman games). On the calends of January, the new consuls would go there, accompanied by senators, magistrates, priests, and common people. The consul named to lead a military expedition would pronounce the vota, which were prayers and promises for gaining a victory. Upon his triumphant return, he would go to the temple to give thanks to the sovereign god.
Fides; Flamen; Indo-European Religions, Overview Article; Juno; Minerva; Quirinus; Roman Religion, Article on the Early Period.
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