Indonesia—Political Parties | Research & Encyclopedia Articles

The origin of political parties in Indonesia dates back to the preindependence days of nationalist struggle against the Netherlands, which ruled Indonesia as the Dutch East Indies from the late seventeenth century until 1942, when the Japanese invaded during World War II. The PKI (Partai Komunis Indonesia, or Communist Party of Indonesia) of 1920 and PNI (Partai Nasional Indonesia, or Indonesian Nationalist Party, 1927) were major colonial-period parties. When Indonesia became independent in 1945, its constitution and the pluralist ideology of Pancasila (Five Principles, that is, nationalism, internationalism, consent, social justice, and belief in God) were accepted in principle by political parties. Personalities rather than ideology generally determine party affiliation.

Sukarno (1901–1970), Indonesia's first president, held office from 1946 to 1967. In the early years of his presidency, liberal democracy and a multiparty environment were in the ascendancy. However, political instability caused the collapse of successive cabinets during this period, although the power of the president and the military was kept in check. The PNI, the Masjumi (Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations), the Indonesian Socialist Party (PSI), the PKI, and the Nahdatul Ulema (a party of Muslim scholars) were the major parties of the period. Their mutual wrangling made it difficult for party coalitions to function. Bitterness and ideological appeals marked the campaigns for the first general elections of 1955. The elections witnessed a broad party alignment: PNI and PKI on one side and the Masjumi and the Socialists on the other. The PNI fought for a state based on the ideal of Pancasila, whereas Masjumi's call was for an Islamic state. The PNI and the Masjumi shared fifty-seven seats in the newly elected parliament; the Nahdatul held forty-five, and the PKI held thirty-nine. With strong party discipline and maneuvering, PKI was thriving. When Sukarno later announced a change to "guided democracy," political parties were suppressed, and parliamentary democracy was nearly destroyed. In 1959 the presidential form of government was adopted, and the PSI and the Masjumi were banned the following year. A presidential decree on "party simplification" allowed just ten out of twenty-five parties to continue to function. The PNI, the PKI, and the Nahdatul Ulema were among those permitted to continue. Parliament members were nominated by Sukarno, so the parties did not have much power.

Suharto (b. 1921) acted as president from 1967 until 1998, when he was forced to resign. His New Order policy increased the membership of the House of Representatives from 347 to 460, with the president having the right to nominate 100 (later reduced to 75) members from the armed forces (ABRI). The members of three-fifths of the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan, or MPR) were also to be selected by the president. The Golkar Party, which was composed of different groups, became the ruling party and Suharto's vehicle for holding power. Apart from Golkar, nine parties were allowed to participate in elections. In 1970 the two broad divisions of parties that were merged were the Group for Democracy and Development and the Group for Unity and Development. The 1971 elections were stage managed. The New Order was able to assure its position because opposition parties had so little power as to be almost defunct. In 1973 the opposition forces were merged into two parties: The four Islamic parties joined the Unity Development Party (PPP), and the remaining five parties joined the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI). By the thwarting of the democratic process, Suharto was reelected in 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998.

Since Suharto's resignation in May 1998, the office of president has been divested of much power, with a concomitant increase in the power of parliament and political parties. The earlier authoritarian regime, which ruled with government-dominated parties, has given way to a multiparty system. President Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie (b. 1936), who served as president until 1999, lifted controls on political parties, and a special session of the MPR in November 1998 advanced the dates for elections to June 1999. The new laws allowed 48 out of the 150 parties that were formed since May 1998 to participate in the elections. The parties generally adhered to the principles of Pancasila and shared such common programs as provincial autonomy, clean administration, and elimination of corruption. The major difference between them seemed to be their attitude toward Islam. The nationalist parties clamored for a pluralist society and the Islamic parties advocated a religious framework. The PDI-P (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia-Perjuangan, or Indonesian Democracy Party-Struggle) of Sukarno's daughter, Megawati Sukarnoputri (b. 1947), drew support from nationalists, liberal Muslims, and minority groups. The PDI-P promoted a pluralist Indonesia, free market, and civil-military cooperation. The PKB (Partai Kebangkitan Bagsa, or National Awakening Party) epitomizing the views of Nahdatul Ulema chief Abdurrahman Wahid and its chairman, Matori Abdul Djalil, supported tolerance and accommodation befitting a diverse country. The PKB's main support was from eastern and central Java, with a sizable rural base and close rapport with PDI-P. The Golkar, led by Akbar Tanjung, faced an uphill task of winning the elections by legitimate means, but its secular credentials and money power were plus points in its favor. The former Muhammadiyah chairman, Amien Rais, led the major Muslim party PAN (Partai Amanat Nasional, or National Mandate Party). Amien, with a strong base in social and educational institutions of Muslims, advocated federalism, strong leadership, democracy, moderation, and reforms. The PPP (Partai Persatuan Pembangunan, or United Development Party) is an Islamic party chaired by Hamzah Haz. Another Islamic party, PBB (Partai Bulan Bintang, or Crescent Star Party), was established in July 1998. Its chairman, Yusril Ihza Mahendra, followed a pro-Muslim agenda. In the elections held in June 1999 for 462 seats of the House of Representatives, the PDI-P came out on top, winning 154 seats and securing 37.4 percent of the vote. Golkar came in second, with 20.9 percent of the vote and 120 seats. The breakdown for the others was PKB, 51 seats (17.4 percent); PPP, 58 seats (10.7 percent); PAN, 35 seats (7.3 percent); and, PBB 14 seats (1.8 percent). Megawati could not muster enough strength in the presidential elections of October 1999, and Wahid of the PKB became the president. Megawati was chosen as vice president.

The free and fair elections established parliamentary democracy. However, secessionist tendencies, ethnic violence, and economic problems plagued the new administration, and a day after the MPR voted to impeach Wahid in July 2001, Megawati was proclaimed president. Indonesia has democratized to a large extent and the role of political parties in the coming years will be crucial for the smooth functioning of democracy. Megawati showed political acumen after the 11 September terrorist crisis; the fundamentalists did not destabilize the nation, and nationalist parties rallied behind her. In the post-Taliban world, Indonesia can look ahead with renewed hope for a viable political process.

Budi Utomo; Golkar; Indonesian Democratic Party; Indonesia—Political System; New Order; Old Order; Pancasila; Partai Persatuan Pembangunan; Sarekat Islam.

Alagappa, Muthiah, ed. (1995) Political Legitimacy in Southeast Asia. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Emmerson, Donald K., ed. (1999) Indonesia beyond Suharto: Polity, Economy, Society, Transition. New York: M. E. Sharpe.

Feith, Herbert. (1962) The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

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