In the field of ethical issues in scientific research, the two most controversial topics concern involve the use of humans as research subjects and the use of non-human animals as research subjects. Each of those debates goes back over a hundred years, to the final decades of the nineteenth century, and thus has a substantial literature that has developed a sophisticated level of discussion. This article will briefly summarize the history of the field first, and then explain some of the regulations that have resulted, and close with identifying some of the most important future issues.

Historical Developments

By 1900 there was ample evidence of an appreciation in the medical and scientific communities of the ethical issues that would have to be resolved before a person was used as a subject in experiments. In Prussia a ministerial directive issued in 1900 restricted research to the use...