Gunpowder | Research & Encyclopedia Articles

Gunpowder

Gunpowder, the oldest known explosive, was probably discovered in China during the tenth century, though some sources cite a much earlier date. It consists of a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulphur, and charcoal, in variable proportions. Saltpeter is formed from the oxidation of organic matter containing nitrogen, and the process of making and purifying it was probably discovered in either India or China. A Chinese recipe for explosive powder dates to about 1000 A.D., and this was probably used to make incendiary bombs, fireworks, or terrifying explosions. It was probably not used to launch a projectile out of a gun or cannon until about 1304, the year in which the Arabs are said to have constructed the first gun, a crude device made of hollowed bamboo and reinforced with iron that was used to fire arrows. English and Italian manuscripts dating from around 1326 show the existence of guns in Europe at that time, so the technology of gunpowder seems to have spread very quickly. By the mid-14th century, gunpowder as fuel for guns, cannons, and other destructive devices was commonplace throughout Europe and much of Asia. Prior to its first military uses, gunpowder was termed black powder. The recipe for black powder was first recorded by English philosopher Roger Bacon (c. 1214-1292) in 1242. The original formula, consisting of 7 parts saltpeter, 5 parts hazelwood (charcoal or carbon), and 5 parts sulphur, has been modified in its proportions to suit various uses, but the essential ingredients have remained the same. The mixture, though prone to rapid combustion, does not exhibit the commonly observed properties of thrust or loud explosion unless it is somehow confined. Consequently, early gun designs revolved around barrel size and strength and the manner in which gunpowder was compacted. The proportions of essential ingredients used in gunpowder varied widely from place to place, and did become standardized until the eighteenth century.

The perfecting of gunpowder was an ongoing process. Eventually scientists realized that the powder was simply a mixture, not a new compound. It was limited by such military drawbacks as flashing and smoking. Moreover there was the additional disadvantage of delayed reaction time. These obvious flaws, coupled with the complaints of mining and engineering companies that gunpowder was incapable of pulverizing large pieces of rock, led independent researchers in several promising directions. Both nitroglycerine and TNT, two of the most powerful explosives in existence, can trace their origins to this race in research during the nineteenth century. The discovery that directly supplanted gunpowder for use in firearms was guncotton, a forerunner of smokeless powder. Invented by Christian Schönbein in 1845, guncotton is formed by a nitrating process involving the dipping of cotton (cellulose) in nitric and sulfuric acids. This nitrocellulose explosive underwent improvements until it obtained final form as a reasonably safe and clean-burning powder in 1884. This powder was ground from a hardened gelatin created by the evaporation of ether and alcohol. Its inventor was French chemist Paul Vieille (1833-1896). Gunpowder is still employed today for a number of specialized uses but is perhaps most commonly found in fireworks. Its production involves a number of important steps. After securing ingredients of the highest quality, the manufacturer must grind and mix the material while damp, then compress it into cakes, break it into grains of varying sizes, and, finally, ensure that the grains are glazed, dried, graded, and properly packaged. These exacting requirements were arrived at after centuries of experimentation and thousands of accidental deaths. Despite vast improvements in safety guidelines and preparedness, factory and operational accidents still occur due to the volatility of the substances involved.