Long before the genetic laws of heredity were discovered, groups of people sought to define their relations to others in complex ways. Genealogy, or the study of the history and origins of a family or group, is most commonly associated with the creation of family pedigrees. However, cultural anthropologists and other scientists often apply genealogical studies more broadly, studying the history and origins of whole populations, nations, cultures, and ethnicities. Genealogical theory also considers varying conceptions of ancestry and kin networks-- many of which extend beyond modern genetic (biological) conceptions of relatedness. In some cultures genealogical relationships are not based upon the closeness of the genome, but swell to include friends, group members, or ancient peoples to whom one merely "perceives" they are related. Regardless, although not scientifically grounded in the same sense as genetics, to some peoples, genealogy is an important means of defining their ethnic, national, or religious identity.
While genetics and age-old philosophical beliefs concerning ancestral relations can sometimes be reconciled, the two are often diametrically opposed.
Genealogists must first establish the agent of lineage, that is, the person who is responsible for passing on to the next generation some sort of identity marker. Such a marker can be a family (last) name, citizenship, or religion. If the agent of lineage is male (the father), a group is said to be patralineal. If membership in a given group is defined by ties with a female (the mother), the population is matrilineal. Lineage in this sense is predominantly established through custom and culture.
Anthropological geneologists also study the history and origins of kin group associations. Scottish and Irish clans, as well as Native American tribes are both examples of fundamental kin groups. Clans are basically very extended families. They often prohibit marriage between clan members (considering marrying within the clan as incest), and thus rely on strong social ties with other groups. While clans are usually biologically related, tribes are most commonly comprised of several unrelated, smaller kin networks. However, both groups are usually united by geographic proximity and a sense of common ancestry--whether actual or mythological. Some of the earliest research conducted in the discipline of cultural anthropology was observations and classifications of kin networks and genealogical conceptions in clans and (African) tribes.
The introduction of Darwinian evolution in 1859 also affected the way in which people viewed kin relationships, ancestry, and cultural origins. Contemporary historians and genealogists sought to determine the cultural ancestry of their societies. Genealogy became a means by which to chart development and progress. Those who philosophized about the ancestry of a given nation, culture, or people. Indeed, the name "geneology" itself suggests this --it stems from two Greek words, one meaning "race" and the other "science". Social Darwinists took this nomenclature seriously and tried to establish a hierarchy of peoples, groups, nations, and civilizations.
Sometimes, concepts of ancestral relations extend beyond the usually static borders of biological relations, kin groups, ethnicities, and geography. Some Native Americans espouse a genealogical idea that they are related to all other aboriginal peoples who lived on the American continent before the arrival of European explorers and colonists. Though this definition of "relation" is extremely fluid, it emphasizes a belief that the passage of time does not weaken ancestral bonds in the same sense that genes are diluted and mixed by the succession of generations.
With the advance of genetics, "relation" has been circumscribed into its biological function. DNA analysis and mitochondrial DNA research aid in understanding a global, even species-specific genealogy, but older philosophical conceptions of ancestral relations persist. These two concepts--the genetic and the cultural often clash.
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