In early computer systems, a human operator monitored operations, determined the order of programs to run, and handled all input and output processes. However, much time was wasted when a program would end its run, and the entire system sat idle while the operator prepared the next job. As computer processing speeds increased, the use of human operators became unrealistic. The need for more efficient use of computer resources resulted in the development of operating systems, which act somewhat like traffic directors for the computer. Operating systems are a collection of programs designed to permit a computer to manage its own operations, including peripherals (printers and modems), programs, and data. In 1954 Gene Amdahl (1922-) developed the first operating system, which was used on an IBM 704. In 1961 Frederick Brookes (1931-), an IBM engineer, began developing an operating system for the IBM S/360. By 1965 Brookes's development...