Choson Kingdom | Research & Encyclopedia Articles

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Joseon Dynasty Summary

Choson Kingdom

Governing the Korean peninsula for over five hundred years (1392–1910), the Choson kingdom was the final stage of dynastic rule in Korea. Also known as the Choson dynasty or Yi dynasty, this era differed from that of its predecessor, the Koryo kingdom (918–1392), in that it formed a highly centralized government under royal authority with the influence of aristocrat-bureaucrats. The Choson kingdom established Confucian rule that continued throughout the entirety of the reign of its twentyseven kings. During the course of more than five centuries, Choson experienced periods of great development, foreign invasion, factional infighting, and self-isolation from the outside world.

Early Choson (1392–1592)

The Choson kingdom began with a Koryo general, Yi Song-gye (1335–1408), seizing military and political power and eventually placing himself on the throne. Neo-Confucian ideology and land reforms, which controlled land accumulation by the yangban (office-holding aristocrats) and improved the livelihood of the peasants, were instituted. From the beginning, the yangban had the right to intervene in the governmental decision making of the monarchy. Confucian classics were printed with movable metal type to further Confucian learning for the well-being of the newly founded state.

King Sejong the Great (1397–1450), the son of Yi Song-gye and the most renowned of Choson's kings, ruled during a period of marked advancement in numerous fields. He showed great concern for the peasant farmers, providing them with flood and drought relief as well as tax relief. Marked development in science, agriculture, administration, economics, medicine, music, and the humanities also took place. The most noted of his achievements was the creation of the phonetic alphabet for the Korean language, hangul, which enabled the illiterate peasantry to learn to read. Prior to this, all writing was in Chinese characters, which were inaccessible to the uneducated masses. It wasn't until the twentieth century, though, that the popularity of hangul overtook that of Chinese characters.

The century to follow was marked by instability and a decline in prosperity due to power struggles between the monarchy and the yangban bureaucrats. To offset yangban power gains, royal favor was shown toward Buddhist and Taoist religious orders, and the literati yangban were suppressed; as the throne changed hands, however, there was a resurgence of Neo-Confucian rule and yangban influence in the royal court and administrative affairs. During this time, the plight of the peasant worsened and the power of the kingdom weakened.

Choson maintained almost no international trade or political ties, but was drawn into international affairs when Japanese warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–1598) requested Choson's aid in attacking Ming China to consolidate his power at home. Choson refused and for this was brutally and repeatedly attacked during by Hideyoshi from 1592 through 1598. The Japanese invaders attained initial success in occupying strategic land areas but met stiffer resistance on the seas. Choson's most renowned military leader, Yi Sinsin (1545–1598), devastated the Japanese fleet and its supply lines, eventually forcing a Japanese withdrawal. If it had not been for the ingenious warfare strategies of Commander Yi and his ironclad kobukson (turtle ships), Japan would almost assuredly have wrested control of the peninsula from Choson.

The war took a heavy toll on Choson—heavy loss of life, the abduction of artisans and technicians, the devastation of farming land, and the destruction of government records and cultural artifacts. Taking advantage of Choson's weakened state, the Manchus to the north, who had gained control of China, demanded that Choson acknowledge his suzerainty. When Choson refused, the Manchus attacked and overwhelmed Choson in a relatively short war; Chinese suzerainty was acknowledged, as it had been before the Manchu invasions.

Later Choson (1592–1910)

The destruction caused by the wars with the Japanese and the Manchus brought great social and economic upheaval. The cost of reconstruction was high and government financial difficulty led to repeated tax increases and the sale of aristocratic titles. The plight of the peasantry worsened, while the rise of a wealthy merchant class led to a new notion of wealth—mercantile wealth—as well as to the decline of the yangban society. All of these factors contributed to the rise of a new generation of scholars critical of the traditional Neo-Confucian order. This reformist school started the Sirhak (Practical Learning) movement in the seventeenth century and advocated the promotion of utilitarian knowledge, as well as political, economic, and educational reforms to promote political integrity, economic stability, and social accord. They had a true concern for the well-being of the common people.

The schism led to fierce factional strife among the yangban during the latter half of the seventeenth century. Realizing the seriousness of the situation, King Yongjo (1694–1776) effected a series of reforms. These reforms were intended to end factional feuding, improve the life of the peasants and commoners, and reassert the Confucian monarchy; it enjoyed, however, only limited success. Mercantile activities increased rapidly, with the yangban also becoming involved in activities that they once had disdained. The economy and social conditions improved, and, in the early nineteenth century, Western ideas of finance reform were seriously considered, though never implemented due to factional strife.

During first half of the nineteenth century, drought and flood fiercely undermined agricultural productivity, causing widespread famine. Excessive taxes were levied by a chronically debt-ridden government, exploiting the destitute farmers. These intolerable natural and social conditions led to peasant revolts in the northern part of the kingdom in 1812 and in the southern part in 1862. The adverse social conditions also gave rise in the mid-nineteenth century to a new ideology, Tonghak (Eastern Learning), which appealed to the farming class. It sought to rescue the peasantry from poverty and social unrest and to restore political and social stability throughout the kingdom. To succeed in this, it opposed government corruption, the privileged yangban class, social injustice, and Sohak (Western Learning), which manifested itself mainly in Catholicism, which had entered Korea in 1593 and had begun to take root among the populace in the late eighteenth century.

Attempts by American and French naval vessels to open Choson to commerce led to the adoption of a policy of isolation in 1871. In 1876, backed by naval force, Japan coerced the signing of a treaty establishing diplomatic and commercial relations between the two countries. In order to offset the Japanese influence in militarily weak Choson, similar treaties were soon signed with the United States and other Western nations. Choson sent diplomatic missions to Japan and the United States, and an influx of North American Protestant missionaries began.

This newfound knowledge of the outside world led to a progressive movement by young scholars to modernize the government and bring about social reforms. As efforts at modernization were blocked by government officials, the progressives, with Japanese support, resorted in 1884 to a coup, which was put down only with Chinese assistance. Ten years later, the Tonghak rebellion spread throughout the country and brought both Japanese and Chinese troops to Choson.

Japan, China, and Russia were now all vying for influence on the peninsula. Chinese influence was quickly removed by Japan's victory in the Sino-Japanese war (1894–1895). In 1895, the Japanese instigated the assassination of the influential queen consort, Queen Min (1851–1895), the real power behind the throne, to increase their influence. With victory in the Russo-Japanese war (1904–1905), Japan was now unrivaled on the peninsula, and Choson had no choice but to become a Japanese protectorate. Annexation by Japan in 1910 brought an end to the kingdom of Choson and the beginning of thirty-five years of colonial rule.

David E. Shaffer