Buddhism, Pure Land
Pure Land Buddhism is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition originating in India around 100 BCE–100 CE. Although Pure Land is not indigenous to China in terms of its doctrine and scriptures, it became in spirit and character an integral part of Chinese Buddhism. Today it is one of the most prominent forms of Buddhism in China, Korea, and Japan. The term Pure Land or Land of Bliss (Chinese jingtu; Japanese jodo) derives from the Sanskrit word sukhavati, a blissful Western Paradise. The Buddha presiding over the Pure Land is Amitabha (Measureless Light; Chinese Amito fo; Japanese Amida), also known as Amitayus (Measureless Life). Out of his compassion for all sentient beings, Amitabha vows that anyone who has faith in him will be reborn in his Pure Land.
History
The Chinese Buddhists became interested in Pure Land Buddhism as early as the third century CE. In 402, the monk Huiyuan (334–416 CE) founded the Pure Land Society on Mount Lu (present-day Jiangxi Province), where he and his followers practiced meditation and sought rebirth in Amitabha's Pure Land. Huiyuan was later regarded as the founder and also the first patriarch of Chinese Pure Land Buddhism. After Huiyuan, the three recognized Pure Land patriarchs were Tanluan (476–542), Daochuo (562–645), and Shandao (613–681), who all made significant contributions to propagating Pure Land Buddhism among the populace. Other important Pure Land masters were Cimin Huiri (680–748) and Fazhao (c. 800), both of whom sought to harmonize Pure Land and Chan teachings and practices.
It is, however, important to note that Pure Land Buddhism did not become a full-fledged school (zong), with a clear lineage and system of doctrine, until the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279), and even then its establishment was due mainly to the efforts of masters of Tiantai Buddhism, another school. Throughout most of Chinese history, Pure Land was mingled with or incorporated into other forms of Buddhism.
Scriptures
The three principal scriptures of Pure Land Buddhism are the Shorter Sukhavativyuha Sutra (the Shorter Scripture Displaying the Pure Land; Chinese Amito jing), the Longer Sukhavativyuha Sutra (the Longer Scripture Displaying the Pure Land, Chinese Wuliangshou jing), and the Amitayurdhyana Sutra (the Scripture on Contemplating the Buddha of Measureless Life; Chinese Guan Wuliangshou jing).
The Shorter Sukhavativyuha Sutra contains a dialogue between the Buddha Sakyamuni and his disciple Sariputra in which the Buddha expounds the nature of faith and devotion for being reborn in Amitabha's Pure Land. The Longer Sukhavativyuha Sutra begins with a dialogue between Sakyamuni and his disciple Ananda about a monk named Dharmakara, who is one of the previous births of Amitabha. Before he attains enlightenment, Dharmakara takes a series of forty-eight vows that express his determination to attain perfect Buddhahood, become a savior of all beings, and establish a Buddha field where people can achieve liberation with ease. After Dharmakara becomes the Buddha Amitabha, he keeps his promise that those who have faith in him, are mindful of his name, or visualize him and his land will be reborn in his paradise.
Both the Shorter and Longer Sutras describe in detail the wondrous qualities of Amitabha's Pure Land. Once one is reborn in the Pure Land, the experience will be blissful because suffering, old age, and death no longer exist. The land is filled with fragrant trees, beautiful flowers, and is decorated with precious gems. Everywhere one goes, one can hear the teachings of the Buddha intoned amid pleasant music and joyful sounds. Gods and humans are spiritually inspired and blessed by Amitabha's power and grace, and they will make easy progress toward nirvana, which is the ultimate outcome of rebirth in Amitabha's Pure Land.
The Longer Sutra (Chinese Wuliangshou jing) was translated by Sanghavarman around 252 CE. The Shorter Sutra was translated into Chinese around 402 CE by Kumarajiva (344–413? CE). The Shorter Sutra is the most popularly read Pure Land text, with numerous commentaries produced in many East Asian languages.
The Amitayurdhyana Sutra is a meditation text that details sixteen ways of meditation and the spiritual attainments based on these meditative practices. Aside from meditation through visualizing the Pure Land and the image of Amitabha, the text also teaches a simple path designed for the laity, namely, reciting the phrase "Homage to Amitabha" (Chinese Nanwu Amito Fo; Japanese Nanmu Amida Butsu). There are no extant Sanskrit versions of this scripture. The Chinese version is titled Guan Wuliangshou jing, which is said to have been translated by Kalayasas (n.d.) in the first half of the fifth century. However, many scholars think that it was actually composed in China or Central Asia, not in India.
Doctrine and Practice
Pure Land Buddhism teaches a path of devotion by which one cultivates sufficient faith in the power and grace of the Buddha Amitabha. Because of their weaknesses, however, human beings cannot attain salvation through their own efforts. Some Pure Land masters furthermore teach the doctrine of the "Final Days of the Dharma" (Chinese mofa; Japanese mappo), an era of spiritual decline when traditional practices for enlightenment taught by the Buddha are no longer effective. Salvation in Pure Land Buddhism, therefore, can only be achieved at another time (in the next rebirth), in another place (the Pure Land), and through another power (Chinese tali; Japanese tariki), that of Amitabha. Faith and devotion are the essential requirements for one's rebirth in Amitabha's Pure Land.
Rebirth in the Pure Land can be attained through the practices of chanting the Pure Land scriptures, meditating on Amitabha and his Pure Land, worshiping the image of Amitabha, performing meritorious deeds, and reciting Amitabha's name or the phrase "Homage to Amitabha." Of these practices, the recitation of the Buddha Amitabha's name (Chinese nianfo; Japanese nembutsu) has become the most representative practice of Pure Land Buddhism.
Although Pure Land and Chan held different views about salvation, the Chinese tendency toward harmonization of different forms of Buddhism resulted in a combination of Chan meditation with the Pure Land use of beads to recite the name of Amitabha. Practitioners believed that this joint practice could lead to tranquility and an internal vision of the Pure Land that was identified with one's inherent Buddha-nature.
In addition, it is believed that in order to make his task of salvation more efficient, Amitabha has as his assistant Avalokitesvara (Chinese guanyin; Japanese kannon), the bodhisattva of compassion. Avalokitesvara is a savior bodhisattva frequently mentioned in Pure Land and other Mahayana Buddhist scriptures. Originally an Indian male deity, Avalokitesvara was transformed into a female in Chinese Buddhism. Her feminine representations began to appear in the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE) and became prevalent in the Song (960–1279). With the wide spread of Pure Land Buddhism, Avalokitesvara has also become the most popular celestial bodhisattva worshipped by East Asian Buddhists.
Pure Land Buddhism represents a good example of how religion has successfully made changes and adjustments to appeal to a wider audience.
Buddhism, Chan; Buddhism—China
Further Reading
Chappell, David W. (1977) "Chinese Buddhist Interpretations of the Pure Lands." In Buddhist and Taoist Studies I, edited by Michael Saso and David W. Chappell. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 23–53.
Ch'en, Kenneth. (1972) Buddhism in China: An Historical Survey. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
de Bary, William Theodore, et al., eds. (1964) Sources of Chinese Tradition. Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press.
Ehman, Mark A. (1978) "The Pure Land Sutras." In Buddhism: A Modern Perspective, edited by Charles S. Prebish. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania Press, 118–122.
Getz, Daniel A., Jr. (1999) "Tien-t'ai Pure Land Societies and the Creation of the Pure Land Patriarchate." In Buddhism in the Sung, edited by Peter N. Gregory and Daniel A. Getz, Jr. Studies in East Asian Buddhism, no. 13. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 477–523.
Gómez, Luis O., trans. (1996) The Land of Bliss: The Paradise of the Buddha of Measureless Light. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
Pas, Julian. (1987) "Dimensions in the Life and Thought of Shan-tao (613–681 CE)." In Practice in Medieval Chinese Society, Buddhist and Taoist Studies II, edited by David W. Chappell. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 65–84.
Paul, Diana. (1983) "Kuan-yin: Savior and Savioress in Pure Land Buddhism." In The Book of the Goddess: Past and Present, edited by Carl Olsen. New York: Crossroad, 161–175.
Stevenson, Daniel B. (1995) "Pure Land Buddhist Worship and Meditation in China." In Buddhism in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 359–379.
Yu, Chun-fang (2001) Kuan-yin: The Chinese Transformation of Avalokitesvara. New York: Columbia University Press.
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