Ayutthaya, Kingdom Of

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Ayutthaya, Kingdom Of

Ayutthaya (1350–1767) politically, economically, and culturally dominated mainland Southeast Asia for four hundred years. Located at the confluence of three major rivers (the Lopburi, Pasak, and Chao Phraya) in the Menam Basin in central Thailand, the distinctive culture that Ayutthaya developed during the reigns of its thirty-three kings has evolved into modern Thai culture and society. UNESCO declared the historical city of Ayutthaya a World Heritage Site in 1991 as a masterpiece of urban planning with a unique cultural heritage.

King Uthong or Ramathibodi I (1314–1369) established Ayutthaya in 1350 when the kingdoms of Sukhothai and Angkor were weakening. The kingdom's location on an island in the middle of the river confluence was strategic defensively since the vicinity was flooded most of the year, protecting the city from attack. The periodic flooding created a fertile alluvial plain capable of sustaining a large population and the development of rice cultivation for export. Ayutthaya's proximity to the sea was advantageous for maritime trade. Ayutthaya controlled access to the kingdoms in the interior and thus became a major communications and trade center. King Uthong's successors expanded the kingdom to occupy present-day central Thailand and the northern section of the Malay peninsula, incorporating the territories of Sukhothai and part of the Angkor empire.

Khmer culture heavily influenced Ayutthaya in its early years. Ayutthayan monarchs adopted the concept of the devaraja (god-king) cult, elevating themselves to the status of gods, particularly as the reincarnation of Vishnu. The royalty operated in secrecy, increasing the mystery surrounding the king. The kings rarely made public appearances, and these appearances were often grandiose. The kings integrated Hindu and Mahayana Buddhist religious ceremonies to legitimate and ritualize their rule. Brahman priests presided over these ceremonies, such as the coronation and oath of allegiance, and the Thai monarchy continues this tradition. Sukhothai and Sinhalese cultures also shaped the kingdom beginning in the fifteenth century. The Sukhothai kingdom was previously in control of the region before Ayutthaya overpowered Sukhothai, and Uthong used the laws of Sukhothai as a base for the Ayutthayan code of law. The Buddhist foundation of Sinhalese culture influenced Ayutthaya as it converted to Theravada Buddhism.

The Ayutthayan monarchs created a sophisticated administration and hierarchical social system to control the kingdom's large territory and population. The system comprised a number of ranked and titled officials. Ayutthayan society was stratified into three major classes: royalty, the officials or nobility, and commoners. Persians, Indians, Chinese, Indonesians, Japanese, Europeans, and other foreigners who came to Ayutthaya as merchants were generally excluded from the social strata. Kings such as Trailok or Borommatrailokanat (reigned 1448–1488) also developed an elaborate code of law.

Theravada Buddhism flourished at Ayutthaya, and the Mahayana Buddhist ceremonies that legitimized kingship were incorporated into this other sect of Buddhism, which was adopted throughout mainland Southeast Asia. Ayutthaya was closer to the centers of Theravada Buddhism, Ceylon and Burma, and its central location meant that monks passed through it before traveling to other cities. Ayutthayan monarchs were generous patrons of religion and the religious arts. Kings sent for Sinhalese monks to preside over ceremonies and monasteries and constructed over four hundred monuments and temples, giving the sangha, or Buddhist monkhood, wealth and power. Trailok was the first king to be ordained as a monk, and this tradition continues with the Thai monarchy today.

Ayutthaya excelled in classical and performing arts, including the fields of literature, painting, classical dance and drama, music, sculpture, architecture, and other art forms. Religious literature flourished, with the adaptation of Indian works such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Ramakien, the Thai version of the Ramayana, became the subject of other arts such as painting, dance, and drama. Khon was a classical dance form based on this epic, and the use of masks in khon began during this period. The masks became the most important part of the khon costume, and the use of the masks initiated the narration of the drama since the performers were unable to speak wearing the masks. The courts also entertained with puppetry: nang yai (shadow puppets) and hun (marionettes). The performances were confined to palace grounds, where they continued for many days accompanied by a piphat (orchestra composed of four to eight musicians). Music flourished in Ayutthaya, and compositions and songs from that period continue to be played today.

Numerous poetic forms developed, such as the chan, kaap, klawn, klong, and rai. The first two forms, chan and kaap, originated in India, but the poets of the Ayutthayan courts developed their own adaptations of these forms. The Ayutthayan poets borrowed 17 or 18 of the original 109 meters of chan and added rhyme schemes and changed the rules concerning syllables. The rules of the poetics forms differed according to tonal, syllable, and rhyme schemes. Lilit Phra Lo and Lilit Yuan Phai are just two of the epics written during this era. Ayutthayan court artisans developed a distinct painting style and other art forms such as niello ware—in which silver and gold receptacles are decorated with motifs etched onto the receptacle with an alloy metal—and the use of gold leaf on lacquer. The artisans mastered bronze casting and created massive Buddhist icons. Their iconography included the elongation of the lotus flower base and the representation of Buddha in different postures and dressed as a prince. The images became symbols of the mystic nature of the king.

Religious architecture experienced major transformations. The spire of the Sinhalese chedi, or stupa, with its bell-shaped base, was elongated in Ayutthayan style. Temples became massive, imposing structures symbolizing the kingdom's power and indestructibility. The roofs of Ayutthayan temples were very steep and elaborately decorated. Domestic architecture adapted to the amphibious environment of the kingdom. The Siamese elevated house evolved into floating rafts to accommodate flooding and to allow the inhabitants to live near their rice fields.

Ayutthaya as an international trade port became a cosmopolitan city. There were numerous international settlements of Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, Persians, Indians, Malays, and even Europeans. The Portuguese established the first European embassy in 1511, and the Dutch, French, and English soon followed suit in order gain trading contracts with the court. The kings also exchanged missions with the French and Chinese courts. Foreign advisers became influential to some kings; an example is Constantine Phaulkon, a Greek, who advised King Narai or Phra Narai (1632–1688). Ayutthaya used the exposure to the different countries to its advantage. The kingdom was able to modernize its military and munitions by using the technological advances of others.

The Burmese sacked Ayutthaya in 1767, destroying temples, palaces, and art works and returning to their own kingdom with booty. The Burmese presence in the kingdom of Chiang Mai since the sixteenth century made Ayutthaya vulnerable to attack from the north. Ayutthaya had enjoyed a century of relative peace, but there was instability around the throne, causing the kingdom to be ill prepared defensively. The Burmese took many of Ayutthaya's inhabitants as war captives. Ayutthaya ceased to be the center of the Siamese world when the new capital, Thonburi (1767–1782), was established further south on the Chao Phraya River by a new ruler. Thonburi was chosen for its strategic location for trade and defense. Another ruling dynasty came into power in 1782 and moved the capital to the other side of the Chao Phraya River to Bangkok in order to increase its defensible position from Burmese attack.

Linda McIntosh