Architecture—Japan

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Japan's architectural achievements, both secular and sacred, reflect the foreign and native influences that shaped Japanese culture as a whole.

The Jomon culture (10,000–300 BCE) offers the first evidence of architecture in Japan. Archaeological remains tell of square pit-dwellings, so named because their floor was approximately a half meter below ground level. A thatched roof supported by posts and beams leaned into the middle of the structure, with one post at the very center. The more advanced Yayoi culture (300 BCE–300 CE) saw the advent of rice cultivation, and new buildings were developed for grain storage. Constructed of wooden boards with a thatched roof, the rectangular granary was raised off the ground and had a stepped plank leading into it. This style of building would have an influence on the shrines of later periods.

Important early evidence concerning architecture in Japan, however, comes from earthenware figurines known as haniwa (literally, "clay cylinder") that were placed around tomb mounds in the Kofun period (300–710 CE). The haniwa depicted buildings of different types, including single-story homes and two-story granaries. They show a main home conjoined by smaller secondary structures with hipped roofs covered in thatch; some had ridge-crossing cylinders, likely used for holding the rafters in place. Whatever their function, these striking architectural elements later became a mark of both imperial buildings and Shinto shrines.

Two examples of early Shinto architecture may be found at the Ise and Izumo shrines, which date to the third and fourth centuries. Their simple style and elevated floor recall the Yayoi granaries. The distinctive features are the extensions of the outermost rafters (chigi) that extend up like horns forming a large V, and the row of weight-blocks (katsuogi) set along the ridge at right angles to it.

The arrival of Buddhism in the sixth century had a tremendous influence on Japanese architecture, particularly the building of temple complexes. Based on Chinese models, early temples consisted of an entrance gate (chumon) that was part of a roofed enclosure encircling the main precinct, the pagoda, and the golden hall (kondo), as in the Horyuji temple near Nara, Japan's earliest surviving temple, which dates from the late seventh century. The buildings in Horyuji are the world's oldest wooden structures. The kondo, following Chinese precedents, is set on a platform and utilizes post-and-lintel construction whereby the roof is supported by a system of brackets. The mid-eighth-century Todaiji complex, also at Nara, reflects the grand style of Chinese Buddhist architecture of the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE). The magnificent Daibutsuden (Great Buddha Hall) is approximately 47 meters high, 87 meters long, and 47 meters deep, making it the world's largest wooden building. The grand style of the Nara period (710–794), however, is best seen at Toshodaiji. The building is low and long, imparting a feeling of stability; the hipped roof with its extended eaves is supported by a three-tiered set of wooden brackets.

With the importation of esoteric Buddhism from China in the Heian period (794–1185), temples were located in mountainous areas away from the main centers of Nara and Kyoto. The temple complex of Muroji, of the late eighth or early ninth centuries, exemplifies this mountain-temple architectural style. The buildings are scaled down and set into the terrain, and they make use of rustic materials such as cypress-bark for roofing (in contrast to the tiled roofs of the earlier temple buildings). This influence is also seen in shinden zukuri, the Heian-period secular mansion favored by court nobles, consisting of a complex of buildings within an expansive garden. The main hall, shinden, was the master's residence and was surrounded on three sides by secondary living quarters. The garden was located to the south and contained alarge artificial pond. Covered verandah corridors connected the buildings to the garden, emphasizing the importance of this natural setting.

The Kamakura period (1185–1333) is known for both old and new architectural styles. The rebuilding of the Daibutsuden of the Todaiji, which was destroyed by fire in 1180, was a major project in the early years. Ties with China at this time are evident in the style known as daibutsuyo (Great Buddha style), in which brackets project at right angles from the wall in six increasing levels, with two more levels to support the roof. The other main architectural style during this period, also imported from China, was that of the Zen temple, which followed conventions of strict symmetry on a central axis. This architectural style was known as karayo (Chinese style). By contrast, the older styles came to be known as wayo (Japanese style). Karayo used decorative details such as bell-shaped windows, wooden latticework on transom windows, and complicated patterns of brackets. The support columns tapered at the top and were set upon stone bases.

The next major architectural innovation occurred in the Momoyama period (1573–1600) and was influenced by the interests of the samurai class. One type of building to develop was a distinctly Japanese form of castle. Constructed in the first half of the sixteenth century, the Japanese castle reached the height of its form in the early seventeenth century. Designed as a place to live, conduct business, and enjoy cultural activities, it was a testimony to the superior status of its occupants. The most beautiful castle in Japan is Himeji, also known as the White Heron Castle (1601–1609). Because Himeji was added to by a series of successive owners, the complex consists of a number of interlocking buildings placed in a mazelike arrangement. These include the five-story main building, several three-story structures, and watchtowers. The white buildings and hip-gabled roofs with Chinese-style upturned eaves give the impression of a large and graceful white heron. The other innovation of this period was the shoin zukuri, a grand residence characterized by its asymmetry and use of sliding doors (fusuma) and folding screens (byobu) to delineate interior space. The main room consisted of two levels, the upper level reserved for the highest-ranking samurai. Attached to this room was a study (shoin) and a number of other rooms, depending on the needs of the owner.

During the Edo or Tokugawa period (1600/1603–1868), the new shogunate refurbished and rebuilt older structures and erected new ones. Among the types of buildings constructed at this time was the Confucian temple, the need for which was underscored by the growing emphasis of Tokugawa shogunate policy on the study and practice of Confucianism by the samurai class. However, the next major innovation in architecture occurred in the Meiji period (1868–1912), when Japan began to adopt Western architectural styles. Architects from abroad introduced new materials and techniques to the Japanese. The most influential architect in shaping Japan's vision of Western buildings was Josiah Conder (1852–1920), an Englishman responsible for such structures as the Ueno Imperial Museum and the Rokumeikan (Deer Cry Pavilion), neither of which is extant. Conder's chief legacy may be found in the work of his students, who continued Conder's vision into the early twentieth century.

Catherine Pagani

Architecture—Modern Japan

Alex, William. (1963) Japanese Architecture. New York: George Braziller.

Hashimoto Fumio. (1981) Architecture in the Shoin Style. Trans. and adapted by H. Mack Horton. New York: Kodansha.

Kirby, John B. (1962) From Castle to Teahouse. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle.

Paine, Robert Treat, and Alexander Soper. (1981) The Art and Architecture of Japan. 3d ed. New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press.

Watanabe Yasutada. (1974) Shinto Art: Ise and Izumo Shrines. Trans. by Robert Ricketts. New York: Weatherhill.

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