Analects
The Analects (Chinese Lunyu) is one of the most influential texts in Chinese philosophy. It was compiled by the disciples of Confucius (551–479 BCE) and their followers, though scholars argue over exactly when. D. C. Lau holds the traditional view that the first fifteen books were written shortly after Confucius' death and the remaining five by the second generation of disciples. John Makeham argues that the changing textual material was not settled into its present form until 150 BCE. E. Bruce and Taeko Brooks propose that books four through eleven are the oldest, that nine through eleven were written by second-generation disciples, while what remains was written at different times.
It is known that the Analects was basically in its present form by 55 BCE based on the fragments excavated at Dingzhou. The Analects is first among the so-called Four Books, the Confucian texts whose mastery was required for the imperial civil-service examination system up to 1905.
The Analects is composed of brief statements mostly attributed to Confucius; some are ascribed to his disciples or rulers. The modern reader is generally struck by the brevity of the statements and the apparent lack of sustained prose or argument, which may very well have been Confucius' method of pedagogy. He expected his students to be eager to learn: He only gave them one corner, and if they did not return with the other three, he would not review the lesson (Analects 7:8).
The general thrust of the text is to assist the reader in self-cultivation so that the reader might become a moral example for others. One might find the proper way to live and behave by practicing various virtues (de), thereby becoming a humane person (ren zhe) or a prince of virtue (junzi, usually rendered "gentleman"). Humanity or benevolence (ren) is the most important virtue in the Analects; it is mentioned more than one hundred times. Ren is an achievement concept; one is not born humane, but one must learn to become so. Ren means to love others (Analects 12:22). The practice of ritual action (li) is the best way to express one's human kindness. Ritual action is not limited to state and religious functions, but covers the spectrum of human behavior. Speaking pragmatically, first a child must learn filial piety (xiao) and brotherly love (di); then, as one grows one can extend one's family love to others in the form of ren.
Confucius emphasized literacy, study, and learning to develop the practice of moral wisdom. Rote memorization is not sufficient; one must be thoughtful. Confucius also expected his disciples to be loyal and to do what was proper, especially in government service. When Zigong asked if there was a single word that one could use as guidance, Confucius replied (Analects 15:24, 12:2) that perhaps it would be empathy (shu): to "never do to another what you do not desire."
Further Reading
Ames, Roger T., and Henry Rosemont, Jr., trans. (1998) The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation. New York: Ballantine Books.
Brooke, E. Bruce, and Taeko Brooks. (1998) The Original Analects. New York: Columbia University Press.
Chan, Wing-tsit. (1963) A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Dawson, Raymond, trans. (1993) Confucius: The Analects. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Graham, Angus C. (1989) Disputers of the Tao. La Salle, IL: Open Court.
Hsiao, Kung-chuan. (1979) A History of Chinese Political Thought. Trans. By F. Mote. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Jensen, Lionel M. (1997) Manufacturing Confucianism: Chinese Traditions and Universal Civilization. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press.
Lau, D. C., trans. (1979). The Analects (Lun Yü). London.: Penguin Books.
Leys, Simon, trans. (1997) The Analects of Confucius. New York: Norton.
Makeham, John. (1996) "The Formation of Lunyu as a Book," Monumenta Serica, 44: 1–24.
Munro, Donald J. (1969) Concept of Man in Early China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
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