A Useful Art.

In 1835 Alexis de Tocqueville wrote in Democracy in America that "the social conditions and institutions of democracy prepare [Americans] to seek immediate and useful practical results of the sciences." The desire of scientists to promote their profession as a "useful art" rather than a purely theoretical discipline led to efforts to join the forces of scientific and technological innovation. Technological innovation had remained largely in the hands of artisans and mechanics, but the increasing sophistication of machinery and the demands of an industrializing society made cooperation with scientists both necessary and desirable. One important example of scientific influence on technological development was the research of Princeton scientist Joseph Henry into the principles of electromagnetism. The principles that Henry detailed in his work made it possible for Samuel F. B. Morse to develop an effective telegraph in 1837 and also proved fundamental...