Austria-Hungary —

Emperor Francis Joseph I (1848-1916)

China —

Emperor Tsai-t'ien (1875-1908), Empress Dowager Tz'u-hsi (regent, 1875-1889, 1898-1908)

France —

Presidents Marie Edme Patrice de MacMahon (1873-1879), Jules Grevy (1879-1887), Sadi Carnot (1887-1894), Jean-Paul-Pierre Casimir-Perier (1894-1895), Felix Faure (1895-1899), and Emile Loubet (1899-1906)

Great Britain (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) —

Queen Victoria (1837-1901); Prime Ministers Benjamin Disraeli (1874-1880), William Ewart Gladstone (1880-1885, 1886, 1892-1894), Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, third Marquess of Salisbury (1885-1886, 1886-1892, 1895-1902), and Archibald
Philip Primrose, fifth Earl of Rosebery (1894-1895)

Italy—

Kings Victor Emmanuel II (1861-1878) and Umberto I (1878-1900)

Japan —

Emperor Meiji (1867-1912)

The Ottoman Empire (Turkey) —

Sultan Abdulhamid II (1876-1909)

Russia —

Czars Alexander II (1855-1881), Alexander III (1881-1894), and Nicholas II (1894-1917)

Major Conflicts

1877-1878—

Russo-Turkish War

1878-1879—

Second Afghan War between Great Britain and Afghanistan

1879—

Zulu War against the British...