Anti-Catholicism, a sentiment developed over the centuries since the Protestant Reformation, was deep-seated in many American Protestants. Nativist, anti-Catholic views welled up several times during the nineteenth century and enjoyed considerable social respectability. Under the leadership of Henry Francis Bowers, the American Protective Association (APA) gained support during the depression that began in 1893. John L. Brandt's 1895 work, America or Rome, Christ or the Pope?, expressed the exaggerated fears of the APA. "The United States is Rome's favorite missionary field. . . . Our country is a paradise for Rome. She has, without being disputed, introduced into our beautiful and fair land, many dogmas, founded upon pretended visions and fabulous tales, more fit for pagan darkness than for evangelical light; she has burdened millions of our people with masses, auricular confessions, priestly celibacy, and fears of purgatory; she has attacked our public schools; she has denounced our Bible...