Summary:
An essay about WW1 and it's participating players.
Use your knowledge to account for the stalemate on the Western Front in WWI. Describe the major attempts to break it.
The stalemate on the Western Front was a dilemma which was not foreseen by either the Allies (France and Britain) or Germany. The initial prediction of a quick decisive battle was swiftly diminished once the war began. Few of the devised plans during WWI were in fact successful. The Schlieffen plan of the Germans fell merely kilometres short of achieving its goal. Plan 17 of the French was vastly overestimated and did not contain the firepower expected to defeat the Germans in the battle of the frontiers. Although the British Expeditionary Force had valuable success against Germany at Mons, it did not make the impact which Britain expected. It was greatly reduced at the battle of the Ypres once the front was formed, and Britain was forced to send extra reinforcements. Yet, it was not only the execution of the plans that brought about their failure. Exterior factors resulted in the plans being changed which ultimately led to their collapse, such as the strength of the Belgian army against the Germans. However, these failures led to a colossal series of trenches being formed from Switzerland to Belgium. Neither side could overcome the other, hence it being considered a neutral stalemate. Attempts were made to break this stalemate, but none as important as the Battle of the Somme and The Battle of Verdun. As a result of these decisive battles, casualties were literally piled on top of one another in "no mans land" and the majority of the remaining casualties died later in hospital. However, technology and terrain played a major role in preventing these major and minor battles from resulting in success. By the end of 1914, a fact had been realised by both the Allies and the Germans: it was not going to be a war of precision, but of bleeding the enemy white through remorseless attrition.
Once war broke out in 1914, plans for a quick success against the opposing armies had already been developed. The Germans believed that France was the major threat to be reckoned with, and so the "Schlieffen Plan" was devised by a German army official, General Schlieffen. The plan relied on a strong right wing of the German army to sweep behind Paris and take the capital, while the main body of the army was to draw as much attention away from this sweep as possible. The German's believed that the plan was so well devised that any changes to the circumstances in 1914 would not hinder the Schlieffen plan's success. However, many factors were not taken into account. The Schlieffen plan was reliant on constant movement for it to be successful. The newly appointed General of the German army Von Moltke made what he thought were minor insignificant adjustments to the plan which ultimately resulted in its failure. Firstly, the speed at which the plan was to be executed was underestimated and left the German troops exhausted by the time they entered France. This led to Von Moltke losing contact with certain wings of the army for days on end before contact was made again. Once communication was re-established, many of the sections had either swept too fast or too slow, which resulted in one of the major rebellions to take place which could historically be considered the first failure of the Schlieffen plan.
The Belgian army was considered neutral between Germany and the allies; however, this neutral diplomacy was often questioned by the German's as there was a series of forts built at Liege and Namur to prevent a German invasion. This revolt was not taken into account by the Germans, and once the invasion was initiated, they began to realise the loyalty which Belgium had for the Allies. Belgium's small army withheld the Germans for twelve days at Liege which gave Britain time to bring their own plan into action. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was a highly trained army of 125,000 men which could be quickly shipped onto the mainland when required. Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm II underestimated the strength and initiative of the BEF and referred to them as "that contemptible little force." However, once the Germans met Britain at Mons, after being shipped from Britain, their impressions were quickly changed. The Belgian army withdrew to Mons also and Liege was lost, along with the capital Brussels, but the Schlieffen plan had been delayed. At the same time, Russia had mobilised much faster than Germany expected, which resulted in a vast reduction of the main body of the German army to assist in the defence against Russia in the Eastern Front.
The Germans believed that the Schlieffen plan would still be successful once they had captured Brussels, but once into the city they realised the extent of the Belgian rebellion. Railway lines had been destroyed along with bridges and tunnels to prevent quick efficient shipping of German supplies and communication. This is historically considered an integral turning point for the Germans, as artillery and other supplies would now have to be shipped by other means. However, the German army still continued on to Mons, knowing they were likely to meet the BEF at some point, but their full strength was never taken into account. The conflict at Mons was the first real impact on the numbers in the German army. Although Germany was unaware of the British being present at Mons, they were aware that Britain had deployed the BEF into Belgium. When the two armies met, the Germans were under the impression that the British were using machine guns due to the vigorous rifle fire from the BEF. The Germans were ordered to march shoulder to shoulder into the rifle fire and German casualties were huge. Quoted by historian R Lobban, "As the leading files of closely packed German infantry fell, those behind them pressed ever forward; some broke into a run, shouting wildly; others crouched behind dead comrades and returned fire; and still they continued to fall - some dead before they hit the ground, some who would assuredly die before nightfall, some maimed for life; and all the time, machine guns pumped long bursts of fire into the screaming, struggling grey mass in front of them." This resulted in French General Foch concluding that "you must dig in." Napoleonic warfare was simply outdated for the time period and for the circumstances under which both sides were fighting. But despite the British repulsion of the Germans, they were ultimately forced to retreat and the Germans were still unaware of the consequences of this delay, but in Berlin, Germany was celebrating the victory of the Schlieffen plan.
Ironically, the original Schlieffen plan predicted the French reaction to the invasion almost perfectly. "Plan 17" was designed with the intentions of simply marching the majority of the French army against the main body of the Germans in a frontal assault. The French were so confident that they went into battle in their imperial colours of blue and red, unlike the Germans who were in grey/green/brown camouflage. The French were under the impression that mere "French pride" would defeat the oncoming army. The Germans were grossly underestimated. The major French push was at Lorraine on the east of France. A large portion of the French army was lost and they were pushed back into France by the Germans to put up the final defence to save Paris.
While the French were pushing into German territory on the east, Germany had conquered Liege and were heading south towards Paris. The French realised the predicament they had imposed upon themselves and turned around from Lorraine and headed back towards Paris to put up the final desperate defence. The French army intercepted the Germans at the River Marne on their return from Lorraine. The Germans were in sight of the Eiffel Tower, but were blocked by the French army. A week long battle followed, of which over 2 million men were involved. The BEF were given time to join with the French army after fighting the battle of the Mons and the combined forces held back the German opposition. Extra troops were imported from Paris via taxi and hopes of German victory were quickly diminished. Von Moltke realised the situation and admitted to the Kaiser "Your majesty, we have lost the war", after which, he was replaced by General Falkenhayn as the new director of the army. In this instance, Von Moltke's quote could be considered reliable, as it was in fact said by a German.
The final phase of the war of movement was an act of desperation from both sides. The Germans recognised the importance of the ports at the English Channel. If the Germans were able to capture these ports, they would be able to restrict the flow of troops and supplies through from Britain to re-establish the already reduced BEF. Both sides raced in an attempt to outflank the other as they believed that if the other was surrounded, victory was certain as it would restrict supplies being brought to the surrounded army. As a result, neither side outran the other which left both sides to "dig in" where they were, which left a series of trenches to be formed from the Belgian coast to the Swiss Alps. The British Navy was left to control the English Channel and a supply route for the allies was left available. The war of movement was over and trenches had been dug. The Schlieffen plan had officially failed and the war of attrition had begun.
Nobody from either side had predicted that wars of such magnitude could take place, or that so many men would be lost. This was mainly due to the conservative style of warfare used, specifically, Napoleonic, which was marching men towards the opposing trenches in hope of outnumbering and out firing the other. The terrain on the western front was simply not compatible to march soldiers into a torrent of machine gun fire. The combination of this new machine gun technology, the terrain and the overall Napoleonic warfare resulted in disaster. It was virtually impossible to cross "no mans land" and still remain intact. Although British tradition was for the "Old Boy" system to select the leaders of the army, it was in fact a foolish decision to choose the most experienced, rather than the soldier with more merit. General Haig was a perfect example of this. Germany started to draw away from these upfront assaults once the trenches had been dug, however, at times, it seemed necessary to march men across "no mans land" between trenches to oppose the enemy. The Western Front had developed a stalemate, as neither side could push through into opposing territory without enormous casualties however, attempts were made to break it. The French lost 90,000 men at Champagne, and the British attempted to break through German lines at Neuve Chapelle and Aubers Ridge and the Germans and Ypres & Festubert. These attacks never genuinely made a significant impact on either side and the stalemate was never put in jeopardy. This is primarily due to the technology which was developed during this time period. Gas was used to kill thousands of men with one canister. Tanks were also introduced with the expectation that they would be able to cross "no mans land" with ease. But poor use of these tanks and in the wrong situation meant that they were easy targets for artillery fire and broke down easily. However, none of these machines were as successful as the machine gun, as the flat terrain allowed one man to literally slaughter thousands of men with one gun. However, Napoleonic warfare was not abandoned and the British continued to go "over the top" of the trenches to attack the opposition. It was also interesting that during the battle of Neuve Chapelle, a shortage of shell production known as the "Shell Scandal" involving Lord George Gordon Byron, minister for munitions. Possibly if this shortage was not encountered, the push may have been successful. Even after all these pointless battles, nothing was learnt of the virtual "murder" these men were being sent to. By 1915, both Generals of the Allied armies, Haig and Joffre, decided that any further attacks must be of massive proportion and in strategic positions. It was finally decided that the major assault would take place at River Somme.
Joffre and Haig agreed that the battle of the Somme should open fire in August 1916. However, the Germans had plans of their own, and in February of 1916, General Falkenhayn had lined up the Howitzers (large artillery) within kilometres of the French forts. Falkenhayn chose to attack a French position for he feared a direct clash with Great Britain as he quoted to the Kaiser; were their "arch-enemy." He also believed that if France were defeated, the British would withdraw from the war. Hence, Falkenhayn chose France's strongest point to break through on the Western Front - Verdun. It did not matter to Falkenhayn whether or not the battle was a victory; the aim was to bleed France dry of troops through attrition. February 21st 1916, the German guns exploded. The French were taken utterly by surprise and had only two divisions left at Verdun. The bombardment was aimed from three directions and was considered to be the largest grouping of artillery guns to ever be massed together. The guns could still be clearly heard eighty kilometres away. The howitzers literally devastated French trenches, and many were left to escape to the forts amidst the artillery fire. Surprisingly, the French still had enough men to hold the forts once the bombardment had ceased.
Due to the fact that few French men were present at Verdun, strategic points such as Fort Douamont were lost to the Germans without them losing a single man. However, French commander Joffre was quick to react and sent General Pertain along with more soldiers to aid Verdun. French pride resulted in Pertain's quote, "they shall not pass." Supplies were sent in from Paris and by the end of March; France had lost 90,000 and Germany 80,000. By the time May arrived, the French army was slowly slipping, and the Germans were no longer penetrating. Joffre pleaded with British commander Haig to change the date of the British attack at the Somme, with the intention of drawing attention away from Verdun. Haig agreed, and June brought about the start of the Battle of the Somme. However, it was all too late for the French army. Very few French soldiers remained, and all hope was no placed on the British to defend their country. They had lost 350,000 men and Germany 330,000. However, this battle was not a lost cause for the French. Verdun was a turning point in the stalemate. Germany had suffered irreparable loses and not even made a dint in the British forces. As a result of the events, Joffre was replaced by Nivelle and Falkenhayn by Hindenburg.
The Battle of the Somme was believed by the British and French to be almost unstoppable. It seemed unbelievable to them that such a force of artillery fire as was produced could be withstood by an army. However, the Germans had suspected the Allies to attack at the Somme, if they were to attack at all. Two years prior to the war they had begun the construction of deep trenches which would protect them from such bombardment. The allies planned to line up along a 100 kilometre front, however this was reduced something closer to 50 after the battle of Verdun. Prior to this battle, the French had promised that 39 divisions be contributed to the cause of the Somme, however, once the war was finished, they could only spare a mere 11 as opposed to Britains 18. However, the battle was vastly underestimated by the British. Haig believed his huge mass of artillery would simply destroy everything in the German trenches, including the barbed wire rolls which surrounded the trenches. The artillery rained down for nearly two weeks with almost 200,000 howitzer shells being fired each day before the bombardment ceased.
The allies were even cheerful to march across no-mans-land and were even given permission off their commanders that they could smoke on their way to the trenches. However, the Germans had survived the bombardment in their deep underground dugouts, and once they heard the end of the bombardment, scrambled to the parapet of their trenches with machine guns ready to fire. The commander of the attack General Henry Rawlinson ordered his men to march across in their divisions at a rate of 100 yards per minute and 100 yards apart. This was due to Rawlinson not having any faith in the troops to keep their conduct and that they would be shot if they broke the order. Sheer stupidity and blind arrogance allowed the marching to continue. Haig was even informed of the orders Rawlinson had given but did not give any instructions to cease the butchery. Haig believed he would gain a total of 10 miles on the first day of the battle, however, only a total of 6 was gained throughout the whole campaign. There were 60,000 casualties on the first day, 20,000 of which were dead or missing. However, Haig continued with the madness, determined to capture his goal. Winston Churchill (a Major in the British army serving at Gallipoli at the time) saw past Haig's euphoria to quote "there is no chance of breaking the line or letting loose the cavalry or of inducing a withdrawal from the Germans." This is valuable evidence as it shows a British attitude towards both a conservative Napoleonic warfare and Haig's stupidity.
To his credit, many historians believe that Haig's persistence was the final hit of the nail into Germany's coffin. From that point on, no major offensives were made by the Germans to resist the opposing Allies, and by the time the United States entered the war, it was certain that Germany was defeated. By the end of the Battle of the Somme there were 420,000 British, 250,000 French and 650,000 German casualties. The Somme was considered another failed frontal assault in WWI.
Germany only had one real chance to achieve its goal in defeating the Allies in WWI. It was integral that the Schlieffen plan was executed correctly for the German's to capture Paris and ultimately force Britain to withdraw. However, it was impossible to predict the variables which inflicted on the progression of the German armies and it was therefore faulty. The Germans also never took into account the virtually inexhaustible supply of British troops who enlisted in the hope of a quick victory (almost 3 million men) once conscription was introduced in 1917. WWI was a war of attrition. Von Moltke's previous quote of "it is a battle which will utterly exhaust our people even if we are victorious" exemplifies this. Although Germany had the economic support prior to the war, supplies were eventually exhausted by 1918, unlike Britain who foresaw these events. If the Schlieffen plan had been executed correctly, Germany would have almost certainly guaranteed victory over the Allies and the horrific losses in the Battles for the Somme and Verdun would not have taken place.
