Dismayed by a wide variety of social problems that accompanied the nation's rapid growth, middle-class Americans banded together in the mid-1800s in an effort to improve life in the United States. Middle-class reformers believed that improving individual character was the first step in improving society as a whole.

Some Americans attempted to create perfect societies on a small scale by forming ideal communities. The first half of the eighteenth century in the United States was a period of growth, expansion, and enterprise. Innovations in transportation, such as steamboats, canals, and railroads stimulated trade. Political and economic crises in Europe prompted many Europeans to immigrate to the United States. These immigrants became the labor force for a growing American industry as well as the farmers for an expanding frontier. The nation was also characterized at this time by a mood of intellectual growth and self-definition. In New England...