40.  J.R.  Green’s History of the English People, London, 1878, i. 455.

41.  See the theories expressed by the Bologna lawyers, already at the Congress of Roncaglia in 1158.

CHAPTER VII

MUTUAL AID AMONGST OURSELVES

Popular revolts at the beginning of the State-period.  Mutual Aid institutions of the present time.  The village community; its struggles for resisting its abolition by the State.  Habits derived from the village-community life, retained in our modern villages.  Switzerland, France, Germany, Russia.

The mutual-aid tendency in man has so remote an origin, and is so deeply interwoven with all the past evolution of the human race, that it has been maintained by mankind up to the present time, notwithstanding all vicissitudes of history.  It was chiefly evolved during periods of peace and prosperity; but when even the greatest calamities befell men—­when whole countries were laid waste by wars, and whole populations were decimated by misery, or groaned under the yoke of tyranny—­the same tendency continued to live in the villages and among the poorer classes in the towns; it still kept them together, and in the long run it reacted even upon those ruling, fighting, and devastating minorities which dismissed it as sentimental nonsense.  And whenever mankind had to work out a new social organization, adapted to a new phasis of development, its constructive genius always drew the elements and the inspiration for the new departure from that same ever-living tendency.  New economical and social institutions, in so far as they were a creation of the masses, new ethical systems, and new religions, all have originated from the same source, and the ethical progress of our race, viewed in its broad lines, appears as a gradual extension of the mutual-aid principles from the tribe to always larger and larger agglomerations, so as to finally embrace one day the whole of mankind, without respect to its divers creeds, languages, and races.

After having passed through the savage tribe, and next through the village community, the Europeans came to work out in medieval times a new form of organization, which had the advantage of allowing great latitude for individual initiative, while it largely responded at the same time to man’s need of mutual support.  A federation of village communities, covered by a network of guilds and fraternities, was called into existence in the medieval cities.  The immense results achieved under this new form of union—­in well-being for all, in industries, art, science, and commerce—­were discussed at some length in two preceding chapters, and an attempt was also made to show why, towards the end of the fifteenth century, the medieval republics—­ surrounded by domains of hostile feudal lords, unable to free the peasants from servitude, and gradually corrupted by ideas of Roman Caesarism—­were doomed to become a prey to the growing military States.