Latin for Beginners eBook

Latin for Beginners

The following sections of this BookRags Literature Study Guide is offprint from Gale's For Students Series: Presenting Analysis, Context, and Criticism on Commonly Studied Works: Introduction, Author Biography, Plot Summary, Characters, Themes, Style, Historical Context, Critical Overview, Criticism and Critical Essays, Media Adaptations, Topics for Further Study, Compare & Contrast, What Do I Read Next?, For Further Study, and Sources.

(c)1998-2002; (c)2002 by Gale. Gale is an imprint of The Gale Group, Inc., a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Gale and Design and Thomson Learning are trademarks used herein under license.

The following sections, if they exist, are offprint from Beacham's Encyclopedia of Popular Fiction: "Social Concerns", "Thematic Overview", "Techniques", "Literary Precedents", "Key Questions", "Related Titles", "Adaptations", "Related Web Sites". (c)1994-2005, by Walton Beacham.

The following sections, if they exist, are offprint from Beacham's Guide to Literature for Young Adults: "About the Author", "Overview", "Setting", "Literary Qualities", "Social Sensitivity", "Topics for Discussion", "Ideas for Reports and Papers". (c)1994-2005, by Walton Beacham.

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Section Page

Start of eBook1
PART III.  CONSTRUCTIONS1
APPENDIXES AND VOCABULARIES1
APPENDIX II.  RULES OF SYNTAX 261-2641
APPENDIX III.  REVIEWS 265-2821
INDEX 344-3482
TO THE STUDENT—­BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION2
PART I4
THE ALPHABET4
SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS[1]4
SYLLABLES6
QUANTITY7
ACCENT8
HOW TO READ LATIN8
PART II9
LESSON I9
LESSON II11
LESSON III12
LESSON IV14
LESSON V15
LESSON VI17
JULIA AND GALBA19
LESSON VII19
LESSON VIII21
LESSON IX24
GALBA AND MARCUS25
LESSON X25
LESSON XI27
LESSON XII28
GERMANIA29
LESSON XIII29
MARCUS AND CORNELIUS31
THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS31
LESSON XV33
LESSON XVI34
EXAMPLES35
LESSON XVII36
EXAMPLES37
CORNELIUS AND MARCUS37
THE BOYS SEXTUS AND MARCUS39
LESSON XIX40
LESSON XX42
LESSON XXI43
LESSON XXII45
LESSON XXIII46
LESSON XXIV47
LESSON XXV48
LESSON XXVI49
LESSON XXVII51
LESSON XXVIII53
LESSON XXIX54
LESSON XXX56
LESSON XXXI58
THE BOYS TITUS, MARCUS, AND QUINTUS60
LESSON XXXII60
LESSON XXXIII62
LESSON XXXIV64
LESSON XXXV65
LESSON XXXVI67
LESSON XXXVII70
LESSON XXXVIII72
LESSON XXXIX75
CLASS I76
LESSON XL77
CLASS II77
MASCULINES AND FEMININES77
LESSON XLI78
LESSON XLII79
LESSON XLIII80
LESSON XLIV82
LESSON XLV84
CLASS I85
CLASS II85
CLASS III85
LESSON XLVI86
PARADIGMS87
LESSON XLVII87
LESSON XLVIII90
LESSON XLIX92
LESSON L94
LESSON LI96
LESSON LII97
LESSON LIII100
LESSON LIV102
LESSON LV103
LESSON LVI104
EXAMPLES105
LESSON LVII106
LESSON LVIII108
LESSON LIX110
LESSON LX111
PART III113
INTRODUCTORY NOTE113
LESSON LXI113
LESSON LXII115
LESSON LXIII116
LESSON LXIV119
EXAMPLES120
LESSON LXV121
LESSON LXVI122
LESSON LXVII125
LESSON LXVIII127
LESSON LXIX129
LESSON LXX131
LESSON LXXI133
PARADIGM OF THE GERUND133
LESSON LXXII135
LESSON LXXIII138
LESSON LXXIV141
LESSON LXXV142
LESSON LXXVI143
LESSON LXXVII145
LESSON LXXVIII146
LESSON LXXIX147
READING MATTER148
THE LABORS OF HERCULES150
LIV.  HERCULES CONQUERS THE MINYAE150
HE COMMITS A CRIME AND GOES TO THE DELPHIAN ORACLE TO SEEK EXPIATION151
LVI.  SLAYING THE LERNE’AN HYDRA152
LVII.  THE ARCADIAN STAG AND THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR152
153
THE FLESH-EATING HORSES OF DIOME’DES153
LX.  THE BELT OF HIPPOL’YTE, QUEEN OF THE AMAZONS154
THE DESCENT TO HADES AND THE DOG CER’BERUS154
LXI.  PUBLIUS IS BORN NEAR POMPE’II154
LXII.  HIS LIFE ON THE FARM155
156
LXIV.  LENTULUS REACHES HOME :  PUBLIUS VISITS POMPEII WITH HIS FATHER157
LXV.  A DAY AT POMPEII158
LXVI.  LENTULUS ENGAGES A TUTOR FOR HIS SON159
SCENE IN SCHOOL :  AN EXERCISE IN COMPOSITION160
LXVII.  PUBLIUS GOES TO ROME TO FINISH HIS EDUCATION160
LXVIII.  PUBLIUS PUTS ON THE TOGA VIRILIS161
LXIX.  PUBLIUS JOINS CAESAR’S ARMY IN GAUL163
HOW THE ROMANS MARCHED AND CAMPED163
LXX.  THE RIVAL CENTURIONS164
LXXI.  THE ENEMY BESIEGING THE CAMP ARE REPULSED166
LXXII.  PUBLIUS GOES TO GERMANY :  ITS GREAT FORESTS AND STRANGE ANIMALS166
LXXIII.  THE STORMING OF A CITY168
LXXIV.  THE CITY IS TAKEN :  THE CAPTIVES ARE QUESTIONED169
170
LXXVI.  THE TRIUMPH OF CAESAR172
APPENDIX I174
NOUNS174
CLASSIFICATION175
ADJECTIVES178
PRONOUNS182
REGULAR VERBS185
IRREGULAR VERBS193
APPENDIX II196
APPENDIX III200
I. REVIEW OF VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR THROUGH LESSON VIII200
II.  REVIEW OF LESSONS IX-XVII202
III.  REVIEW OF LESSONS XVIII-XXVI204
IV.  REVIEW OF LESSONS XXVII-XXXVI205
V. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXXVII-XLIV207
VI.  REVIEW OF LESSONS XLV-LII209
VII.  REVIEW OF LESSONS LIII-LX212
VIII.  REVIEW OF LESSONS LXI-LXIX215
SPECIAL VOCABULARIES216
LESSON IV, Sec. 39216
LESSON VI, Sec. 56217
LESSON VIII, Sec. 69217
LESSON X, Sec. 82218
LESSON XII, Sec. 90218
LESSON XIV, Sec. 99219
LESSON XVII, Sec. 117219
LESSON XX, Sec. 136220
LESSON XXII, Sec. 146220
LESSON XXVIII, Sec. 171220
LESSON XXX, Sec. 182221
LESSON XXXII, Sec. 193221
LESSON XXXVI, Sec. 211222
LESSON XXXIX, Sec. 234223
LESSON XLI, Sec. 239223
LESSON XLIV, Sec. 249224
LESSON XLVI, Sec. 261224
LESSON XLVIII, Sec. 276225
LESSON L, Sec. 288226
LESSON LII, Sec. 298226
LESSON LIV, Sec. 310227
LESSON LVI, Sec. 318228
LESSON LVIII, Sec. 332228
LESSON LX, Sec. 341229
A230
B233
C233
D238
E240
F242
G243
H244
I244
L247
M249
N251
O252
P253
Q258
R258
S260
T263
U264
V265
ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY266
A266
B267
C268
D268
E269
F269
G270
H270
I271
J271
K271
L271
M272
N272
O272
P273
Q273
R273
S273
T274
U275
V275
W275
Y276
Z276
INDEX276

Page 1

PART III.  CONSTRUCTIONS

LXI.  THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD—­Inflection of the Present—­
Indicative and Subjunctive Compared 148-152

LXII.  THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE 152-153

LXIII.  INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE—­Sequence
of Tenses
153-155

LXIV.  INFLECTION OF THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT
SUBJUNCTIVE—­Substantive Clauses of Purpose 156-159

LXV.  SUBJUNCTIVE OF possum—­Verbs of Fearing 160-161

LXVI.  THE PARTICIPLES—­Tenses and Declension 161-164

LXVII.  THE IRREGULAR VERBS volo, nolo, malo—­
Ablative Absolute 164-166

LXVIII.  THE IRREGULAR VERB fio—­Subjunctive of Result 167-168

LXIX.  SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC—­Predicate
Accusative
169-171

LXX.  CONSTRUCTIONS WITH cum—­Ablative of
Specification
171-173

LXXI.  VOCABULARY REVIEW—­Gerund and Gerundive—­
Predicate Genitive 173-177

LXXII.  THE IRREGULAR VERB eo—­Indirect Statements 177-180

LXXIII.  VOCABULARY REVIEW—­THE IRREGULAR VERB fero—­
Dative with Compounds 181-183

LXXIV.  VOCABULARY REVIEW—­Subjunctive in Indirect
Questions
183-185

LXXV.  VOCABULARY REVIEW—­Dative of Purpose or End for
Which
185-186

LXXVI.  VOCABULARY REVIEW—­Genitive and Ablative of
Quality or Description
186-188

LXXVII.  REVIEW OF AGREEMENT—­Review of the Genitive,
Dative, and Accusative
189-190

LXXVIII.  REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE 191-192

LXXIX.  REVIEW OF THE SYNTAX OF VERBS 192-193

READING MATTER

INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS 194-195

  THE LABORS OF HERCULES 196-203

  P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS:  THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY 204-215

APPENDIXES AND VOCABULARIES

  APPENDIX I. TABLES OF DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS,
    ETC. 226-260

APPENDIX II.  RULES OF SYNTAX 261-264

APPENDIX III.  REVIEWS 265-282

Page 2

  SPECIAL VOCABULARIES 283-298

  LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 299-331

  ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY 332-343

INDEX 344-348

LATIN FOR BEGINNERS

TO THE STUDENT—­BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION

What is Latin?  If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west coast a district called Latium,[1] and Rome its capital.  The Latin language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language far beyond its original boundaries.  As the English of to-day is not quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the course of centuries.  The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use about two thousand years ago.  And that period has been selected because the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman literature were being produced.  This period, because of its supreme excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters.

    [Footnote 1:  Pronounce La:’shi-um.]

The Spread of Latin.  For some centuries after Rome was founded, the Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike neighbors.  But after the third century before Christ, Rome’s power grew rapidly.  She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient world.  The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred years.  The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the universal language.  Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing differently in different countries.  In Italy it has become Italian, in Spain Spanish, and in France French.  All these nations, therefore, are speaking a modernized form of Latin.

The Romans and the Greeks.  In their career of conquest the Romans came into conflict with the Greeks.  The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in military power, but far superior to them in culture.  They excelled in art, literature, music, science, and philosophy.  Of all these pursuits the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge.  And so it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her schoolmaster. 

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It was soon the established custom for young Romans to go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated classes became universal.  At the same time many cultured Greeks—­poets, artists, orators, and philosophers—­flocked to Rome, opened schools, and taught their arts.  Indeed, the preeminence of Greek culture became so great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was choicest in Greek literature.  As a consequence of all this, the civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to Greece she owed her literature and her art.

Rome and the Modern World.  After conquering the world, Rome impressed her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained largely Roman ever since.  Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire.  Latin was the common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of Shakespeare.  Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the universal language of the learned.  The life of to-day is much nearer the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to suppose.  You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Caesar and Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress and language, much unlike men of to-day.

Latin and English.  Do you know that more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less Latin every day?  How has this come about?  In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans.  The Normans spoke French—­which, you remember, is descended from Latin—­and spread their language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large proportion of our vocabulary.  Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition of new terms of Latin derivation.  Hence, while the simpler and commoner words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant.  Also in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of technical and scientific terms.

Page 4

Why study Latin?  The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin forms so important a part of modern education.  We have seen that our civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look to the past if we would understand the present.  It is obvious, too, that the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional career.  To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent foundation for all grammatical study.  Finally, it has been abundantly proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning.

Review Questions.  Whence does Latin get its name?  Where is Latium?  Where is Rome?  Was Latin always the same?  What sort of Latin are we to study?  Describe the growth of Rome’s power and the spread of Latin.  What can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish?  How did the ancient Greeks and Romans compare?  How did Greece influence Rome?  How did Rome influence the world?  In what sense are we Romans still?  What did Latin have to do with the formation of English?  What proportion of English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they?  Why should we study Latin?

PART I

THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN

THE ALPHABET

1. The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except that it has no w and no j.

2. The vowels, as in English, are a, e, i, o, u, y.  The other letters are consonants.

3. I is used both as a vowel and as a consonant.  Before a vowel in the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called I consonant.

Thus in Iu:-li-us the first i is a consonant, the second a vowel.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS[1]

[Footnote 1:  N.B.  The sounds of the letters are best learned by hearing them correctly pronounced.  The matter in this section is, therefore, intended for reference rather than for assignment as a lesson.  As a first step it is suggested that the teacher pronounce the examples in class, the pupils following.]

4. Latin was not pronounced like English.  The Romans at the beginning of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as described below.

5. The vowels have the following sounds: 

  VOWELS[2] LATIN EXAMPLES

Page 5

  a:  as in father ha:c, sta:s
  a like the first a in aha’,
    never as in hat a’-mat, ca-na:s
  e:  as in they te:’-la, me:’-ta
  e as in met te’-net, mer’-ce:s
  i:  as in machine ser’-ti:, pra:’-ti: 
  i as in bit si’-tis, bi’-bi: 
  o:  as in holy Ro:’-ma, o:’-ris
  o as in wholly, never as in
    hot mo’-do, bo’-no:s
  u:  as in rude, or as oo in
    boot u:’-mor, tu:’-ber
  u as in full, or as oo in
    foot ut, tu:’-tus

NOTE.  It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound, except in the case of a, between the long and the short vowels.  It is not merely a matter of quantity but also of quality.

    [Footnote 2:  Long vowels are marked ^, short ones ... ]

[Transcriber’s Note:  In this version of the text, long vowels are shown as a:, e:, i:  ... and short vowels are unmarked, as described in the introductory notes.]

6. In diphthongs\ (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable.

  DIPHTHONGS LATIN EXAMPLES

  ae\ as _ai_ in _aisle_ tae’-dae
  
au\ as ou in out gau’-det
  ei\ as _ei_ in _eight_ dein’-de
  
eu\ as e’[oo] (a short e
    followed by a short u in
    one syllable) seu
  oe\ like _oi_ in _toil_ foe’-dus
  
ui\ like [oo]’i (a short u
    followed by a short i in one
    syllable.  Cf.  English we) cui, huic

NOTE.  Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English.

7. Consonants are pronounced as in English, except that

  CONSONANTS LATIN EXAMPLES

  c\ is always like _c_ in _cat_,
    never as in _cent_ ca’-do:, ci’-bus, ce:’-na
  
g\ is always like g in get,
    never as in gem ge’-mo:, gig’-no: 
  i consonant\ is always like
    _y_ in _yes_ iam, io’-cus
  
n\ before c, qu, or g is
    like ng in sing (compare
    the sound of n in anchor) an’-co-ra (ang’-ko-ra)
  qu\, gu\, and sometimes su\
    before a vowel have the sound
    of _qw, gw_, and _sw_.  Here
    _u_ has the value of consonant
    _v_ and is not counted a vowel in’-quit, qui:, lin’-gua,
                                      san’-guis,

Page 6

sua:’-de-o: 
  
s\ is like s in sea, never
    as in ease ro’-sa, is
  t\ is always like _t_ in
    _native_, never as in _nation_ ra’-ti-o:, na:’-ti-o: 
  
v\ is like w in wine, never
    as in vine vi:’-num, vir
  x\ has the value of two
    consonants (_cs_ or _gs_) and
    is like _x_ in _extract_, not
    as in _exact_ ex’-tra:, ex-a:c’-tus
  
bs\ is like ps and bt\ like
    _pt_ urbs, ob-ti’-ne-o: 
  
ch\, ph\, and th\ are like
    c, p, t pul’-cher, Phoe’-be:,
                                      the-a:’-trum

a. In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound.  Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two sounds.  Thus pronounce tt as in rat-trap, not as in rattle; pp as in hop-pole, not as in upper.  Examples, mit’-to:\, Ap’pi-us\, bel’-lum\.

SYLLABLES

_8._ A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs.  Thus aes-ta:’-te\ has three syllables, au-di-en’-dus\ has four.

    a. Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one
    syllable, as is so often the case in English.  Compare English
    inside with Latin i:n-si:’-de.

9. Words are divided into syllables as follows: 

1.  A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second.  Thus a-ma:’-bi-lis\, me-mo’-ri-a\, in-te’-re-a:\, a’-best\, pe-re:’-git\.[3]

    [Footnote 3:  In writing and printing it is customary to divide
    the parts of a compound, as inter-ea:\, ab-est\, sub-a:ctus\,
    
per-e:git\, contrary to the correct phonetic rule.]

2.  Combinations of two or more consonants: 

    a. A consonant followed by l or r goes with the l or r
    Thus pu:’-bli-cus\, a’-gri:\.

EXCEPTION.  Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also ll and rr, follow rule b.  Thus ab’-lu-o:\, ab-rum’-po:\, il’-le\, fer’-rum\.

    b. In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant
    goes with the preceding vowel.[4] Thus mag’-nus\, e-ges’-ta:s\,
    vic-to:’-ri-a\, hos’-pes\, an’-nus\, su-ba:c’-tus\.

    [Footnote 4:  The combination nct is divided nc-t, as fu:nc-tus,
    sa:nc-tus.]

3.  The last syllable of a word is called the ul’-ti-ma; the one next to the last, the pe-nult’; the one before the penult, the an’-te-pe-nult’.

10. EXERCISE

Divide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce them, placing the accent as indicated: 

Page 7

Va:’de ad formi:’cam, O:  pi’ger, et co:nsi:’dera:  vi’a:s e’ius et di’sce sapie’ntiam:  quae cum no:n ha’beat du’cem nec praecepto:’rem nec pri:’ncipem, pa’rat in aesta:’te ci’bum si’bi et co’ngregat in me’sse quod co’medat.

[[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise:  which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest.]]

QUANTITY

11. The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to pronounce it.  Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper observance of quantity.

12. Quantity of Vowels.  Vowels are either long (^) or short.  In this book the long vowels are marked.  Unmarked vowels are to be considered short.

[Transcriber’s Note:  The wording of Sec. 12 is as in the original, except that the macron (long-vowel symbol) has been replaced with a caret ("hat"), and the breve (short-vowel symbol) has been omitted.]

  1.  A vowel is short before another vowel or h; as po-e:’-ta\,
  
tra’-ho:\.

2.  A vowel is short before nt and nd, before final m or t, and, except in words of one syllable, before final l or r.  Thus a’-mant\, a-man’-dus\, a-ma:’-bam\, a-ma:’-bat\, a’-ni-mal\, a’-mor\.

  3.  A vowel is long before nf, ns, nx, and nct.  Thus
  i:n’-fe-ro:\, re’-ge:ns\, sa:n’-xi:\, sa:nc’-tus\.

  4.  Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked.

13. Quantity of Syllables.  Syllables are either long or short, and their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels.

  1.  A syllable is short,

    a. If it ends in a short vowel; as a’-mo:\, pi’-gri\.

NOTE.  In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final consonant.  Thus the word me-mo’-ri-am\ contains four short syllables.  In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the short vowel is followed by a final consonant.

  2.  A syllable is long,

    a. If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as cu:’-ro:\,
    
poe’-nae\, aes-ta:’-te\.

    b. If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another
    consonant, as cor’-pus\, mag’-nus\.

NOTE.  The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and should be pronounced accordingly.  Thus in ter’-ra\, in’-ter\, the first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should be given the short sound.  In words like saxum\ the first syllable is long because _x_ has the value of two consonants (_cs_ or _gs_).

  3.  In determining quantity h is not counted a consonant.

Page 8

NOTE.  Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the short ones.  It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so these quantities are considered equally long.  For example, it takes about as long to say cur’-ro:\ as it does cu:’-ro:\, and so each of these first syllables is long.  Compare mol’-lis\ and mo:’-lis\, a:-mis’-si:\ and a:-mi’-si:\.

ACCENT

14. Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as me:n’-sa\, Cae’-sar\.

15. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the penult is long.  If the penult is short, accent the antepenult.  Thus mo-ne:’-mus\, re’-gi-tur\, a-gri’-co-la\, a-man’-dus\.

NOTE.  Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the syllable and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. (Cf.  Sec. 13.2, Note.)

16. Certain little words called enclit’ics[5] which have no separate existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word.  The most common are /-que\, and; /-ve\, or; and /-ne\, the question sign.  The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its quantity.  Thus populus’que\, dea’que\, re:gna’ve\, audit’ne\.

    [Footnote 5:  Enclitic means leaning back, and that is, as you see,
    just what these little words do.  They cannot stand alone and so they
    lean back for support upon the preceding word.]

HOW TO READ LATIN

17. To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right.  Correct habits of reading should be formed now.  Notice the quantities carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting the accent on the right syllable. (Cf.  Sec. 15.) Give every vowel its proper sound and every syllable its proper length.  Then bear in mind that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in separate words.  Group together words that are closely connected in thought.  No good reader halts at the end of each word.

18. Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a time, first the English and then the Latin version.  The syllables inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure smoothness of meter.

EXCELSIOR [[HIGHER]]! [6]

The shades of night were falling fast,
As through an Alpine village passed
A youth, who bore, ’mid snow and ice,
A banner with the strange device,

                  Excelsior!

Cade:bant noctis umbrae, dum
Ibat per vi:cum Alpicum
Gelu:  nivequ(e) adole:sce:ns,
Ve:xillum cum signo:  fere:ns,

                  Excelsior!

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His brow was sad; his eye beneath,
Flashed like a falchion from its sheath,
And like a silver clarion rung
The accents of that unknown tongue,

                  Excelsior!

Fro:ns tri:stis, micat oculus
Velut e:  va:gi:na:  gladius;
Sonantque simile:s tubae
Accentu:s lingu(ae) incognitae,

                  Excelsior!

In happy homes he saw the light
Of household fires gleam warm and bright;
Above, the spectral glaciers shone,
And from his lips escaped a groan,

                  Excelsior!

In domibus videt cla:ra:s
Foco:rum lu:ce:s calida:s;
Relucet glacie:s a:cris,
Et rumpit gemitu:s labri:s,

                  Excelsior!

“Try not the Pass!” the old man said;
“Dark lowers the tempest overhead,
The roaring torrent is deep and wide!”
And loud that clarion voice replied,

            Excelsior!

Di:cit senex, “Ne:  tra:nsea:s! 
Supra:  nigre:scit tempesta:s;
La:tus et altus est torre:ns.” 
Cla:ra ve:nit vo:x responde:ns,

            Excelsior!

At break of day, as heavenward
The pious monks of Saint Bernard
Uttered the oft-repeated prayer,
A voice cried through the startled air,

            Excelsior!

Iam lu:ce:sce:bat, et fra:tre:s
Sa:ncti:  Bernardi:  vigile:s
O:ra:bant prece:s solita:s,
Cum vo:x cla:ma:vit per aura:s,

            Excelsior!

A traveler, by the faithful hound,
Half-buried in the snow was found,
Still grasping in his hand of ice
That banner with the strange device,

            Excelsior!

Se:mi-sepultus via:tor
Can(e) a:  fi:do:  reperi:tur,
Compre:nde:ns pugno:  gelido: 
Illud ve:xillum cum signo:,

            Excelsior!

There in the twilight cold and gray,
Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay,
And from the sky, serene and far,
A voice fell, like a falling star,

            Excelsior!

Iacet corpus exanimum
Sed lu:ce fri:gida:  pulchrum;
Et caelo:  procul exie:ns
Cadit vo:x, ut Stella cade:ns,

        Excelsior!

    [Footnote 6:  Translation by C. W. Goodchild in Praeco Latinus,
    October, 1898.]

PART II

WORDS AND FORMS

LESSON I

FIRST PRINCIPLES

19. Subject and Predicate.
  1.  Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. 
  A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in
  its simplest form is the statement of a single fact.  Thus,

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  Galba is a farmer
    Galba est agricola
  The sailor fights
    Nauta pugnat

In each of these sentences there are two parts: 

  SUBJECT PREDICATE
    Galba is a farmer
      Galba
    The sailor fights
      Nauta pugnat

  2.  The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something
  is said, and is therefore a noun or some word which can serve the
  same purpose.

    a. Pronouns, as their name implies (pro, “instead of,” and
    noun), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating
    the same noun, as, Galba is a farmer; /he\ is a sturdy fellow.

  3.  The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists
  of a verb with or without modifiers.

    a. A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act)
    concerning a person, place, or thing.

20. The Object.  In the two sentences, The boy hit the ball and The ball hit the boy, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words.  The doer\ of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the subject\. That to which something is done\ is the direct object\ of the verb. The boy hit the ball is therefore analyzed as follows: 

SUBJECT        PREDICATE
/-----------\
The boy    hit the ball
(verb)  (direct object)
a. A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a transitive verb\.  A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called intransitive\, as, I walk, he comes.

21. The Copula.  The verb to be in its different forms—­are, is, was, etc.—­does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object.  It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning.  Hence it is called the copula\, that is, _the joiner_ or _link_.

22. In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas

  1.  America est patria mea
     America is fatherland my

  2.  Agricola filiam amat
     (The) farmer (his) daughter loves

  3.  Filia est Iulia
     (His) daughter is Julia

  4.  Iulia et agricola sunt in insula
     Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island

  5.  Iulia aquam portat
     Julia water carries

  6.  Rosam in comis habet
     (A) rose in (her) hair (she) has

  7.  Iulia est puella pulchra
     Julia is (a) girl pretty

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  8.  Domina filiam pulchram habet
     (The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has

a. The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English.  First of all, Latin has no article /the\ or /a\; thus agricola may mean the farmer, a farmer, or simply farmer.  Then, too, the personal pronouns, I, you, he, she, etc., and the possessive pronouns, my, your, his, her, etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them.

LESSON II

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

23. Inflection.  Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, is, are; was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer’s; woman, women.  This is called inflection\.  The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its declension\, that of a verb its conjugation\.

24. Number.  Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural.  In English we usually form the plural by adding _-s_ or _-es_ to the singular.  So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word.  Compare

  Naut-a pugnat
    The sailor fights
  Naut-ae pugnant
    The sailors fight

25. RULE. Nouns that end in -a in the singular end in -ae in the plural.

26. Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English.  Write the plural of each.

agri’cola, farmer (agriculture)[1] aqua, water (aquarium) causa, cause, reason do’mina, lady of the house, mistress (dominate) filia, daughter (filial) fortu’na, fortune fuga, flight (fugitive) iniu’ria, wrong, injury luna, moon (lunar) nauta, sailor (nautical) puel’la, girl silva, forest (silvan) terra, land (terrace)

    [Footnote 1:  The words in parentheses are English words related to
    the Latin.  When the words are practically identical, as causa\,
    _cause_, no comparison is needed.]

27. Compare again the sentences

  Nauta pugna-t
    The sailor fights
  Nautae pugna-nt
    The sailors fight

In the first sentence the verb pugna-t\ is in the third person singular, in the second sentence pugna-nt\ is in the third person plural.

28. RULE.  Agreement of Verb. A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject.

29. RULE. In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in -t, the third person plural in -nt.  The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called /personal endings\.

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30. Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each.  The personal pronouns he, she, it, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place.  Of course, if the verb’s subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus nauta pugnat\ is translated _the sailor fights_, not _the sailor he fights_.

ama-t he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love (amity, amiable) labo:’ra-t " " " labors, is laboring, does labor nu:ntia-t[2] " " " announces, is announcing, does announce porta-t " " " carries, is carrying, does carry (porter) pugna-t " " " fights, is fighting, does fight (pugnacious)

    [Footnote 2:  The u in nu:ntio:\ is long by exception. 
    (Cf.  Sec. 12.2.)]

31. EXERCISES

I. 1.  The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2.  The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3.  The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4.  The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5.  The ladies are carrying, the lady carries.

II. 1.  Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2.  Puella amat, puellae amant. 3.  Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4.  Filia laborat, filiae laborant. 5.  Nauta nuntiat, nautae nuntiant. 6.  Dominae amant, domina amat.

  [Illustration:  DOMINA]

LESSON III

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

32. Declension of Nouns.  We learned above (Secs. 19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words.  Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt.  For example, the sentence The lady her daughter loves might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady.

1.  If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the words, but by the endings of the words themselves.  Compare the following sentences: 

  Domina filiam amat
  Filiam domina amat
  Amat filiam domina
  Domina amat filiam
    The lady loves her daughter

  Filia dominam amat
  Dominam filia amat
  Amat dominam filia
  Filia amat dominam
    The daughter loves the lady

a. Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in -a and the object in -am.  The form of the noun shows how it is used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on the essential meaning.
2.  As stated above (Sec. 23), this change of ending is called declension\, and each different ending produces what is called a case\.  When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases,

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or changes of endings.  In English we have three cases,—­nominative, possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of ending, by adding ’s or the apostrophe.  The interrogative pronoun, however, has the fuller declension, who? whose? whom?

33. The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized: 

ENGLISH CASES                         LATIN CASES
+---+-------------+--------------+------------------+-------
---------+ | | Declension | Name of case | Declension of | Name of case | | | of who? | and use | domina\ | and use | | | | | and translation | | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+-------
---------+ | | Who? | Nominative-- | do’min-a | Nominative-- | | S | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the | | I | | subject | | subject | | N | | | | | | G | Whose? | Possessive-- | domin-ae | Genitive-- | | U | | case of the | _the lady’s_ | case of the | | L | | possessor | _of the lady_ | possessor | | A | | | | | | R | Whom? | Objective-- | domin-am | Accusative-- | | | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+-------
---------+ | | Who? | Nominative-- | domin-ae | Nominative-- | | | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the | | P | | subject | | subject | | L | | | | | | U | Whose? | Possessive-- | domin-a:’rum | Genitive-- | | R | | case of the | _the ladies’_ | case of the | | A | | possessor | _of the ladies_ | possessor | | L | | | | | | | Whom? | Objective-- | domin-a:s | Accusative-- | | | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+-------
---------+

When the nominative singular of a noun ends in -a, observe that

    a. The nominative plural ends in -ae.

    b. The genitive singular ends in -ae and the genitive plural in
    -a:rum.

    c. The accusative singular ends in -am and the accusative plural
    in -a:s.

    d. The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same
    ending.

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34. EXERCISE

Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning.  Then give the number and case, and the use of each form.  Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses.

1.  Silva, silvas, silvam. 2.  Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3.  Terrarum, terrae, terras. 4.  Aquas, causam, lunas. 5.  Filiae, fortunae, lunae. 6.  Iniurias, agricolarum, aquarum. 7.  Iniuriarum, agricolae, puellas. 8.  Nautam, agricolas, nautas. 9.  Agricolam, puellam, silvarum.

LESSON IV

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  [See Transcriber’s Note at beginning of text.]

  NOUNS
  dea\, _goddess_ (deity)
   Dia:’na, _Diana_
  
fera\, a wild beast (fierce)
   La:to:’na, Latona
  sagit’ta\, _arrow_

  VERBS
  est\, _he (she, it) is_; sunt\, they are
  necat\, _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_

  CONJUNCTION[A]
  et\, _and_

  PRONOUNS
  quis\, interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_
  
cuius\ (pronounced c[oo]i’y[oo]s, two syllables), interrog.
    pronoun, gen. sing., whose?

    [Footnote A:  A conjunction is a word which connects words, parts
    of sentences, or sentences.]

35. We learned from the table (Sec. 33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way.  This will be made even clearer by the following sentence: 

  Filia agricolae nautam amat,
    the farmer’s daughter (or the daughter of the farmer)
    loves the sailor

What is the subject? the direct object?  What case is used for the subject? for the direct object?  What word denotes the possessor?  In what case is it?

36. RULE.  Nominative Subject. The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?

37. RULE.  Accusative Object. The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?

38. RULE.  Genitive of the Possessor. The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?

  [Illustration:  DIANA SAGITTAS PORTAT ET FERAS NECAT]

39. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. 1.  Diana est dea. 2.  Latona est dea. 3.  Diana et Latona sunt deae. 4.  Diana est dea lunae. 5.  Diana est filia Latonae. 6.  Latona Dianam amat. 7.  Diana est dea silvarum. 8.  Diana silvam amat. 9.  Diana sagittas portat. 10.  Diana feras silvae necat. 11.  Ferae terrarum pugnant.

For the order of words imitate the Latin above.

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II. 1.  The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2.  Latona’s daughter carries arrows. 3.  The farmers’ daughters do labor. 4.  The farmer’s daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5.  The sailor is announcing the girls’ flight. 6.  The girls announce the sailors’ wrongs. 7.  The farmer’s daughter labors. 8.  Diana’s arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land.

40. CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin.  The answers may be found in the exercises preceding.

1.  Quis est Diana? 2.  Cuius filia est Diana? 3.  Quis Dianam amat? 4.  Quis silvam amat? 5.  Quis sagittas portat? 6.  Cuius filiae laborant?

LESSON V

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  coro:’na\, _wreath, garland, crown_
   fa:’bula, _story_ (fable)
  
pecu:’nia\, money (pecuniary)
  pugna\, _battle_ (pugnacious)
  
victo:’ria\, victory

  VERBS
  dat\, _he (she, it) gives_
   na:rrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate)

  CONJUNCTION[A]
  quia\ or quod\, because

  cui\ (pronounced _c[oo]i_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat.
    sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_

    [Footnote A:  A conjunction is a word which connects words, parts
    of sentences, or sentences.]

41. The Dative Case.  In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as from, with, by, to, for, in, at.[1]

    [Footnote 1:  Words like to, for, by, from, in, etc., which
    define the relationship between words, are called prepositions\.]

Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess.  One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the dative.

42. When the nominative singular ends in -a, the dative singular ends in -ae and the dative plural in -i:s.

NOTE.  Observe that the genitive singular, the dative singular, and the nominative plural all have the same ending, -ae; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different.  The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended.

    a. Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns: 
    fuga\, causa\, fortuna\, terra\, aqua\, puella\, agricola\,
    
nauta\, domina\.

43. The Dative Relation.  The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions to, towards, for.

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These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as She went to town, He ran towards the horse, Columbus sailed for America.  In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as motion through space is foreign to the dative relation.  But the dative is used to denote that to or towards which a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that for which something serves or exists.

    a. What dative relations do you discover in the following?

The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions—­a good example for the rest of us.  It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite.  Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me.  Some are fitted for one thing and others for another.

44. The Indirect Object.  Examine the sentence

  Nauta fugam nuntiat,
    the sailor announces the flight

Here the verb, nuntiat\, governs the direct object, fugam\, in the accusative case.  If, however, we wish to mention the persons to whom\ the sailor announces the flight, as, _The sailor announces the flight to the farmers\_, the verb will have two objects: 

  1.  Its direct object, flight (fugam)
  2.  Its indirect object, farmers

According to the preceding section, to the farmers is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule: 

45. RULE.  Dative Indirect Object. The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative.

    a. The indirect object usually stands before the direct object.

46. We may now complete the translation of the sentence The sailor announces the flight to the farmers, and we have

  Nauta agricolis fugam nuntiat

47. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor.

I. 1.  Quis nautis pecuniam dat? 2.  Filiae agricolae nautis pecuniam dant. 3.  Quis fortunam pugnae nuntiat? 4.  Galba agricolis fortunam pugnae nuntiat. 5.  Cui domina fabulam narrat? 6.  Filiae agricolae domina fabulam narrat. 7.  Quis Dianae coronam dat? 8.  Puella Dianae coronam dat quia Dianam amat. 9.  Dea lunae sagittas portat et feras silvarum necat. 10.  Cuius victoriam Galba nuntiat? 11.  Nautae victoriam Galba nuntiat.

Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise.

II. 1.  To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2.  The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3.  The sailors tell the ladies[2] a story, because the ladies love stories. 4.  The farmer gives his (Sec. 22.a) daughter water. 5.  Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6.  The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7.  Whose wreath is Latona carrying?  Diana’s.

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    [Footnote 2:  Observe that in English the indirect object often
    stands without a preposition to to mark it, especially when it
    precedes the direct object.]

LESSON VI

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

  [Special Vocabulary]

ADJECTIVES bona\, _good_ gra:ta\, pleasing magna\, _large, great_ mala\, bad, wicked parva\, _small, little_ pulchra\, beautiful, pretty so:la\, _alone_

  NOUNS
  ancil’la, _maidservant_
  Iu:lia, _Julia_

  ADVERBS[A]
  cu:r\, _why_
  
no:n\, not

  PRONOUNS
  mea\, _my_; tua\, thy, your (possesives)
  quid\, interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_

  /-ne\, the question sign, an enclitic (Sec. 16) added to the first
    word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as amat\, _he
    loves_, but
amat’ne\? does he love? est\, _he is_; estne\?
    is he? Of course /-ne\ is not used when the sentence contains
    quis\, cu:r\, or some other interrogative word.

    [Footnote A:  An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an
    adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings sweetly; she is
    very talented; she began to sing very early.]

48. The Ablative Case.  Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the ab’la-tive.

49. When the nominative singular ends in -a, the ablative singular ends in -a:  and the ablative plural in -i:s.

    a. Observe that the final -a of the nominative is short, while the
    final -a:  of the ablative is long, as,

      Nom. filia
      Abl. filia: 

    b. Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.

    c. Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: 
    fuga\, causa\, fortuna\, terra\, aqua\, puella\, agricola\,
    
nauta\, domina\.

50. The Ablative Relation.  The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions from, with, by, at, in.  It denotes

  1.  That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of
  which it is deprived—­generally translated by from.

  2.  That with which something is associated or by means of which it is
  done—­translated by with or by.

  3.  The place where or the time when something happens—­translated by
  in or at.

    a. What ablative relations do you discover in the following?

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In our class there are twenty boys and girls.  Daily at eight o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans.  By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome.

51. Prepositions.  While, as stated above (Sec. 41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative.

52. RULE.  Object of a Preposition. A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case.

53. Prepositions denoting the ablative relations from, with, in, on, are naturally followed by the ablative case.  Among these are

a:[1] or ab, from, away from de:, from, down from e:[1] or ex, from, out from, out of cum, with in, in, on

    [Footnote 1:  a:\ and e:\ are used only before words beginning with
    a consonant; ab\ and ex\ are used before either vowels or
    consonants.]

  1. Translate into Latin, using prepositions. In the water, on the
  land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from
  the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.

54. Adjectives.  Examine the sentence

  Puella parva bonam deam amat,
    the little girl loves the good goddess

In this sentence parva\ (_little_) and bonam\ (good) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality.  Such words are called adjectives,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe.

[Footnote 2:  Pick out the adjectives in the following: “When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter’s morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder.  ’My pretty boy,’ said he, ‘has your father a grindstone?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ said I.  ‘You are a fine little fellow,’ said he.  ’Will you let me grind my ax on it?’”]

You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs.  The ending of parva\ shows that it belongs to puella\, and the ending of bonam\ that it belongs to deam\.  Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called agreement.  Observe that the adjective and its noun agree in number and case.

55. Examine the sentences

  Puella est parva,
    the girl is little
  Puella parva bonam deam amat,
    the little girl loves the good goddess

In the first sentence the adjective parva\ is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate.  It is therefore called a _predicate adjective_.  In the second sentence the adjectives parva\ and bonam\ are closely attached to the nouns puella\ and deam\ respectively, and are called _attributive adjectives._

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    a. Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the
    following: 

Do you think Latin is hard?  Hard studies make strong brains.  Lazy students dislike hard studies.  We are not lazy.

56. DIALOGUE

JULIA AND GALBA

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

  I. Quis, Galba, est Diana? 
  G. Diana, Iulia, est pulchra dea lunae et silvarum. 
  I. Cuius filia, Galba, est Diana? 
  G. Latonae filia, Iulia, est Diana. 
  I. Quid Diana portat? 
  G. Sagittas Diana portat. 
  I. Cur Diana sagittas portat? 
  G. Diana sagittas portat, Iulia, quod malas feras silvae magnae necat. 
  I. Amatne Latona filiam? 
  G. Amat, et filia Latonam amat. 
  I. Quid filia tua parva portat? 
  G. Coronas pulchras filia mea parva portat. 
  I. Cui filia tua coronas pulchras dat? 
  G. Dianae coronas dat. 
  I. Quis est cum filia tua?  Estne sola? 
  G. Sola non est; filia mea parva est cum ancilla mea.

a. When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the voc’ative (Latin vocare, “to call"). In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative.  In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. The Latin vocative rarely stands first.  Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue.
b. Observe that questions answered by yes or no in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb.  Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question Is the sailor fighting? Pugnatne nauta?\ you would say Pugnat\, he is fighting, or Non pugnat\, _he is not fighting._

LESSON VII

THE FIRST OR _A:_-DECLENSION

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  casa, -ae\, f., _cottage_
   ce:na, -ae, f., _dinner_
  
galli:’na, -ae\, f., hen, chicken
  i:n’sula, ae\, f., _island_ (pen-insula)

  ADVERBS
  de-in’de\, _then, in the next place_
  
ubi\, where

  PREPOSITION
  ad\, _to_, with acc. to express motion toward

  PRONOUN
  quem\, interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_

  VERBS
  ha’bitat, he (she, it) lives, is living, does live (inhabit)
  laudat\, _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud)
  
parat\, he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare
  vocat\, _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites,
    is inviting, does invite_ (vocation)

57. In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a.  All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a belong to the First Declension.  It is also called the A-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel a\ plays in the formation of the cases.  We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case.  These results are summarized in the following table: 

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+-------+----------------+-------------------+---------
----------------+ | CASE | NOUN | TRANSLATION | USE AND GENERAL MEANING | | | | | OF EACH CASE | +-------+----------------+-------------------+--------------
-----------+ | | | SINGULAR | | +-------+----------------+-------------------+--------------
-----------+ | Nom. | do’min-a | the lady | The subject | | | | | | | Gen. | domin-ae | of the lady, | The possessor | | | | or the lady’s | of something | | | | | | | Dat. | domin-ae | to or for | Expressing the relation | | | | the lady | to or for, | | | | | especially the | | | | | indirect object | | | | | | | Acc. | domin-am | the lady | The direct object | | | | | | | Abl. | domin-a:  | from, with, by, | Separation (from_), | | | | in, the lady_ | association or means | | | | | (with, by), place | | | | | where or time when | | | | | (in, at) | +-------+----------------+-------------------+--------------
-----------+ | | | PLURAL | | +-------+----------------+-------------------+--------------
-----------+ | Nom. | domin-ae | the ladies | | | | | | | | Gen. | domin-a:’rum | of the ladies, | | | | | or the ladies’ | | | | | | | | Dat. | domin-i:s | to or for | The same as | | | | the ladies | the singular | | | | | | | Acc. | domin-a:s | the ladies | | | | | | | | Abl. | domin-i:s | from, with, by, | | | | | in, the ladies | | +-------+----------------+-------------------+--------------
-----------+

58. The Base.  That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the base.

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Thus, in the declension above, domin- is the base and -a is the termination of the nominative singular.

59. Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen.  Also give them orally.

  pugna\, terra\, luna\, ancil’la\, coro’na\, in’sula\, silva\

60. Gender.  In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter.  This is called natural gender\.  Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, “Have you seen my yacht? _She_ is a beauty.”  And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, “Is the baby here?  No, the nurse has taken _it_ home.”  Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called grammatical gender\.

Latin, like English, has three genders.  Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter.  Thus we have in Latin the three words, lapis\, _a stone_; rupes\, a cliff; and saxum\, _a rock_. Lapis\ is masculine, rupes\ _feminine_, and saxum\ neuter.  The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and must always be learned, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin.

61. Gender of First-Declension Nouns.  Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males.  Thus silva\ is feminine, but nauta\, sailor, and agricola\, _farmer_, are masculine.

62. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

I. 1.  Agricola cum filia in casa habitat. 2.  Bona filia agricolae cenam parat. 3.  Cena est grata agricolae[1] et agricola bonam filiam laudat. 4.  Deinde filia agricolae gallinas ad cenam vocat. 5.  Gallinae filiam agricolae amant. 6.  Malae filiae bonas cenas non parant. 7.  Filia agricolae est grata dominae. 8.  Domina in insula magna habitat. 9.  Domina bonae puellae parvae pecuniam dat.

II. 1.  Where does the farmer live? 2.  The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3.  Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting (parat) a good dinner for the farmer. 6.  The farmer praises the good dinner. 7.  The daughter’s good dinner is pleasing to the farmer.

    [Footnote 1:  Note that the relation expressed by the dative case
    covers that to which a feeling is directed. (Cf.  Sec. 43.)]

  [Illustration]

What Latin words are suggested by this picture?

63. CONVERSATION

Answer the questions in Latin.

1.  Quis cum agricola in casa habitat? 2.  Quid bona filia agricolae parat? 3.  Quem agricola laudat? 4.  Vocatne filia agricolae gallinas ad cenam? 5.  Cuius filia est grata dominae? 6.  Cui domina pecuniam dat?

LESSON VIII

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FIRST DECLENSION (Continued)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  Italia, -ae\, f., _Italy_
   Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_
  
tuba, -ae\, f., trumpet (tube)
  via, -ae\, f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct)

ADJECTIVES alta\, _high, deep_ (altitude) cla:ra\, clear, bright; famous la:ta\, _wide_ (latitude) longa\, long (longitude) nova\, _new_ (novelty)

_64._ We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in _case_ and in _number_ (Sec. 54).  They agree also in _gender_.  In the phrase silva magna\, we have a feminine adjective in -a agreeing with a feminine noun in -a.

65. RULE.  Agreement of Adjectives. Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.

66. Feminine adjectives in -a are declined like feminine nouns in -a, and you should learn to decline them together as follows: 

          NOUN ADJECTIVE
  domina (BASE domin-), bona (BASE bon-),
    f., lady good

SINGULAR                TERMINATIONS
Nom.  do’mina          bona        -a
Gen.  dominae          bonae       -ae
Dat.  dominae          bonae       -ae
Acc.  dominam          bonam       -am
Abl.  domina:           bona:        -a: 
PLURAL
Nom.  dominae          bonae       -ae
Gen.  domina:’rum      bona:’rum   -a:rum
Dat.  domini:s         boni:s      -i:s
Acc.  domina:s         bona:s      -a:s
Abl.  domini:s         boni:s      -i:s

    a. In the same way decline together puella mala\, _the bad girl_;
    
ancil’la parva\, the little maid; fortu’na magna\, _great
    fortune._

67. The words dea\, _goddess_, and filia\, daughter, take the ending -a:bus instead of -i:s in the dative and ablative plural. Note the dative and ablative plural in the following declension: 

  dea bona (BASES de- bon-)

SINGULAR      PLURAL
Nom.  dea bona      deae bonae
Gen.  deae bonae    dea:’rum bona:’rum
Dat.  deae bonae    dea:’bus boni:s
Acc.  deam bonam    dea:s bona:s
Abl.  dea:  bona:     dea’bus boni:s

    a. In the same way decline together filia parva\.

68. Latin Word Order.  The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same.

In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order.  Thus, in the sentence My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence.  We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force.  Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on my, daughter, dinner, farmers.

In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its ending (cf.  Sec. 32.1), and not by its position, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice.  To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose.  Compare the sentences

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    I saw a game of football at Chicago last November (normal order)
    Last November\ I saw a game of football at Chicago_
    _At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of /football\_

1.  In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the first; next in importance is the last; the weakest point is the middle.  Generally the subject is the most important word, and is placed first; usually the verb is the next in importance, and is placed last.  The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance.  Hence the normal order of words—­that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed—­is as follows: 

    subject—­modifiers of the subject—­indirect object—­
    direct object—­adverb—­verb

Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin.

  2.  Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after
  their nouns.  When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as

    filia mea, my daughter;
      mea filia, my\ daughter_;
    casa Galbae, _Galba’s cottage_;
      Galbae casa, _/Galba’s\ cottage_.

  Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following
  sentence in different ways: 

    Filia mea agricolis cenam parat (normal order)
    Mea filia agricolis parat cenam (mea\ and cenam\ emphatic)
    Agricolis filia mea cenam parat (agricolis\ emphatic)

  3.  An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it
  follows.  When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated
  from its noun by other words.

    Filia mea casam parvam non amat (parvam\ not emphatic)
    Filia mea parvam casam non amat (
parvam\ more emphatic)
    Parvam filia mea casam non amat (parvam\ very emphatic)

  4.  Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English.

  5.  The copula (as est\, sunt\) is of so little importance that it
  frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds
  well.

69. EXERCISE

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that are emphatic.

1.  Longae non sunt tuae viae. 2.  Suntne tubae novae in mea casa?  Non sunt. 3.  Quis lata in silva habitat?  Diana, lunae clarae pulchra dea, lata in silva habitat. 4.  Nautae altas et latas amant aquas. 5.  Quid ancilla tua portat?  Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6.  Ubi sunt Lesbia et Iulia?  In tua casa est Lesbia et Iulia est in mea. 7.  Estne Italia lata terra?  Longa est Italia, non lata. 8.  Cui Galba agricola fabulam novam narrat?  Filiabus dominae clarae fabulam novam narrat. 9.  Clara est insula Sicilia. 10.  Quem laudat Latona?  Latona laudat filiam.

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* * * * *

  First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, Secs. 502-505

* * * * *

LESSON IX

THE SECOND OR O-DECLENSION

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  bellum, -i:\, n., _war_ (re-bel)
  
co:nstantia, -ae\, f., firmness, constancy, steadiness
   dominus, -i:, m., master, lord (dominate)
  equus, -i:\, m., _horse_ (equine)
  
fru:mentum, -i:\, n., grain
  le:ga:tus, -i:\, m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate)
  
Ma:rcus, -i:\, m., Marcus, Mark
  mu:rus, -i:\, m., _wall_ (mural)
  
oppida:nus, -i:\, m., townsman
  oppidum, -i:\, n., _town_
  
pi:lum, -i:\, n., spear (pile driver)
  servus, -i:\, m., _slave, servant_
   Sextus, -i:, m., _Sextus_

  VERBS
  cu:rat\, _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc.
  
properat\, he (she, it) hastens

70. Latin nouns are divided into five declensions.

The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular.  This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender.

71. The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or O-Declension ends in -us, -er, -ir, or -um.  The genitive singular ends in -i:.

72. Gender.  Nouns in -um are neuter.  The others are regularly masculine.

73. Declension of nouns in -us and -um.  Masculines in -us and neuters in -um are declined as follows: 

dominus (BASE domin-), pi:lum (BASE pi:l-),
m., master n., spear

                  TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS
          SINGULAR
  Nom. do’minus[1] -us pi:lum -um
  Gen. domini:  -i:  pi:li:  -i: 
  Dat. domino:  -o:  pi:lo:  -o: 
  Acc. dominum -um pi:lum -um
  Abl. domino:  -o:  pi:lo:  -o: 
  Voc. domine -e pi:lum -um

PLURAL
Nom.  domini:       -i:         pi:la       -a
Gen.  domino:’rum  -o:rum     pi:lo:’rum  -o:rum
Dat.  domini:s     -i:s       pi:li:s     -i:s
Acc.  domino:s     -o:s       pi:la       -a
Abl.  domini:s     -i:s       pi:li:s     -i:s

    [Footnote 1:  Compare the declension of domina\ and of dominus\.]

    a. Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same
    terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative
    and accusative plural.

    b. The vocative singular of words of the second declension in
    -us ends in -e, as domine\, _O master_; serve\, O slave
    This is the most important exception to the rule in Sec. 56.a.

Page 25

74. Write side by side the declension of domina\, dominus\, and pilum\.  A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions: 

a. The vocative, with a single exception (see Sec. 73.b), is like the nominative.  That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural.

    b. The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are
    alike, and in the plural end in -a.

    c. The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in
    -m and the accusative plural in -s.

    d. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

    e. Final -i and -o are always long; final -a is short,
    except in the ablative singular of the first declension.

75. Observe the sentences

  Lesbia est bona,
    Lesbia is good
  Lesbia est ancilla,
    Lesbia is a maidservant

We have learned (Sec. 55) that bona\, when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a _predicate adjective_.  Similarly a _noun_, as ancilla\, used in the predicate to define the subject is called a predicate noun\.

76. RULE.  Predicate Noun. A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb.

  [Illustration:  PILA]

77. DIALOGUE

GALBA AND MARCUS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

  G. Quis, Marce, est legatus cum pilo et tuba? 
  M. Legatus, Galba, est Sextus. 
  G. Ubi Sextus habitat?[2]
  M. In oppido Sextus cum filiabus habitat. 
  G. Amantne oppidani Sextum? 
  M. Amant oppidani Sextum et laudant, quod magna cum constantia pugnat. 
  G. Ubi, Marce, est ancilla tua?  Cur non cenam parat? 
  M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equo legati aquam et frumentum dat. 
  G. Cur non servus Sexti equum domini curat? 
  M. Sextus et servus ad murum oppidi properant.  Oppidani bellum
    parant.[3]

    [Footnote 2:  habitat\ is here translated _does live_.  Note the
    _three_ possible translations of the Latin present tense: 
      
habitat\
          he lives
          he is living
          he does live
    Always choose the translation which makes the best sense.]

    [Footnote 3:  Observe that the verb paro\ means not only
    _to prepare_ but also _to prepare for_, and governs the
    accusative case.]

  [Illustration:  LEGATUS CUM PILO ET TUBA]

78. CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin.

1.  Ubi filiae Sexti habitant? 2.  Quem oppidani amant et laudant? 3.  Quid ancilla equo legati dat? 4.  Cuius equum ancilla curat? 5.  Quis ad murum cum Sexto properat? 6.  Quid oppidani parant?

LESSON X

Page 26

SECOND DECLENSION (Continued)

  [Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS ami:cus, -i:\, m., _friend_ (amicable) Germa:nia, -ae\, f., Germany patria, -ae\, f., _fatherland_ populus, -i:\, m., people Rhe:nus, -i:\, m., _the Rhine_ vi:cus, -i:\, m., village

79. We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like bona\, in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. _Masculine_ adjectives of this class are declined like dominus\, and neuters like pilum.  The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows: 

MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE          NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
dominus bonus, the good master      pi:lum bonum, the good spear
BASES domin- bon-                     BASES pi:l- bon-

                          TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS
          SINGULAR
  Nom. do’minus bonus -us pi:lum bonum -um
  Gen. domini:  boni:  -i:  pi:li:  boni:  -i: 
  Dat. domino:  bono:  -o:  pi:lo:  bono:  -o: 
  Acc. dominum bonum -um pi:lum bonum -um
  Abl. domino:  bono:  -o:  pi:lo:  bono:  -o: 
  Voc. domine bone -e pi:lum bonum -um

PLURAL
Nom.  domini:  boni:           -i:       pi:la bona            -a
Gen.  domino:’rum bono:’rum  -o:rum   pi:lo:’rum bono:’rum  -o:rum
Dat.  domini:s boni:s        -is      pi:li:s boni:s        -i:s
Acc.  domino:s bono:s        -o:s     pi:la bona            -a
Abl.  domini:s boni:s        -i:s     pi:li:s boni:s        -i:s

Decline together bellum longum\, equus parvus\, servus malus\, murus altus\, frumentum novum\.

80. Observe the sentences

  Lesbia ancilla est bona,
    Lesbia, the maidservant, is good
  Filia Lesbiae ancillae est bona,
    the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good
  Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat,
    the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant

In these sentences ancilla\, ancillae\, and ancillam\ denote the class of persons to which _Lesbia_ belongs and explain who she is.  Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case.

81. RULE.  Apposition. An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains.

82. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1.  Patria servi boni, vicus servorum bonorum, bone popule. 2.  Populus oppidi magni, in oppido magno, in oppidis magnis. 3.  Cum pilis longis, ad pila longa, ad muros latos. 4.  Legate male, amici legati mali, cena grata domino bono. 5.  Frumentum equorum parvorum, domine bone, ad legatos claros. 6.  Rhenus est in Germania, patria mea. 7.  Sextus legatus pilum longum portat. 8.  Oppidani boni Sexto legato clara pecuniam dant. 9.  Mali servi equum bonum Marci domini necant. 10.  Galba agricola et Iulia filia bona laborant. 11.  Marcus nauta in insula Sicilia habitat.

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II. 1.  Wicked slave, who is your friend?  Why does he not praise Galba, your master? 2.  My friend is from (ex) a village of Germany, my fatherland. 3.  My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4.  Who is caring for[1] the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5.  Mark, where is Lesbia, the maidservant? 6.  She is hastening[1] to the little cottage[2] of Julia, the farmer’s daughter.

    [Footnote 1:  See footnote 1, p. 33.  Remember that curat\ is
    transitive and governs a direct object.]

    [Footnote 2:  Not the dative. (Cf.  Sec. 43.)]

LESSON XI

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS

  [Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS arma, armo:rum\, n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons fa:ma, -ae\, f., rumor; reputation, fame galea, -ae\, f., _helmet_ praeda, -ae\, f., booty, spoils (predatory) te:lum, -i:\, n., _weapon of offense, spear_

  ADJECTIVES
  
du:rus, -a, -um\, hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome
    (durable)
  Ro:ma:nus, -a, -um\, _Roman_.  As a noun, Ro:ma:nus, -i:\, m.,
    a Roman

83. Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows: 

        MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER
        SINGULAR
  Nom. bonus bona bonum
  Gen. boni:  bonae boni: 
  Dat. bono:  bonae bono: 
  Acc. bonum bonam bonum
  Abl. bono:  bona:  bono: 
  Voc. bone bona bonum

PLURAL
Nom.  boni:        bonae       bona
Gen.  bono:rum    bona:rum    bono:rum
Dat.  boni:s      boni:s      boni:s
Acc.  bono:s      bona:s      bona
Abl.  boni:s      boni:s      boni:s

    a. Write the declension and give it orally across the page, thus
    giving the three genders for each case.

    b. Decline gratus, -a, -um\; malus, -a, -um\; altus, -a, -um\;
    
parvus, -a, -um\.

84. Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns.  However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does not mean that they must have the same termination.  If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same.  For example, nauta\, _sailor_, is masculine and belongs to the first declension.  The masculine form of the adjective bonus\ is of the second declension.  Consequently, a good sailor is nauta bonus\.  So, _the wicked farmer_ is agricola malus\.  Learn the following declensions: 

85. nauta bonus (bases naut- bon-), m., the good sailor

Page 28

SINGULAR
Nom.  nauta      bonus
Gen.  nautae     boni: 
Dat.  nautae     bono: 
Acc.  nautam     bonum
Abl.  nauta:      bono: 
Voc.  nauta      bone

        PLURAL
  Nom. nautae boni: 
  Gen. nauta:rum bono:rum
  Dat. nauti:s boni:s
  Acc. nauta:s bono:s
  Abl. nauti:s boni:s
  Voc. nautae boni: 

86. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1.  Est[1] in vico nauta bonus. 2.  Sextus est amicus nautae boni. 3.  Sextus nautae bono galeam dat. 4.  Populus Romanus nautam bonum laudat. 5.  Sextus cum nauta bono praedam portat. 6.  Ubi, nauta bone, sunt anna et tela legati Romani? 7.  Nautae boni ad bellum properant. 8.  Fama nautarum bonorum est clara. 9.  Pugnae sunt gratae nautis bonis. 10.  Oppidani nautas bonos curant. 11.  Cur, nautae boni, mali agricolae ad Rhenum properant? 12.  Mali agricolae cum bonis nautis pugnant.

II. 1.  The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty. 2.  The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3.  Why does Galba’s daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4.  Lesbia invites the good sailor to dinner. 5.  Why is Lesbia with the good sailor hastening from the cottage? 6.  Sextus, where is my helmet? 7.  The good sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8.  The horses of the wicked farmers are small. 9.  The Roman people give money to the good sailors. 10.  Friends care for the good sailors. 11.  Whose friends are fighting with the wicked farmers?

    [Footnote 1:  Est\, beginning a declarative sentence, _there is._]

  [Illustration:  GALEAE]

LESSON XII

NOUNS IN _-IUS_ AND _-IUM_

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  fi:lius, fi:li:\, m., _son_ (filial)
   fluvius, fluvi:, m., _river_ (fluent)
  
gladius, gladi:\, m., sword (gladiator)
  praesidium, praesi’di:\, n., _garrison, guard, protection_
  
proelium, proeli:\, n., battle

  ADJECTIVES
  fi:nitimus, -a, -um\, _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_. 
    As a noun,
fi:nitimi:, -o:rum\, m., plur., neighbors
  Germa:nus, -a, -um\, _German_.  As a noun, Germa:nus, -i:\, m.,
    a German
  multus, -a, -um\, _much_; plur., _many_

  ADVERB
  saepe\, _often_

87. Nouns of the second declension in -ius and -ium end in -i:  in the genitive singular, not in -ii:, and the accent rests on the penult; as, fi:li:\ from fi:lius\ (son), praesi’di:\ from praesi’dium\ (garrison).

88. Proper names of persons in -ius, and fi:lius\, end in -i:  in the vocative singular, _not_ in -e, and the accent rests on the penult; as, Vergi’li:\, O Vergil; fi:li:\, _O son._

    a. Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are
    alike.

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89. praesidium (base praesidi-), fi:lius (base fi:li-),
          n., garrison m., son

SINGULAR
Nom.  praesidium                   fi:lius
Gen.  praesi’di:                    fi:li: 
Dat.  praesidio:                    fi:lio: 
Acc.  praesidium                   fi:lium
Abl.  praesidio:                    fi:lio: 
Voc.  praesidium                   fi:li: 

The plural is regular.  Note that the -i- of the base is lost only in the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like filius\.

Decline together praesidium parvum\; filius bonus\; fluvius longus\, _the long river_; proelium clarum\, the famous battle.

90. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1.  Frumentum bonae terrae, gladi mali, belli longi. 2.  Constantia magna, praesidia magna, clare Vergili. 3.  Male serve, O clarum oppidum, male fili, filii mali, fili mali. 4.  Fluvi longi, fluvii longi, fluviorum longorum, fama praesi’di magni. 5.  Cum gladiis parvis, cum deabus claris, ad nautas claros. 6.  Multorum proeliorum, praedae magnae, ad proelia dura.

GERMANIA

II.  Germania, patria Germanorum, est clara terra.  In Germania sunt fluvii multi.  Rhenus magnus et latus fluvius Germaniae est.  In silvis latis Germaniae sunt ferae multae.  Multi Germanii in oppidis magnis et in vicis parvis habitant et multi sunt agricolae boni.  Bella Germanorum sunt magna et clara.  Populus Germaniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe cum finitimis pugnat.  Fluvius Rhenus est finitimus oppidis[1] multis et claris.

    [Footnote 1:  Dative with finitimus\. (See Sec. 43.)]

LESSON XIII

SECOND DECLENSION (Continued)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  ager, agri:\, m., _field_ (acre)
  
co:pia, -ae\, f., plenty, abundance (copious); plur., troops,
    forces

  Corne:lius, Corne:’li:\, m., _Cornelius_
  
lo:ri:’ca, -ae\, f., coat of mail, corselet
  praemium, praemi:\, n., _reward, prize_ (premium)
  
puer, pueri:\, m., boy (puerile)
  Ro:ma, -ae\, f., _Rome_
  
scu:tum, -i:\, n., shield (escutcheon)
  vir, viri:\, m., _man, hero_ (virile)

  ADJECTIVES
  legio:na:rius, -a, -um\,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_. 
    As a noun,
legio:na:rii:, -o:rum\, m., plur., legionary soldiers
  li:ber, li:bera, li:berum\, _free_ (liberty) As a noun. li:beri:,
    -o:rum\,
    m., plur., children (lit. the freeborn)
  pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum\, _pretty, beautiful_

  PREPOSITION
  apud\, _among_, with acc.

  CONJUNCTION
  sed\, _but_

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[Footnote A:  The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in -ius
ends in -ii:  and the vocative in -ie; not in -i:, as in nouns.]

91. Declension of Nouns in _-er_ and _-ir_.  In early Latin all the masculine nouns of the second declension ended in -os.  This -os later became -us in words like servus\, and was dropped entirely in words with bases ending in -r, like puer\, boy; ager\, _field_; and vir\, man.  These words are therefore declined as follows: 

92. puer, m., boy ager, m., field vir, m., man
         BASE puer- BASE agr- BASE vir-

SINGULAR                                    TERMINATIONS
Nom.  puer            ager               vir         ——­
Gen.  pueri:           agri:               viri:        -i: 
Dat.  puero:           agro:               viro:        -o: 
Acc.  puerum          agrum              virum       -um
Abl.  puero:           agro:               viro:        -o: 
PLURAL
Nom.  pueri:           agri:               viri:        -i: 
Gen.  puero:rum       agro:rum           viro:rum    -o:rum
Dat.  pueri:s         agri:s             viri:s      -i:s
Acc.  puero:s         agro:s             viro:s      -o:s
Abl.  pueri:s         agri:s             viri:s      -i:s

    a. The vocative case of these words is like the nominative,
    following the general rule (Sec. 74.a).

    b. The declension differs from that of servus\ only in the
    nominative and vocative singular.

c. Note that in puer\ the e\ remains all the way through, while in ager\ it is present only in the nominative.  In puer\ the e\ belongs to the base, but in ager\ (base agr-) it does not, and was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce.  Most words in -er are declined like ager\. _The genitive shows whether you are to follow_ puer\ or ager\.

_93._ Masculine adjectives in -er of the second declension are declined like nouns in -er.  A few of them are declined like puer\, but most of them like ager\.  The feminine and neuter nominatives show which form to follow, thus,

  MASC.  FEM.  NEUT.
  liber libera liberum (free)
    is like puer\
  pulcher pulchra pulchrum (_pretty_)
    is like
ager\

For the full declension in the three genders, see Sec. 469._b._ c.

94. Decline together the words vir liber\, terra libera\, frumentum liberum\, puer pulcher\, puella pulchra\, oppidum pulchrum\

95. ITALIA[1]

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

Magna est Italiae fama, patriae Romanorum, et clara est Roma, domina orbis terrarum.[2] Tiberim,[3] fluvium Romanum, quis non laudat et pulchros fluvio finitimos agros?  Altos muros, longa et dura bella, claras victorias quis non laudat?  Pulchra est terra Italia.  Agri boni agricolis praemia dant magna, et equi agricolarum copiam frumenti ad oppida et vicos portant.  In agris populi Romani laborant multi servi.  Viae Italiae sunt longae et latae.  Finitima Italiae est insula Sicilia.

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    [Footnote 1:  In this selection note especially the emphasis as shown
    by the order of the words.]

    [Footnote 2:  orbis terrarum\, _of the world_.]

    [Footnote 3:  Tiberim\, _the Tiber_, accusative case.]

96. DIALOGUE

MARCUS AND CORNELIUS

  C. Ubi est, Marce, filius tuus?  Estne in pulchra terra Italia? 
  M. Non est, Corneli, in Italia.  Ad fluvium Rhenum properat cum copiis
    Romanis quia est[4] fama Novi belli cum Germanis.  Liber Germaniae
    populus Romanos Non amat. 
  C. Estne filius tuus copiarum Romanarum legatus? 
  M. Legatus non est, sed est apud legionarios. 
  C. Quae[5] arma portat[6]? 
  M. Scutum magnum et loricam duram et galeam pulchram portat. 
  C. Quae tela portat? 
  M. Gladium et pilum longum portat. 
  C. Amatne legatus filium tuum? 
  M. Amat, et saepe filio meo praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat. 
  C. Ubi est terra Germanorum? 
  M. Terra Germanorum, Corneli est finitima Rheno, fluvio magno et alto.

    [Footnote 4:  est\, before its subject, _there is_; so sunt\,
    there are.]

    [Footnote 5:  Quae\, _what kind of_, an interrogative adjective
    pronoun.]

    [Footnote 6:  What are the three possible translations of the present
    tense?]

  [Illustration:  LEGIONARIUS]

LESSON XIV

THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  auxilium, auxi’li:\, n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary)
  
castrum, -i:\, n., fort (castle); plur., camp (lit. forts)
  cibus, -i:\, m., _food_
  
co:nsilium, co:nsi’li:\, n., plan (counsel)
  di:ligentia, -ae\, f.. _diligence, industry_
   magister, magistri:, m., _master, teacher_[A]

ADJECTIVES aeger, aegra, aegrum\, _sick_ cre:ber, cre:bra, cre:brum\, frequent miser, misera, miserum\, _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser)

    [Footnote A:  Observe that dominus\, as distinguished from
    magister\, means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.]

97. Observe the sentences

  This is my shield
  This shield is mine

In the first sentence my is a possessive adjective; in the second mine is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, this shield is mine being equivalent to this shield is my shield.  Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes adjectives and sometimes pronouns.

98. The possessives my, mine, your, yours, etc. are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions.

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SINGULAR
1st Pers. meus, mea, meum my, mine
2d Pers. tuus, tua, tuum your, yours
3d Pers. suus, sua, suum his (own), her (own),
its (own)

PLURAL
1st Pers. noster, nostra, nostrum our, ours
2d Pers. vester, vestra, vestrum your, yours
3d Pers. suus, sua, suum their (own), theirs

NOTE. Meus\ has the irregular vocative singular masculine mi:\, as mi:  fi:li:\, _O my son_.

a. The possessives agree with the name of the thing possessed in
gender, number, and case.  Compare the English and Latin in

      Sextus is calling /his\ boy Sextus } suum puerum vocat
      Julia is calling /her\ boy Iulia }

    Observe that suum\ agrees with puerum\, and is unaffected by the
    gender of Sextus or Julia.

    b. When your, yours, refers to one person, use tuus\; when to
    _more than one_,
vester\; as,

      Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty
        Coronae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae
      Girls, your wreaths are pretty
        Coronae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae

c. Suus\ is a _reflexive_ possessive, that is, it usually stands in the predicate and regularly refers back to the _subject_.  Thus, Vir suos servos vocat\ means The man calls his (own) slaves. Here his (suos) refers to man (vir), and could not refer to any one else.
d. Possessives are used much less frequently than in English, being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf.  Sec. 22.a.) This is especially true of suus, -a, -um\, which, when inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our _his own, her own_, etc.

_99._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

I. 1.  Marcus amico Sexto consilium suum nuntiat 2.  Est copia frumenti in agris nostris. 3.  Amici mei bonam cenam ancillae vestrae laudant 4.  Tua lorica, mi fili, est dura. 5.  Scuta nostra et tela, mi amice, in castrls Romanis sunt. 6.  Suntne viri patriae tuae liberi?  Sunt. 7.  Ubi, Corneli, est tua galea pulchra? 8.  Mea galea, Sexte, est in casa mea. 9.  Pilum longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10.  Iulia gallinas suas pulchras amat et gallinae dominam suam amant. 11.  Nostra castra sunt vestra. 12.  Est copia praedae in castris vestris. 13.  Amici tui miseris et aegris cibum et pecuniam saepe dant.

II. 1.  Our teacher praises Mark’s industry. 2.  My son Sextus is carrying his booty to the Roman camp.[1] 3.  Your good girls are giving aid to the sick and wretched.[2] 4.  There are [3] frequent battles in our villages. 5.  My son, where is the lieutenant’s food? 6.  The camp is mine, but the weapons are yours.

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    [Footnote 1:  Not the dative.  Why?]

    [Footnote 2:  Here the adjectives sick and wretched are used like
    nouns.]

    [Footnote 3:  Where should sunt\ stand?  Cf.  I. 2 above.]

  [Illustration:  AGRICOLA ARAT]

LESSON XV

THE ABLATIVE DENOTING WITH

  [Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS carrus, -i:\, m., _cart, wagon_ inopia, -ae\, f., want, lack; the opposite of co:pia\ studium, studi:\, n., zeal, eagerness (study)

  ADJECTIVES
  arma:tus, -a, -um\, _armed_
  
i:nfi:rmus, -a, -um\, week, feeble (infirm)
   vali’dus, -a, -um, strong, sturdy

  VERB
  ma:tu:rat\, _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat

  ADVERB
  iam\, _already, now_

  /-que\, conjunction, and; an enclitic (cf.  Sec. 16) and always added
  to the second of two words to be connected, as arma tela’que\,
  _arms and weapons_.

100. Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (Sec. 50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition with.  This little word is not so simple as it looks.  It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by cum\.  This will become clear from the following sentences: 

a. Mark is feeble with (for or because of) want of food b. Diana kills the beasts with (or by) her arrows c. Julia is with Sextus d. The men fight with great steadiness
a. In sentence a, with want (of food) gives the cause of Mark’s feebleness.  This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the ablative of cause\: 

      Marcus est infirmus inopia cibi

b. In sentence b, with (or by) her arrows tells by means of what\ Diana kills the beasts.  This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the ablative of means\: 

      Diana sagittis suis feras necat

c. In sentence c we are told that Julia is not alone, but in company with\ Sextus.  This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative with the preposition cum\, and the construction is called the ablative of accompaniment\: 

      Iulia est cum Sexto

d. In sentence d we are told how the men fight.  The idea is one of manner\.  This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with cum\, unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case cum\ may be omitted.  This construction is called the ablative of manner\: 

      Viri (cum) constantia magna pugnant

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101. You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting with

102. RULE.  Ablative of Cause. Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition.  This answers the question Because of what?

103. RULE.  Ablative of Means. Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition.  This answers the question By means of what?  With what?

N.B. Cum\ must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means.

104. RULE.  Ablative of Accompaniment. Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with /cum\.  This answers the question With whom?

105. RULE.  Ablative of Manner. The ablative with /cum\ is used to denote the manner of an action. /Cum\ may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative.  This answers the question How?  In what manner?

106. What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer?

The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets.  The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (or by) the rain.  Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore.

107. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

I. The Romans prepare for War. Romani, clarus Italiae populus, bellum parant.  Ex agris suis, vicis, oppidisque magno studio viri validi ad arma properant.  Iam legati cum legionariis ex Italia ad Rhenum, fluvium Germaniae altum et latum, properant, et servi equis et carris cibum frumentumque ad castra Romana portant.  Inopia bonorum telorum infirmi sunt Germani, sed Romani armati galeis, loricis, scutis, gladiis, pilisque sunt validi.

II. 1.  The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great diligence. 2.  Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting with the Germans. 3.  The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears. 4.  Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus?  Lesbia is with my friends in Galba’s cottage. 5.  Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of food. 6.  The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening with horses and wagons.

LESSON XVI

THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

108. There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and dative singular of all genders: 

MASC.   FEM.    NEUT. 
Gen.   -i:us   -i:us   -i:us
Dat.   -i:      -i:      -i: 

Otherwise they are declined like bonus, -a, -um\.  Learn the list and the meaning of each: 

Page 35

alius, alia, aliud\, _other, another_ (of several) alter, altera, alterum\, the one, the other (of two) u:nus, -a, -um\, _one, alone_; (in the plural) _only_ u:llus, -a, -um\, any nu:llus, -a, -um\, _none, no_ so:lus, -a, -um\, alone to:tus, -a, -um\, _all, whole, entire_ uter, utra, utrum\, which? (of two) neuter, neutra, neutrum\, _neither_ (of two)

_109._ PARADIGMS

          SINGULAR
          MASC.  FEM.  NEUT. 
  Nom. nu:llus nu:lla nu:llum
  Gen. nu:lli:’us nu:lli:’us nu:lli:’us
  Dat. nu:lli:  nu:lli:  nu:lli: 
  Acc. nu:llum nu:llam nu:llum
  Abl. nu:llo:  nu:lla:  nu:llo: 

MASC.      FEM.         NEUT. 
Nom.  alius       alia        aliud
Gen.  ali:’us     ali:’us     ali:’us
Dat.  alii:        alii:        alii: 
Acc.  alium       aliam       aliud
Abl.  alio:        alia:        alio: 

  THE PLURAL IS REGULAR

    a. Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in -d of alius\. 
    The genitive
ali:us\ is rare.  Instead of it use alteri:us\, the
    genitive of
alter\.

    b. These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension
    of pronouns (see Sec. 114).  For this reason these adjectives are
    sometimes called the pronominal adjectives\.

110. Learn the following idioms: 

  alter, -era, -erum\ ... alter, -era, -erum\, the one ... the other
    (of two)
  alius, -a, -ud\ ... alius, -a, -ud\, one ... another (of any
    number)
  alii, -ae, -a\ ... alii, -ae, -a\, some ... others

EXAMPLES

  1.  Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum, the one town is
  large, the other small
(of two towns).

  2.  Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud infirmum, one town is strong,
  another weak
(of towns in general).

  3.  Alii gladios, alii scuta portant, some carry swords, others
  shields.

111. EXERCISES

I. 1.  In utra casa est Iulia?  Iulia est in neutra casa. 2.  Nulli malo puero praemium dat magister. 3.  Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola. 4.  Alii viri aquam, alii terram amant. 5.  Galba unus (or solus) cum studio laborat. 6.  Estne ullus carrus in agro meo? 7.  Lesbia est ancilla alterius domini, Tullia alterius. 8.  Lesbia sola cenam parat. 9.  Cena nullius alterius ancillae est bona. 10.  Lesbia nulli alii viro cenam dat.

NOTE.  The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before and not after their nouns.

II. 1.  The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2.  Some towns are great and others are small. 3.  One boy likes chickens, another horses. 4.  Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5.  Our whole village is suffering for (i.e. weak because of) lack of food. 6.  The people are already hastening to the other town. 7.  Among the Romans (there) is no lack of grain.

Page 36

LESSON XVII

THE DEMONSTRATIVE IS, EA, ID

  [Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS agri:  cultu:ra, -ae\, f., _agriculture_ Gallia, -ae\, f., Gaul domicili:um, domi:ci’li:\, n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_ Gallus, -i\, m., a Gaul lacrima, -ae\, f., _tear_ fe:mina, -ae\, f., woman (female) numerus, -i:\, m., _number_ (numeral)

  ADJECTIVE
  
ma:tu:rus, -a, -um\, ripe, mature

  ADVERB
   quo:, whither

  VERBS
   arat, he (she, it) plows (arable)
  de:si:derat\, _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc.

  CONJUNCTION
  an\, _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as
    _Is he a Roman or a Gaul_,
Estne Romanus an Gallus?\

112. A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely, as this, that, these, those.  Sometimes these words are pronouns, as, Do you hear these? and sometimes adjectives, as, Do you hear these men? In the former case they are called demonstrative pronouns\, in the latter demonstrative adjectives\.

113. Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as pronouns and as adjectives.  The one used most is

  is\, masculine; ea\, feminine; id\, neuter
  SINGULAR:  _this, that_; PLURAL:  _these, those_

114. Is\ is declined as follows.  Compare its declension with that of alius\, Sec. 109.

BASE e-

SINGULAR PLURAL
MASC.  FEM.  NEUT.  MASC.  FEM.  NEUT. 
Nom. is ea id ei:  eae ea
(or ii:)
Gen. eius eius eius eo:rum ea:rum eo:rum
Dat. ei:  ei:  ei:  ei:s ei:s ei:s
(or ii:s ii:s ii:s)
Acc. eum eam id eo:s ea:s ea
Abl. eo:  ea:  eo:  ei:s ei:s ei:s
(or ii:s ii:s ii:s)

Note that the base e- changes to i- in a few cases.  The genitive singular eius\ is pronounced _eh’yus_.  In the plural the forms with two i\’s are preferred and the two i\’s are pronounced as one.  Hence, pronounce ii:\ as i:\ and ii:s\ as i:s\.

115. Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun he, she, it.  As a personal pronoun, then, is\ would have the following meanings: 

  SINGULAR
  Nom. is, he; ea, she; id, it
  Gen. eius, of him or his;
       eius, of her, her, or hers;
       eius, of it or its
  Dat. ei:, to or for him;
       ei:, to or for her;

Page 37

       ei:, to or for it
  Acc. eum, him; eam, her; id, it
  Abl. eo:, with, from, etc., him;
       ea:, with, from, etc., her;
       eo:, with, from, etc., it

  PLURAL
  Nom. ei:  or ii:, eae, ea, they
  Gen. eo:rum, ea:rum, eo:rum, of them, their
  Dat. ei:s or ii:s, ei:s or ii:s, ei:s or ii:s,
          to or for them
  Acc. eo:s, ea:s, ea, them
  Abl. ei:s or ii:s, ei:s or ii:s, ei:s or ii:s,
          with, from, etc., them

116. Comparison between suus and is.  We learned above (Sec. 98.c) that suus\ is a _reflexive_ possessive.  When _his, her_ (poss.), _its, their_, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express _his, her, its_ by eius\, the genitive singular of is\, ea\, id\; and _their_ by the genitive plural, using eorum\ to refer to a masculine or neuter antecedent noun and earum\ to refer to a feminine one.

EXAMPLES

  Galba calls his (own) son,
    Galba suum filium vocat
  Galba calls his son (not his own, but another’s),
    Galba eius filium vocat
  Julia calls her (own) children,
    Iulia suos liberos vocat
  Julia calls her children (not her own, but another’s),
    Iulia eius liberos vocat
  The men praise their (own) boys,
    viri suos pueros laudant
  The men praise their boys (not their own, but others’),
    viri eorum pueros laudant

117. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

1.  He praises her, him, it, them. 2.  This cart, that report, these teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3.  That strong garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness, those frequent plans.

4.  The other woman is calling her chickens (her own). 5.  Another woman is calling her chickens (not her own). 6.  The Gaul praises his arms (his own). 7.  The Gaul praises his arms (not his own). 8.  This farmer often plows their fields. 9.  Those wretched slaves long for their master (their own). 10.  Those wretched slaves long for their master (not their own). 11.  Free men love their own fatherland. 12.  They love its villages and towns.

118. DIALOGUE[1]

CORNELIUS AND MARCUS

  M. Quis est vir, Corneli, cum puero parvo?  Estne Romanus et liber? 
  C. Romanus non est, Marce.  Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in
    silvis Galliae. 
  M. Estne puer filius eius servi an alterius? 
  C. Neutrius filius est puer.  Is est filius legati Sexti. 
  M. Quo puer cum eo servo properat? 

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  C. Is cum servo properat ad latos Sexti agros.[2] Totum frumentum est
    iam maturum et magnus servorum numerus in Italiae[3] agris laborat. 
  M. Agricolaene sunt Galli et patriae suae agros arant? 
  C. Non agricolae sunt.  Bellum amant Galli, non agri culturam.  Apud eos
    viri pugnant et feminae auxilio liberorum agros arant parantque
    cibum. 
  M. Magister noster pueris puellisque gratas Gallorum fabulas saepe
    narrat et laudat eos saepe. 
  C. Mala est fortuna eorum et saepe miseri servi multis cum lacrimis
    patriam suam desiderant.

    [Footnote 1:  There are a number of departures from the normal order
    in this dialogue.  Find them, and give the reason.]

    [Footnote 2:  When a noun is modified by both a genitive and an
    adjective, a favorite order of words is adjective, genitive,
    noun
.]

    [Footnote 3:  A modifying genitive often stands between a preposition
    and its object.]

* * * * *

  Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, Secs. 506-509

* * * * *

LESSON XVIII

CONJUGATION
THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF SUM\

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
   lu:dus, -i:, m.,_school_
  socius, soci:\, m., _companion, ally_ (social)

  ADJECTIVES
  i:ra:tus, -a, -um\, _angry, furious_ (irate)
  
laetus, -a, -um\, happy, glad (social)

  ADVERBS
   hodie:, to-day
  ibi\, _there, in that place_
   mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future
  
nunc\, now, the present moment
  nu:per\, _lately, recently_, of the immediate past

119. The inflection of a verb is called its conjugation (cf.  Sec. 23).  In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different meanings being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and auxiliaries, as, I am carried, we have carried, they shall have carried, etc.  In Latin, on the other hand, instead of using personal pronouns and auxiliary verbs, the form changes with the meaning.  In this way the Romans expressed differences in tense, mood, voice, person, and number.

120. The Tenses.  The different forms of a verb referring to different times are called its tenses.  The chief distinctions of time are present, past, and future: 

  1. The present\, that is, _what is happening now_, or
     _what usually happens_, is expressed by
        THE PRESENT TENSE

  2. The past\, that is, _what was happening, used to happen,
      happened, has happened_, or _had happened_, is expressed by
        THE IMPERFECT, PERFECT, AND PLUPERFECT TENSES

  3. The future\, that is, _what is going to happen_, is expressed by
        THE FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT TENSES

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121. The Moods.  Verbs have inflection of mood to indicate the manner in which they express action.  The moods of the Latin verb are the indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive.

    a. A verb is in the indicative mood when it makes a statement or
    asks a question about something assumed as a fact.  All the verbs we
    have used thus far are in the present indicative.

122. The Persons.  There are three persons, as in English.  The first person is the person speaking (I sing); the second person the person spoken to (you sing); the third person the person spoken of (he sings).  Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal endings (cf.  Sec. 22 a; 29).  We have already learned that -t is the ending of the third person singular in the active voice and -nt of the third person plural.  The complete list of personal endings of the active voice is as follows: 

SINGULAR                  PLURAL
1st Pers. I             -m or -o:   we   -mus
2d Pers.  thou or you -s        you  -tis
3d Pers.  he, she, it   -t        they -nt

123. Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and are called regular verbs.  Verbs that depart from this plan are called irregular.  The verb to be is irregular in Latin as in English.  The present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as follows: 

PRESENT INDICATIVE
SINGULAR                        PLURAL
1st Pers. su-m, I am                    su-mus, we are
2d Pers.  e-s, you[1] are               es-tis, you[1] are
3d Pers.  es-t, he, she, or it is     su-nt,  they are

IMPERFECT INDICATIVE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1st Pers. er-a-m, I was er-a:’-mus, we were
2d Pers. er-a:-s, you were er-a:’-tis, you were
3d Pers. er-a-t, he, she, or it was er-a:-nt, they were

FUTURE INDICATIVE
SINGULAR                        PLURAL
1st Pers. er-o:,   I shall be            er’-i-mus, we shall be
2d Pers.  er-i-s, you will be           er’-i-tis, you will be
3d Pers.  er-i-t, he will be            er-u-nt,   they will be

a. Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and
consult Secs. 12.2; 14; 15.

[Footnote 1:  Observe that in English you are, you were, etc. may
be either singular or plural.  In Latin the singular and plural forms
are never the same.]

124. DIALOGUE

THE BOYS SEXTUS AND MARCUS

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First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

  S. Ubi es, Marce?  Ubi est Quintus?  Ubi estis, amici? 
  M. Cum Quinto, Sexte, in silva sum.  Non soli sumus; sunt in silva
    multi alii pueri. 
  S. Nunc laetus es, sed nuper non laetus eras.  Cur miser eras? 
  M. Miser eram quia amici mei erant in alio vico et eram solus.  Nunc
    sum apud socios meos.  Nunc laeti sumus et erimus. 
  S. Eratisne in ludo hodie? 
  M. Hodie non eramus in ludo, quod magister erat aeger. 
  S. Eritisne mox in ludo? 
  M. Amici mei ibi erunt, sed ego (I) non ero. 
  S. Cur non ibi eris?  Magister, saepe iratus, inopiam tuam studi
    diligentiaeque non laudat. 
  M. Nuper aeger eram et nunc infirmus sum.

125. EXERCISE

1.  You are, you were, you will be, (sing. and plur.). 2.  I am, I was, I shall be. 3.  He is, he was, he will be. 4.  We are, we were, we shall be. 5.  They are, they were, they will be.

6.  Why were you not in school to-day?  I was sick. 7.  Lately he was a sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8.  To-day I am happy, but lately I was wretched. 9.  The teachers were happy because of the boys’ industry.

  [Illustration:  PUERI ROMANI IN LUDO]

LESSON XIX

THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS
PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF AMO: AND MONEO:

126. There are four conjugations of the regular verbs.  These conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the present conjugation-stem.[1] This vowel is called the distinguishing vowel, and is best seen in the present infinitive.

[Footnote 1:  The stem is the body of a word to which the terminations are attached.  It is often identical with the base (cf.  Sec. 58).  If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional terminations.  This point is further explained in Sec. 230.]

Below is given the present infinitive of a verb of each conjugation, the present stem, and the distinguishing vowel.

DISTINGUISHING
CONJUGATION    PRES.  INFIN.             PRES.  STEM    VOWEL
I.         ama:’re, to love       ama:-            a: 
II.         mone:’re, to advise    mone:-           e: 
III.         re’gere, to rule      rege-           e
IV.         audi:’re, to hear      audi-           i: 

    a. Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by
    dropping -re, the ending of the present infinitive.

NOTE.  The present infinitive of sum\ is esse\, and es- is the present stem.

127. From the present stem are formed the present, imperfect, and future tenses.

128. The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and of the second conjugation is as follows: 

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a’mo:, ama:’re (love)       mo’neo:, mone:’re (advise)
PRES.  STEM ama:-             PRES.  STEM mone:-

      SINGULAR PLURAL PERSONAL ENDINGS
  1. a’mo:, I love mo’neo:, I advise -o: 
  2. a’ma:s, you love mo’ne:s, you advise -s
  3. a’mat, he (she, it) loves mo’net, he (she, it) advises -t

1. ama:’mus, we love           mone:’mus, we advise         -mus
2. ama:’tis, you love          mone:’tis, you advise        -tis
3. a’mant, they love          mo’nent, they advise         -nt
1.  The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to the present stem, and its first person uses -o and not -m.  The form amo:\ is for ama-o:\, the two vowels a-o:\ contracting to o:\.  In moneo:\ there is no contraction. _Nearly all regular verbs ending in -eo belong to the second conjugation._

  2.  Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before
  another vowel (mone:-o:  = mo’neo:), and before final -t (amat,
  monet) and -nt (amant, monent).  Compare Sec. 12.2.

129. Like amo:\ and moneo:\ inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs[2]: 

    [Footnote 2:  The only new verbs in this list are the five of the
    second conjugation which are starred.  Learn their meanings.]

  INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT
   a’ro, I plow ara’re, to plow
   cu’ro, I care for cura’re, to care for
  de:’leo:, _I destroy_ de:le:’re, _to destroy_
   desi’dero, _I long for_ desidera’re, _to long for_
   do,[3] _I give_ da’re, _to give_
  
ha’beo:, I have habe:’re, to have
   ha’bito, I live, I dwell habita’re, to live, to dwell
  iu’beo:, _I order_ iube:’re, _to order_
   labo’ro, _I labor_ labora’re, _to labor_
   lau’do, _I praise_ lauda’re, _to praise_
   matu’ro, _I hasten_ matura’re, _to hasten_
  
mo’veo:, I move move:’re, to move
   nar’ro, I tell narra’re, to tell
   ne’co, I kill neca’re, to kill
   nun’tio, I announce nuntia’re, to announce
   pa’ro, I prepare para’re, to prepare
   por’to, I carry porta’re, to carry
   pro’pero, I hasten propera’re, to hasten
   pug’no, I fight pugna’re, to fight
  vi’deo:, _I see_ vide:’re, _to see_
   vo’co, _I call_ voca’re, _to call_

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[Footnote 3:  Observe that in do:, dare\, the a\ is short, and that the present stem is da- and not da:-.  The only forms of do:\ that have a long are da:s\ (pres. indic.), da:\ (pres. imv.), and da:ns\ (pres. part.).]

130. The Translation of the Present.  In English there are three ways of expressing present action.  We may say, for example, I live, I am living, or I do live.  In Latin the one expression habito\ covers all three of these expressions.

131. EXERCISES

Give the voice, mood, tense, person, and number of each form.

I. 1.  Vocamus, properatis, iubent. 2.  Movetis, laudas, vides. 3.  Deletis, habetis, dant. 4.  Maturas, desiderat, videmus. 5.  Iubet, movent, necat. 6.  Narramus, moves, vident. 7.  Laboratis, properant, portas, parant. 8.  Delet, habetis, iubemus, das.

N.B.  Observe that the personal ending is of prime importance in translating a Latin verb form.  Give that your first attention.

II. 1.  We plow, we are plowing, we do plow. 2.  They care for, they are caring for, they do care for. 3.  You give, you are having, you do have (sing.). 4.  We destroy, I do long for, they are living. 5.  He calls, they see, we are telling. 6.  We do fight, we order, he is moving, he prepares. 7.  They are laboring, we kill, you announce.

LESSON XX

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF AMO: AND MONEO:

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  fo:rma, -ae\, f., _form, beauty_
  
regi:na, -ae\, f., queen (regal)
  poena, -ae\, f., _punishment, penalty_
   superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_
  
potentia, -ae\, f., power (potent)
  tri:sti:ti:a, -ae\, f., _sadness, sorrow_

  ADJECTIVES
  septem\, indeclinable, _seven_
  
superbus, -a, -um\, proud, haughty (superb)

   CONJUNCTIONS
  no:n so:lum ... sed etiam\, _not only ... but also_

132. Tense Signs.  Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express differences in tense, like was, shall, will, etc., Latin adds to the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs.  These are called tense signs.

133. Formation and Inflection of the Imperfect.  The tense sign of the imperfect is -ba:-, which is added to the present stem.  The imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts: 

PRESENT STEM  TENSE SIGN  PERSONAL ENDING
ama:-        ba-       m
loving      was       I

The inflection is as follows: 

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II
PERSONAL
SINGULAR ENDINGS
1. ama:’bam, I was loving mone:’bam, I was advising -m 2. ama:’ba:s, you were loving mone:’ba:s, you were advising -s 3. ama:’bat, he was loving mone:’bat, he was advising -t

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PLURAL 1. ama:ba:’mus, we were loving mone:ba:’mus, we were advising -mus 2. ama:ba:’tis, you were loving mone:ba:’tis, you were advising -tis 3. ama:’bant, they were loving mone:’bant, they wereadvising -nt

    a. Note that the a:\ of the tense sign -ba:- is shortened before
    -nt, and before
m\ and t\ when final. (Cf.  Sec. 12.2.)

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in Sec. 129.

134. Meaning of the Imperfect.  The Latin imperfect describes an act as going on or progressing in past time, like the English past-progressive tense (as, I was walking).  It is the regular tense used to describe a past situation or condition of affairs.

135. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Videbamus, desiderabat, maturabas. 2.  Dabant, vocabatis, delebamus. 3.  Pugnant, laudabas, movebatis. 4.  Iubebant, properabatis, portabamus. 5.  Dabas, narrabant, laborabatis. 6.  Videbant, movebas, nuntiabamus. 7.  Necabat, movebam, habebat, parabatis.

II. 1.  You were having (sing. and plur.), we were killing, they were laboring. 2.  He was moving, we were ordering, we were fighting. 3.  We were telling, they were seeing, he was calling. 4.  They were living, I was longing for, we were destroying. 5.  You were giving, you were moving, you were announcing, (sing. and plur.). 6.  They were caring for, he was plowing, we were praising.

136. NI’OBE AND HER CHILDREN

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

Niobe, regina Thebanorum, erat pulchra femina sed superba.  Erat superba non solum forma[1] sua maritique potentia[1] sed etiam magno liberorum numero.[1] Nam habebat[2] septem filios et septem filias.  Sed ea superbia erat reginae[3] causa magnae tristitiae et liberis[3] causa durae poenae.

NOTE.  The words Niobe\, Thebanorum\, and mariti\ will be found in the general vocabulary.  Translate the selection without looking up any other words.

    [Footnote 1:  Ablative of cause.]

    [Footnote 2:  Translate had; it denotes a past situation. (See
    Sec. 134.)]

    [Footnote 3:  Dative, cf.  Sec. 43.]

LESSON XXI

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF AMO: AND MONEO:

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
   sacrum, -i:, n., sacrifice, offering, rite
  verbum, -i:\, n., _word_ (verb)

  VERBS
   sedeo:, -e:re, sit (sediment)
   volo:, -a:re, fly (volatile)

ADJECTIVES interfectus, -a, -um\, _slain_ molestus, -a, -um\, troublesome, annoying (molest) perpetuus, -a, -um\, _perpetual, continuous_

  ego\, personal pronoun, I (egotism).  Always emphatic in the
    nominative.

Page 44

137. The tense sign of the Future Indicative in the first and second conjugations is -bi-.  This is joined to the present stem of the verb and followed by the personal ending, as follows: 

PRESENT STEM  TENSE SIGN  PERSONAL ENDING
ama:-          bi-         s
love        will      you

138. The Future Active Indicative is inflected as follows.

     CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II
     SINGULAR
  1. ama:’bo:, I shall love mone:’bo:, I shall advise
  2. ama:’bis, you will love mone:’bis, you will advise
  3. ama:’bit, he will love mone:’bit, he will advise

     PLURAL
  1. ama:’bimus, we shall love mone:’bimus, we shall advise
  2. ama:’bitis you will love mone:’bitis, you will advise
  3. ama:’bunt, they will love mone:’bunt, they will advise

a. The personal endings are as in the present.  The ending -bo:  in the first person singular is contracted from -bi-o:.  The -bi- appears as -bu- in the third person plural.  Note that the inflection is like that of ero:\, the future of sum\. Pay especial attention to the accent.

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in Sec. 129.

139. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Movebitis, laudabis, arabo. 2.  Delebitis, vocabitis, dabunt. 3.  Maturabis, desiderabit, videbimus. 4.  Habebit, movebunt, necabit. 5.  Narrabimus, monebis, videbunt. 6.  Laborabitis, curabunt, dabis. 7.  Habitabimus, properabitis, iubebunt, parabit. 8.  Nuntiabo, portabimus, iubebo.

II. 1.  We shall announce, we shall see, I shall hasten. 2.  I shall carry, he will plow, they will care for. 3.  You will announce, you will move, you will give, (sing. and plur.). 4.  We shall fight, we shall destroy, I shall long for. 5.  He will call, they will see, you will tell (plur.). 6.  They will dwell, we shall order, he will praise. 7.  They will labor, we shall kill, you will have (sing. and plur.), he will destroy.

140. NI’OBE AND HER CHILDREN (Concluded)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apollo et Diana erant liberi Latonae.  Iis Thebani sacra crebra parabant.[1] Oppidani amabant Latonam et liberos eius.  Id superbae reginae erat molestum.  “Cur,” inquit, “Latonae et liberis sacra paratis?  Duos liberos habet Latona; quattuordecim habeo ego.  Ubi sunt mea sacra?” Latona iis verbis[2] irata liberos suos vocat.  Ad eam volant Apollo Dianaque et sagittis[3] suis miseros liberos reginae superbae delent.  Niobe, nuper laeta, nunc misera, sedet apud liberos interfectos et cum perpetuis lacrimis[4] eos desiderat.

NOTE.  Consult the general vocabulary for Apollo\, inquit\, duos\, and quattuordecim\.  Try to remember the meaning of all the other words.

Page 45

    [Footnote 1:  Observe the force of the imperfect here, used to
    prepare
, were in the habit of preparing; so amabant\ denotes a
    past situation of affairs. (See Sec. 134.)]

    [Footnote 2:  Ablative of cause.]

    [Footnote 3:  Ablative of means.]

[Footnote 4:  This may be either manner or accompaniment.  It is often impossible to draw a sharp line between means, manner, and accompaniment.  The Romans themselves drew no sharp distinction.  It was enough for them if the general idea demanded the ablative case.]

LESSON XXII

REVIEW OF VERBS :  THE DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  discipli:na, -ae\, f., _training, culture, discipline_
  
Ga:ius, Ga:i:\, m., Caius, a Roman first name
  o:rna:mentum, -i:\, n., _ornament, jewel_
   Tiberius, Tibe’ri:, m., _Tiberius_, a Roman first name

  VERB
  doceo:, -e:re\, _teach_ (doctrine)

  ADVERB
  maxime:\, _most of all, especially_

  ADJECTIVE
  anti:quus, -qua, -quum\, _old, ancient_ (antique)

141. Review the present, imperfect, and future active indicative, both orally and in writing, of sum\ and the verbs in Sec. 129.

142. We learned in Sec. 43 for what sort of expressions we may expect the dative, and in Sec. 44 that one of its commonest uses is with verbs to express the indirect object.  It is also very common with adjectives to express the object toward which the quality denoted by the adjective is directed.  We have already had a number of cases where gratus\, _agreeable to_, was so followed by a dative; and in the last lesson we had molestus\, annoying to, followed by that case.  The usage may be more explicitly stated by the following rule: 

143. RULE.  Dative with Adjectives. The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed.  Such are, especially, those meaning /near\, also /fit\, /friendly\, /pleasing\, /like\, and their opposites.

144. Among such adjectives memorize the following: 

ido:neus, -a, -um, fit, suitable (for) ami:cus, -a, -um, friendly (to) inimicus, -a, -um, hostile (to) gra:tus, -a, -um, pleasing (to), agreeable (to) molestus, -a, -um, annoying (to), troublesome (to) fi:nitimus, -a, -um, neighboring (to) proximus, -a, -um, nearest, next (to)

145. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Romani terram idoneam agri culturae habent. 2.  Galli copiis Romanis inimici erant. 3.  Cui dea Latona amica non erat? 4.  Dea Latona superbae reginae amica non erat. 5.  Cibus noster, Marce, erit armatis viris gratus. 6.  Quid erat molestum populis Italiae? 7.  Bella longa cum Gallis erant molesta populis Italiae. 8.  Agri Germanorum fluvio Rheno finitimi erant. 9.  Romani ad silvam oppido proximam castra movebant. 10.  Non solum forma sed etiam superbia reginae erat magna. 11.  Mox regina pulchra erit aegra tristitia. 12.  Cur erat Niobe, regina Thebanorum, laeta?  Laeta erat Niobe multis filiis et filiabus.

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II. 1.  The sacrifices of the people will be annoying to the haughty queen. 2.  The sacrifices were pleasing not only to Latona but also to Diana. 3.  Diana will destroy those hostile to Latona. 4.  The punishment of the haughty queen was pleasing to the goddess Diana. 5.  The Romans will move their forces to a large field[1] suitable for a camp. 6.  Some of the allies were friendly to the Romans, others to the Gauls.

    [Footnote 1:  Why not the dative?]

146. CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apud antiquas dominas, Cornelia, Africani filia, erat[2] maxime clara.  Filii eius erant Tiberius Gracchus et Gaius Gracchus.  Ii pueri cum Cornelia in oppido Roma, claro Italiae oppido, habitabant.  Ibi eos curabat Cornelia et ibi magno cum studio eos docebat.  Bona femina erat Cornelia et bonam disciplinam maxime amabat.

NOTE.  Can you translate the paragraph above?  There are no new words.

    [Footnote 2:  Observe that all the imperfects denote continued or
    progressive action, or describe a state of affairs. (Cf.  Sec. 134.)]

LESSON XXIII

PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF REGO: AND AUDIO:

147. As we learned in Sec. 126, the present stem of the third conjugation ends in -e, and of the fourth in -i:.  The inflection of the Present Indicative is as follows: 

CONJUGATION III               CONJUGATION IV
re’go:, re’gere (rule)      au’dio, audi:’re (hear)
PRES.  STEM rege-              PRES.  STEM audi:-

     SINGULAR
  1. re’go:, I rule au’dio:, I hear
  2. re’gis, you rule au’di:s, you hear
  3. re’git, he (she, it) rules au’dit, he (she, it) hears

PLURAL
1. re’gimus, we rule           audi:’mus, we hear
2. re’gitis, you rule          audi:’tis, you hear
3. re’gunt, they rule          au’diunt, they hear

  1.  The personal endings are the same as before.

2.  The final short -e- of the stem rege- combines with the -o:  in the first person, becomes -u- in the third person plural, and becomes -i- elsewhere.  The inflection is like that of ero:\, the future of sum\.
3.  In audio:\ the personal endings are added regularly to the stem audi:-.  In the third person plural -u- is inserted between the stem and the personal ending, as audi-u-nt\.  Note that the long vowel of the stem is shortened before final -t just as in amo\ and moneo\.  (Cf.  Sec. 12.2.)

Note that -i- is always short in the third conjugation and long in the fourth, excepting where long vowels are regularly shortened. (Cf.  Sec. 12.1, 2.)

148. Like rego\ and audio\ inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs: 

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  INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT

ago:, I drive agere, to drive di:co:, I say di:cere, to say du:co:, I lead du:cere, to lead mitto:, I send mittere, to send mu:nio:, I fortify mu:ni:re, to fortify reperio:, I find reperi:re, to find venio:, I come veni:re, to come

149. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Quis agit?  Cur venit?  Quem mittit?  Quem ducis? 2.  Quid mittunt?  Ad quem veniunt?  Cuius castra muniunt? 3.  Quem agunt?  Venimus.  Quid puer reperit? 4.  Quem mittimus?  Cuius equum ducitis?  Quid dicunt? 5.  Munimus, venitis, dicit. 6.  Agimus, reperitis, munis. 7.  Reperis, ducitis, dicis. 8.  Agitis, audimus, regimus.

II. 1.  What do they find?  Whom do they hear?  Why does he come? 2.  Whose camp are we fortifying?  To whom does he say?  What are we saying? 3.  I am driving, you are leading, they are hearing. 4.  You send, he says, you fortify (sing. and plur.). 5.  I am coming, we find, they send. 6.  They lead, you drive, he does fortify. 7.  You lead, you find, you rule, (all plur.).

150. CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (Concluded)

Proximum domicilio Corneliae erat pulchrae Campanae domicilium.  Campana erat superba non solum forma sua sed maxime ornamentis suis.  Ea[1] laudabat semper.  “Habesne tu ulla ornamenta, Cornelia?” inquit.  “Ubi sunt tua ornamenta?” Deinde Cornelia filios suos Tiberium et Gaium vocat.  “Pueri mei,” inquit, “sunt mea ornamenta.  Nam boni liberi sunt semper bonae feminae ornamenta maxime clara.”

NOTE.  The only new words here are Campana\, semper\, and tu\.

    [Footnote 1:  Ea\, accusative plural neuter.]

  [Illustration:  “PUERI MEI SUNT MEA ORNAMENTA”]

LESSON XXIV

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF REGO: AND AUDIO:
THE DATIVE WITH SPECIAL INTRANSITIVE VERBS

151. PARADIGMS

     CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV
     SINGULAR
  1. rege:’bam, I was ruling audie:’bam, I was hearing
  2. rege:’ba:s, you were riding audie:’ba:s, you were hearing
  3. rege:’bat, he was ruling audie:’bat, he was hearing

     PLURAL
  1. rege:ba:’mus, we were ruling audie:ba:’mus, we were hearing
  2. rege:ba:’tis, you were ruling audie:ba:’tis, you were hearing
  3. rege:’bant, they were ruling audie:’bant, they were hearing

  1.  The tense sign is -ba:-, as in the first two conjugations.

  2.  Observe that the final -e- of the stem is lengthened before the
  tense sign -ba:-.  This makes the imperfect of the third conjugation
  just like the imperfect of the second (cf. mone:bam\ and rege:bam\).

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  3.  In the fourth conjugation -e:- is inserted between the stem and
  the tense sign -ba:- (audi-e:-ba-m).

  4.  In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in Sec. 148.

152. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Agebat, veniebat, mittebat, ducebant. 2.  Agebant, mittebant, ducebas, muniebant. 3.  Mittebamus, ducebatis, dicebant. 4.  Muniebamus, veniebatis, dicebas. 5.  Mittebas, veniebamus, reperiebat. 6.  Reperiebas, veniebas, audiebatis. 7.  Agebamus, reperiebatis, muniebat. 8.  Agebatis, dicebam, muniebam.

II. 1.  They were leading, you were driving (sing. and plur.), he was fortifying. 2.  They were sending, we were finding, I was coming. 3.  You were sending, you were fortifying, (sing. and plur.), he was saying. 4.  They were hearing, you were leading (sing. and plur.), I was driving. 5.  We were saying, he was sending, I was fortifying. 6.  They were coming, he was hearing, I was finding. 7.  You were ruling (sing. and plur.), we were coming, they were ruling.

153. The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs.  We learned above (Sec. 20.a) that a verb which does not admit of a direct object is called an intransitive verb.  Many such verbs, however, are of such meaning that they can govern an indirect object, which will, of course, be in the dative case (Sec. 45).  Learn the following list of intransitive verbs with their meanings.  In each case the dative indirect object is the person or thing to which a benefit, injury, or feeling is directed. (Cf.  Sec. 43.)

cre:do:, cre:dere, believe (give belief to) faveo:, fave:re, favor (show favor to) noceo:, noce:re, injure (do harm to) pa:reo:, pa:re:re, obey (give obedience to) persua:deo:, persua:de:re, persuade (offer persuasion to) resisto:, resistere, resist (offer resistance to) studeo:, stude:re, be eager for (give attention to)

154. RULE.  Dative with Intransitive Verbs. The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs /credo\, /faveo\, /noceo\, /pareo\, /persuadeo\, /resisto\, /studeo\, and others of like meaning.

155. EXERCISE

1.  Credisne verbis sociorum?  Multi verbis eorum non credunt. 2.  Mei finitimi consilio tuo non favebunt, quod bello student. 3.  Tiberius et Gaius disciplinae durae non resistebant et Corneliae parebant. 4.  Dea erat inimica septem filiabus reginae. 5.  Dura poena et perpetua tristitia reginae non persuadebunt. 6.  Nuper ea resistebat et nunc resistit potentiae Latonae. 7.  Mox sagittae volabunt et liberis miseris nocebunt.

LESSON XXV

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF REGO: AND AUDIO:

156. In the future tense of the third and fourth conjugations we meet with a new tense sign.  Instead of using -bi-, as in the first and second conjugations, we use -a:-[1] in the first person singular and -e:- in the rest of the tense.  In the third conjugation the final -e-of the stem is dropped before this tense sign; in the fourth conjugation the final -i:- of the stem is retained.[2]

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    [Footnote 1:  The -a:- is shortened before -m final, and -e:-
    before -t final and before -nt. (Cf.  Sec. 12.2.)]

    [Footnote 2:  The -i:- is, of course, shortened, being before
    another vowel. (Cf.  Sec. 12.1.)]

157. PARADIGMS

     CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV
     SINGULAR
  1. re’gam, I shall rule au’diam, I shall hear
  2. re’ge:s, you will rule au’die:s, you will hear
  3. re’get, he will rule au’diet, he will hear

     PLURAL
  1. rege:’mus, we shall rule audie:’mus, we shall hear
  2. rege:’tis, you will rule audie:’tis, you will hear
  3. re’gent, they will rule au’dient, they will hear

  1.  Observe that the future of the third conjugation is like the
  present of the second, excepting in the first person singular.

  2.  In the same manner inflect the verbs given in Sec. 148.

158. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Dicet, ducetis, muniemus. 2.  Dicent, dicetis, mittemus. 3.  Munient, venient, mittent, agent. 4.  Ducet, mittes, veniet, aget. 5.  Muniet, reperietis, agemus. 6.  Mittam, veniemus, regent. 7.  Audietis, venies, reperies. 8.  Reperiet, agam, ducemus, mittet. 9.  Videbitis, sedebo, vocabimus.

II. 1.  I shall find, he will hear, they will come. 2.  I shall fortify, he will send, we shall say. 3.  I shall drive, you will lead, they will hear. 4.  You will send, you will fortify, (sing. and plur.), he will say. 5.  I shall come, we shall find, they will send.

6.  Who[3] will believe the story?  I[4] shall believe the story. 7.  Whose friends do you favor?  We favor our friends. 8.  Who will resist our weapons?  Sextus will resist your weapons. 9.  Who will persuade him?  They will persuade him. 10.  Why were you injuring my horse?  I was not injuring your horse. 11.  Whom does a good slave obey?  A good slave obeys his master. 12.  Our men were eager for another battle.

    [Footnote 3:  Remember that quis\, _who_, is singular in number.]

    [Footnote 4:  Express by ego\, because it is emphatic.]

LESSON XXVI

VERBS IN _-IO:_ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION :  THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

159. There are a few common verbs ending in -io:  which do not belong to the fourth conjugation, as you might infer, but to the third.  The fact that they belong to the third conjugation is shown by the ending of the infinitive. (Cf.  Sec. 126.) Compare

  audio:, audi:’re (hear), fourth conjugation
  capio:, ca’pere (take), third conjugation

160. The present, imperfect, and future active indicative of capio:\ are inflected as follows: 

  capio:, capere, take
  PRES.  STEM cape-

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     PRESENT IMPERFECT FUTURE
     SINGULAR
  1. ca’pio:  capie:’bam ca’piam
  2. ca’pis capie:’ba:s ca’pie:s
  3. ca’pit capie:’bat ca’piet

PLURAL
1. ca’pimus    capie:ba:’mus    capie:’mus
2. ca’pitis    capie:ba:’tis    capie:’tis
3. ca’piunt    capie:’bant      ca’pient
1.  Observe that capio:\ and the other -io:  verbs follow the fourth conjugation wherever in the fourth conjugation _two vowels occur in succession._ (Cf. capio:, audio:; capiunt, audiunt; and all the imperfect and future.) All other forms are like the third conjugation.  (Cf. capis, regis; capit, regit; etc.)

  2.  Like capio\, inflect

facio, facere, make, do fugio, fugere, flee iacio, iacere, hurl rapio, rapere, seize

161. The Imperative Mood.  The imperative mood expresses a command; as, come! send! The present tense of the imperative is used only in the second person, singular and plural. The singular in the active voice is regularly the same in form as the present stem.  The plural is formed by adding -te to the singular.

CONJUGATION      SINGULAR             PLURAL
I.             ama:, love thou     ama:’te, love ye
II.             mone:, advise thou  mone:’te, advise ye
III. (a)       rege, rule thou    re’gite, rule ye
(b)       cape, take thou    ca’pite, take ye
IV.             audi:, hear thou    audi:’te, hear ye
sum (irregular)  es, be thou        este, be ye

  1.  In the third conjugation the final -e- of the stem becomes -i- in
  the plural.

  2.  The verbs di:co:\, _say_; du:co:\, lead; and facio:\, _make_,
  have the irregular forms
di:c\, du:c\, and fac\ in the singular.

  3.  Give the present active imperative, singular and plural, of
  venio\, duco\, voco\, doceo\, laudo\, dico\, sedeo\, ago\,
  facio\, munio\, mitto\, rapio\.

162. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Fugient, faciunt, iaciebat. 2.  Dele, nuntiate, fugiunt. 3.  Venite, dic, facietis. 4.  Ducite, iaciam, fugiebant. 5.  Fac, iaciebamus, fugimus, rapite. 6.  Sedete, reperi, docete. 7.  Fugiemus, iacient, rapies. 8.  Reperient, rapiebatis, nocent. 9.  Favete, resiste, parebitis.

10.  Vola ad multas terras et da auxilium. 11.  Ego tela mea capiam et multas feras delebo. 12.  Quis fabulae tuae credet? 13.  Este boni, pueri, et audite verba grata magistri.

II. 1.  The goddess will seize her arms and will hurl her weapons. 2.  With her weapons she will destroy many beasts. 3.  She will give aid to the weak.[1] 4.  She will fly to many lands and the beasts will flee. 5.  Romans, tell[2] the famous story to your children.

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    [Footnote 1:  Plural.  An adjective used as a noun. (Cf. 
    Sec. 99.II.3.)]

    [Footnote 2:  Imperative.  The imperative generally stands first, as
    in English.]

* * * * *

  Third Review, Lessons XVIII-XXVI, Secs. 510-512

* * * * *

LESSON XXVII

THE PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE OF AMO: AND MONEO:

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
  a:la, -ae\, f., _wing_
  
deus, -i:\, m., god (deity)[A]
  monstrum, -i:\, n., _omen, prodigy; monster_
   o:ra:culum, -i:, n., _oracle_

  VERB
  va:sto:, -a:re\, _lay waste, devastate_

ADJECTIVES commo:tus, -a, -um\, _moved, excited_ maximus, -a, -um\, greatest (maximum) saevus, -a, -um\, _fierce, savage_

  ADVERBS
  
ita\, thus, in this way, as follows
  tum\, _then, at that time_

    [Footnote A:  For the declension of deus\, see Sec. 468]

163. The Voices.  Thus far the verb forms have been in the active voice; that is, they have represented the subject as performing an action; as,

  The lion —–­> killed —–­> the hunter

A verb is said to be in the passive voice when it represents its subject as receiving an action; as,

  The lion <—–­ was killed <—–­ by the hunter

Note the direction of the arrows.

164. Passive Personal Endings.  In the passive voice we use a different set of personal endings.  They are as follows: 

      SINGULAR PLURAL
   1. -r, I 1. -mur, we
   2. -ris, -re, you 2. -mini:, you
   3. -tur, he, she, it 3. -ntur, they

    a. Observe that the letter -r appears somewhere in all but one
    of the endings.  This is sometimes called the passive sign.

165. PARADIGMS

amo, ama:re                   mone:o, mone:re
PRES.  STEM ama:-              PRES.  STEM mone:-

  PRESENT INDICATIVE PERSONAL
          
                                                     ENDINGS
  SINGULAR
  a’mor, I am loved mo’neor, I am advised -or[1]
  ama:’ris or ama:’re, mone:’ris or mone:’re. -ris
    you are loved you are advised or -re
  ama:’tur, he is loved mone:’tur, he is advised -tur

PLURAL ama:’mur, we are loved mone:’mur, we are advised -mur ama:’mini:, you are loved mone:’mini:, you are advised -mini aman’tur, they are loved monen’tur, they are advised -ntur

    [Footnote 1:  In the present the personal ending of the first person
    singular is -or.]

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  IMPERFECT INDICATIVE (TENSE SIGN -ba:-)

SINGULAR
ama:’bar,                    mone:’bar,                       -r
I was being loved          I was being advised
ama:ba:’ris or ama:ba:’re,   mone:ba:’ris or mone:ba:’re      -ris
you were being loved       you were being advised         or -re
ama:ba:’tur,                 mone:ba:’tur,                    -tur
he was being loved         he was being advised
PLURAL
ama:ba:’mur,                 mone:ba:’mur,                    -mur
we were being loved        we were being advised
ama:ba:’mini:,               mone:ba:’mini:,                  -mini: 
you were being loved       you were being advised
ama:ban’tur,                 mone:ban’tur,                    -ntur
they were being loved      they were being advised

  FUTURE (TENSE SIGN -bi-)

SINGULAR
ama:’bor,                    mone:’bor,                       -r
I shall be loved           I shall be advised
ama:’beris, or ama:’bere   mone:’beris or mone:’bere,     -ris
you will be loved          you will be advised            or -re
ama:’bitur,                  mone:’bitur,                     -tur
he will be loved           he will be advised
PLURAL
ama:’bimur,                  mone:’bimur,                     -mur
we shall be loved          we shall be advised
ama:bi’mini:,                mone:bi’mini:,                   -mini: 
you will be loved          you will be advised
ama:bun’tur,                 mone:bun’tur,                    -ntur
they will be loved         they will be advised

  1.  The tense sign and the personal endings are added as in the active.

  2.  In the future the tense sign -bi- appears as -bo- in the first
  person, -be- in the second, singular number, and as -bu- in the
  third person plural.

  3.  Inflect laudo\, neco\, porto\, moveo\, deleo\, iubeo\, in the
  present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

166. Intransitive verbs, such as maturo\, _I hasten_; habito\, I dwell, do not have a passive voice with a personal subject.

167. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Laudaris or laudare, laudas, datur, dat. 2.  Dabitur, dabit, videmini, videtis. 3.  Vocabat, vocabatur, delebitis, delebimini. 4.  Parabatur, parabat, curas, curaris or curare. 5.  Portabantur, portabant, videbimur, videbimus. 6.  Iuberis or iubere, iubes, laudabaris or laudabare, laudabas. 7.  Moveberis or movebere, movebis, dabantur, dabant. 8.  Delentur, delent, parabamur, parabamus.

II. 1.  We prepare, we are prepared, I shall be called, I shall call, you were carrying, you were being carried. 2.  I see, I am seen, it was being announced, he was announcing, they will order, they will be ordered. 3.  You will be killed, you will kill, you move, you are moved, we are praising, we are being praised. 4.  I am called, I call, you will have, you are cared for. 5.  They are seen, they see, we were teaching, we were being taught, they will move, they will be moved.

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  [Illustration:  PERSEUS ANDROMEDAM SERVAT]

168. PER’SEUS AND ANDROM’EDA

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Perseus filius erat Iovis,[2] maximi[3] deorum.  De eo multas fabulas narrant poetae.  Ei favent dei, ei magica arma et alas dant.  Eis telis armatus et alis fretus ad multas terras volabat et monstra saeva delebat et miseris infirmisque auxilium dabat.

Aethiopia est terra Africae.  Eam terram Cepheus[4] regebat.  Ei[5] Neptunus, maximus aquarum deus, erat iratus et mittit[6] monstrum saevum ad Aethiopiam.  Ibi monstrum non solum latis pulchrisque Aethiopiae agris nocebat sed etiam domicilia agricolarum delebat, et multos viros, feminas, liberosque necabat.  Populus ex agris fugiebat et oppida muris validis muniebat.  Tum Cepheus magna tristitia commotus ad Iovis oraculum properat et ita dicit:  “Amici mei necantur; agri mei vastantur.  Audi verba mea, Iuppiter.  Da miseris auxilium.  Age monstrum saevum ex patria.”

    [Footnote 2:  Iovis\, the genitive of Iuppiter\.]

    [Footnote 3:  Used substantively, the greatest.  So below, l. 4,
    miseris\ and infirmis\ are used substantively.]

    [Footnote 4:  Pronounce in two syllables, Ce’pheus.]

    [Footnote 5:  Ei\, _at him_, dative with iratus\.]

    [Footnote 6:  The present is often used, as in English, in speaking
    of a past action, in order to make the story more vivid and
    exciting.]

LESSON XXVIII

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE
  OF REGO: AND AUDIO:

  [Special Vocabulary]

  VERBS
  respondeo:, -e:re\, _respond, reply_
  
servo:, -a:re\, save, preserve

  ADJECTIVE
  ca:rus, -a, -um\, _dear_ (cherish)

  CONJUNCTION
  autem\, _but, moreover, now_.  Usually stands second, never first

  NOUN
  vi:ta, -ae\, f., _life_ (vital)

169. Review the present, imperfect, and future indicative active of rego\ and audio\, and learn the passive of the same tenses (Secs. 490, 491).

    a. Observe that the tense signs of the imperfect and future are
    the same as in the active voice, and that the passive personal
    endings (Sec. 164) are added instead of the active ones.

b. Note the slight irregularity in the second person singular present of the third conjugation.  There the final -e- of the stem is not changed to -i-, as it is in the active.  We therefore have re’geris\ or re’gere\, not re’giris\, re’gire\.

    c. Inflect ago\, dico\, duco\, munio\, reperio\, in the
    present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

170. EXERCISES

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I. 1.  Agebat, agebatur, mittebat, mittebatur, ducebat. 2.  Agunt, aguntur, mittuntur, mittunt, muniunt. 3.  Mittor, mittar, mittam, ducere, ducere. 4.  Dicemur, dicimus, dicemus, dicimur, muniebamini. 5.  Ducitur, ducimini, reperimur, reperiar, agitur. 6.  Agebamus, agebamur, reperiris, reperiemini. 7.  Munimini, veniebam, ducebar, dicetur. 8.  Mittimini, mittitis, mitteris, mitteris, agebamini. 9.  Dicitur, dicit, muniuntur, reperient, audientur.

II. 1.  I was being driven, I was driving, we were leading, we were being led, he says, it is said. 2.  I shall send, I shall be sent, you will find, you will be found, they lead, they are led. 3.  I am found, we are led, they are driven, you were being led (sing. and plur.). 4.  We shall drive, we shall be driven, he leads, he is being led, they will come, they will be fortified. 5.  They were ruling, they were being ruled, you will send, you will be sent, you are sent, (sing. and plur.). 6.  He was being led, he will come, you are said (sing. and plur.).

171. PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (Continued)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Tum oraculum ita respondet:  “Mala est fortuna tua.  Neptunus, magnus aquarum deus, terrae Aethiopiae inimicus, eas poenas mittit.  Sed para irato deo sacrum idoneum et monstrum saevum ex patria tua agetur.  Andromeda filia tua est monstro grata.  Da eam monstro.  Serva caram patriam et vitam populi tui.”  Andromeda autem erat puella pulchra.  Eam amabat Cepheus maxime.

LESSON XXIX

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF _-IO:_ VERBS PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE

  [Special Vocabulary]

  VERB
  supero:, -a:re\, _conquer, overcome_ (insuperable)

  NOUNS
  cu:ra, -ae\, f., _care, trouble_
  
locus, -i:\, m., place, spot (location). Locus\ is neuter in the
    plural and is declined
loca, -o:rum\, etc.
  peri:culum, -i:\, n., _danger, peril_

  ADVERBS
  semper\, _always_
  
tamen\, yet, nevertheless

  PREPOSITIONS
  de:\, with abl., _down from; concerning_
  
per\, with acc., through

  CONJUNCTION
  si\, _if_

172. Review the active voice of capio\, present, imperfect, and future, and learn the passive of the same tenses (Sec. 492).

    a. The present forms capior\ and capiuntur\ are like audior,
    audiuntur\, and the rest of the tense is like
regor\.

    b. In like manner inflect the passive of iacio\ and rapio\.

173. The Infinitive.  The infinitive mood gives the general meaning of the verb without person or number; as, ama:re\, _to love_.  Infinitive means _unlimited_.  The forms of the other moods, being limited by person and number, are called the _finite_, or limited, verb forms.

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174. The forms of the Present Infinitive, active and passive, are as follows: 

CONJ.   PRES.      PRES.  INFINITIVE    PRES.  INFINITIVE
STEM        ACTIVE              PASSIVE
I.   ama:-     ama:’re,            ama:’ri:,
to love           to be loved
II.   mone:-    mone:’re,           mone:’ri:,
to advise         to be advised
III.   rege-     re’gere,            re’gi:,
to rule           to be ruled
cape-     ca’pere             ca’pi:,
to take           to be taken
IV.   audi:-    audi:’re,           audi:ri:,
to hear           to be heard

1.  Observe that to form the present active infinitive we add -re to
the present stem.

a. The present infinitive of sum\ is esse\.  There is no passive.

2.  Observe that the present passive infinitive is formed from the
active by changing final -e to -i:, except in the third
conjugation, which changes final -ere to -i:.

3.  Give the active and passive present infinitives of doceo\,
sedeo\, volo\, curo\, mitto\, duco\, munio\, reperio\, iacio\,
rapio\.

175. The forms of the Present Imperative, active and passive, are as follows: 

ACTIVE[1] PASSIVE
CONJ.  SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL
I. a’ma:  ama:’te ama:’re, ama:’mini:,
be thou loved be ye loved
II. mo’ne:  mone:’te mone:’re, mone:’mini:,
be thou advised be ye advised
III. re’ge re’gite re’gere, regi’mini:,
be thou ruled be ye ruled
ca’pe ca’pite ca’pere, capi’mini:,
be thou taken be ye taken
IV. au’di:  audi:’te audi:’re, audi:’mini:,
be thou heard be ye heard

1.  Observe that the second person singular of the present passive imperative is like the present active infinitive, and that both singular and plural are like the second person singular[2] and plural, respectively, of the present passive indicative.

2.  Give the present imperative, both active and passive, of the verbs
in Sec. 174.3.

    [Footnote 1:  For the sake of comparison the active is repeated from
    Sec. 161.]

    [Footnote 2:  That is, using the personal ending -re.  A form like
    ama:re\ may be either _indicative_, _infinitive_, or _imperative_.]

176. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1.  Tum Perseus alis ad terras multas volabit. 2.  Monstrum saevum per aquas properat et mox agros nostros vastabit. 3.  Si autem Cepheus ad oraculum properabit, oraculum ita respondebit. 4.  Quis telis Persei superabitur?  Multa monstra telis eius superabuntur. 5.  Cum curis magnis et lacrimis multis agricolae ex domiciliis caris aguntur. 6.  Multa loca vastabantur et multa oppida delebantur. 7.  Monstrum est validum, tamen superabitur. 8.  Credesne semper verbis oraculi?  Ego iis non semper credam. 9.  Parebitne Cepheus oraculo?  Verba oraculi ei persuadebunt. 10.  Si non fugiemus, oppidum capietur et oppidani necabuntur. 11.  Vocate pueros et narrate fabulam claram de monstro saevo.

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II. 1.  Fly thou, to be cared for, be ye sent, lead thou. 2.  To lead, to be led, be ye seized, fortify thou. 3.  To be hurled, to fly, send thou, to be found. 4.  To be sent, be ye led, to hurl, to be taken. 5.  Find thou, hear ye, be ye ruled, to be fortified.

LESSON XXX

SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS :  THE ABLATIVE DENOTING FROM

  [Special Vocabulary]

  VERBS
  absum, abesse\, irreg., _be away, be absent, be distant_, with
    separative abl.
  
adpropinquo:, -a:re\, draw near, approach (propinquity), with
    dative[A]
  contineo:, -e:re\, _hold together, hem in, keep_ (contain)
  
disce:do:, -ere\, depart, go away, leave, with separative abl.
  egeo:, -e:re\, _lack, need, be without_, with separative abl.
  
interficio:, -ere\, kill
  prohibeo:, -e:re\, _restrain, keep from_ (prohibit)
  
vulnero:, -a:re\, wound (vulnerable)

  NOUNS
  pro:vincia, -ae\, f., _province_
  
vi:num, -i:\, n., wine

  ADJECTIVE
  de:fessus, -a, -um\, _weary, worn out_

  ADVERB
  longe:\, _far, by far, far away_

[Footnote A:  This verb governs the dative because the idea of nearness to is stronger than that of motion to.  If the latter idea were the stronger, the word would be used with ad\ and the accusative.]

_177._ You should learn to give rapidly synopses of the verbs you have had, as follows:[1]

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II
INDICATIVE
ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE
Pres. a’mo:  a’mor mo’neo:  mo’neor
Imperf. ama:’bam ama:’bar mone:’bam mone:’bar
Fut. ama:’bo ama:’bor mone:’bo mone:’bor

[Footnote 1:  Synopses should be given not only in the first person,
but in other persons as well, particularly in the third singular and
plural.]

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II
IMPERATIVE
ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE
Pres. a’ma:  ama:’re mo’ne:  mone:’re

INFINITIVE
Pres. ama:’re ama:’ri:  mone:’re mone:’ri: 

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION III (-io:  verbs)
INDICATIVE
ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE
Pres. re’go:  re’gor ca’pio:  ca’pior
Imperf. rege:’bam rege:’bar capie:’bam capie:’bar
Fut. re’gam re’gar ca’piam ca’piar

IMPERATIVE
Pres. re’ge re’gere ca’pe ca’pere

INFINITIVE
Pres. re’gere re’gi:  ca’pere ca’pi: 

CONJUGATION IV
INDICATIVE
ACTIVE PASSIVE
Pres. au’dio:  au’dior
Imperf. audie:’bam audie:’bar
Fut. au’diam au’diar

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IMPERATIVE
Pres. au’di:  audi:’re

INFINITIVE
Pres. audi:’re audi:’ri: 

1.  Give the synopsis of rapio\, munio\, reperio\, doceo\, video\,
dico\, ago\, laudo\, porto\, and vary the person and number.

178. We learned in Sec. 50 that one of the three relations covered by the ablative case is expressed in English by the preposition from. This is sometimes called the separative ablative, and it has a number of special uses.  You have already grown familiar with the first mentioned below.

179. RULE.  Ablative of the Place From. The place from which is expressed by the ablative with the prepositions /a:\ or /ab\, /de:\, /e:\ or /ex\.

Agricolae ex agris veniunt, the farmers come from the fields

a. a:\ or ab\ denotes from near a place; e:\ or ex\, out
from
it; and de\, _down from_ it.  This may be represented
graphically as follows: 

_________
|         |
a:\ or ab\ |         | e:\ or ex\
/______________|     ___________________\
\              |  Place  |              /
|_________|
|
| de\
|
V

_180._ RULE.  Ablative of Separation. _Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning._

a. If the separation is actual and literal of one material thing from another, the preposition a:\ or ab\, e:\ or ex\, or de\ is generally used.  If no actual motion takes place of one thing from another, no preposition is necessary.

      (a) Perseus terram a monstris liberat
        _Perseus frees the land from monsters_
          (literal separation—­actual motion is expressed)
      (b) Perseus terram tristitia liberat
        _Perseus frees the land from sorrow_
          (figurative separation—­no actual motion is expressed)

181. RULE.  Ablative of the Personal Agent. The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition /a:\ or /ab\.

a. In this construction the English translation of a:\, ab\ is by rather than from.  This ablative is regularly used with passive verbs to indicate the person by whom the act was performed.

      Monstrum a Perseo necatur, the monster is being slain by
        (lit. from) Perseus

b. Note that the active form of the above sentence would be Perseus monstrum necat\, _Perseus is slaying the monster_.  In the passive the _object_ of the active verb becomes the _subject_, and the _subject_ of the active verb becomes the _ablative of the personal agent_, with a:\ or ab\.
_c._ Distinguish carefully between the

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ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent.  Both are often translated into English by the preposition _by_. (Cf.  Sec. 100. _b._) _Means is a
thing\; the agent or actor is a person\_.  The ablative of means has no preposition.  The ablative of the personal agent has a:\ or ab\.  Compare

      Fera sagitta necatur, _the wild beast is killed by an arrow_
      Fera a Diana necatur, _the wild beast is killed by Diana_

    Sagitta\, in the first sentence, is the ablative of means;
    
a Diana\, in the second, is the ablative of the personal agent.

182. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1.  Viri inopia cibi defessi ab eo loco discedent. 2.  Gerinani castris Romanis adpropinquabant, tamen legatus copias a proelio continebat. 3.  Multa Gallorum oppida ab Romanis capientur. 4.  Tum Romani totum populum eorum oppidorum gladiis pilisque interficient. 5.  Oppidani Romanis resistent, sed defessi longo proelio fugient. 6.  Multi ex Gallia fugiebant et in Germanorum vicis habitabant. 7.  Miseri nautae vulnerantur ab inimicis[2] saevis et cibo egent. 8.  Discedite et date viris frumentum et copiam vini. 9.  Copiae nostrae a proelio continebantur ab Sexto legato. 10.  Id oppidum ab provincia Romana longe aberat.

II. 1.  The weary sailors were approaching a place dear to the goddess Diana. 2.  They were without food and without wine. 3.  Then Galba and seven other men are sent to the ancient island by Sextus. 4.  Already they are not far away from the land, and they see armed men on a high place. 5.  They are kept from the land by the men with spears and arrows. 6.  The men kept hurling their weapons down from the high place with great eagerness.

    [Footnote 2:  inimicis\, here used as a noun.  See vocabulary.]

LESSON XXXI

PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF SUM

  [Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS
   aurum, -i:, n., gold (oriole)
  mora, -ae\, f., _delay_
  
na:vigium, na:vi’gi:\, n., boat, ship
  ventus, -i:\, m., _wind_ (ventilate)

  VERB
  na:vigo:, -a:re\, _sail_ (navigate)

  ADJECTIVES
   attentus, -a, -um, attentive, careful
  dubius, -a, -um\, _doubtful_ (dubious)
   perfidus, -a, -um, _faithless, treacherous_ (perfidy)

  ADVERB
  antea:\, _before, previously_

  PREPOSITION
  sine\, with abl., _without_

183. Principal Parts.  There are certain parts of the verb that are of so much consequence in tense formation that we call them the principal parts.

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the present, the past, and the past participle; as go, went, gone; see, saw, seen, etc.

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The principal parts of the Latin verb are the first person singular of the present indicative, the present infinitive, the first person singular of the perfect indicative, and the perfect passive participle.

184. Conjugation Stems.  From the principal parts we get three conjugation stems, from which are formed the entire conjugation.  We have already learned about the present stem\, which is found from the present infinitive (cf.  Sec. 126.a).  The other two stems are the perfect stem\ and the participial stem\.

185. The Perfect Stem.  The perfect stem of the verb is formed in various ways, but may always be found by dropping -i:  from the first person singular of the perfect, the third of the principal parts.  From the perfect stem are formed the following tenses: 

  THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE
  THE PLUPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE (ENGLISH PAST PERFECT)
  THE FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE

All these tenses express completed action in present, past, or future time respectively.

186. The Endings of the Perfect.  The perfect active indicative is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem.  These endings are different from those found in any other tense, and are as follows: 

     SINGULAR PLURAL
  1. -i:, I 1. -imus, we
  2. -isti:, you 2. -istis, you
  3. -it, he, she, it 3. -e:runt or -e:re, they

187. Inflection of sum\ in the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative: 

               PRES.  INDIC.  PRES.  INFIN.  PERF.  INDIC. 
  PRIN.  PARTS sum esse fui: 

PERFECT STEM fu-

    PERFECT
  SINGULAR PLURAL
  fu’i:, I have been, I was fu’imus, we have been, we were
  fuis’ti:, fuis’tis, you have been, you were
    you have been, you were
  fu’it, he has been, he was fue:’runt or fue:’re,
                                   they have been, they were

PLUPERFECT (TENSE SIGN -era:-)
fu’eram, I had been          fuera:’mus, we had been
fu’era:s, you had been       fuera:’tis, you had been
fu’erat, he had been         fu’erant, they had been

    FUTURE PERFECT (TENSE SIGN -eri-)
  fu’ero:, I shall have been fue’rimus, we shall have been
  fu’eris, you will have been fue’ritis, you will have been
  fu’erit, he will have been fu’erint, they will have been

  1.  Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect.

  2.  Observe that the pluperfect may be formed by adding eram\, the
  imperfect of
sum\, to the perfect stem.  The tense sign is -era:-.

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  3.  Observe that the future perfect may be formed by adding ero\, the
  future of
sum\, to the perfect stem.  But the third person plural ends
  in -erint, not in -erunt.  The tense sign is -eri-.

  4.  All active perfects, pluperfects, and future perfects are formed on
  the perfect stem and inflected in the same way.

188. DIALOGUE

THE BOYS TITUS, MARCUS, AND QUINTUS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

  M. Ubi fuistis, Tite et Quinte? 
  T. Ego in meo ludo fui et Quintus in suo ludo fuit.  Boni pueri fuimus. 
    Fuitne Sextus in vico hodie? 
  M. Fuit.  Nuper per agros proximos fluvio properabat.  Ibi is et
    Cornelius habent navigium. 
  T. Navigium dicis?  Alii[1] narra eam fabulam! 
  M. Vero (Yes, truly), pulchrum et novum navigium! 
  Q. Cuius pecunia[2] Sextus et Cornelius id navigium parant?  Quis iis
    pecuniam dat? 
  M. Amici Corneli multum habent aurum et puer pecunia non eget. 
  T. Quo pueri navigabunt?  Navigabuntne longe a terra? 
  M. Dubia sunt consilia eorum.  Sed hodie, credo, si ventus erit
    idoneus, ad maximam insulam navigabunt.  Iam antea ibi fuerunt. 
    Tum autem ventus erat perfidus et pueri magno in periculo erant. 
  Q. Aqua vento commota est inimica nautis semper, et saepe perfidus
    ventus navigia rapit, agit, deletque.  Ii pueri, si non fuerint
    maxime attenti, irata aqua et valido vento superabuntur et ita
    interficientur.

    [Footnote 1:  Dative case. (Cf.  Sec. 109.)]

    [Footnote 2:  Ablative of means.]

189. EXERCISE

1.  Where had the boys been before?  They had been in school. 2.  Where had Sextus been?  He had been in a field next to the river. 3.  Who has been with Sextus to-day?  Cornelius has been with him. 4.  Who says so?  Marcus. 5.  If the wind has been suitable, the boys have been in the boat. 6.  Soon we shall sail with the boys. 7.  There[3] will be no danger, if we are (shall have been) careful.[4]

    [Footnote 3:  The expletive there is not expressed, but the verb
    will precede the subject, as in English.]

    [Footnote 4:  This predicate adjective must be nominative plural to
    agree with we.]

LESSON XXXII

THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS

  [Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS animus, -i:\, m., _mind, heart; spirit, feeling_ (animate) bracchium, bracchi:\, n., forearm, arm porta, -ae\, f., _gate_ (portal)

  ADJECTIVES
  
adversus, -a, -um\, opposite; adverse, contrary
  ple:nus, -a, -um\, _full_ (plenty)

  PREPOSITION
  pro:\, with abl., _before; in behalf of; instead of_

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  ADVERB
  diu:\, _for a long time, long_

190. Meanings of the Perfect.  The perfect tense has two distinct meanings.  The first of these is equivalent to the English present perfect, or perfect with have, and denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking; as, I have finished my work.  As this denotes completed action at a definite time, it is called the perfect definite\.

The perfect is also used to denote an action that happened sometime in the past; as, I finished my work. As no definite time is specified, this is called the perfect indefinite\.  It corresponds to the ordinary use of the English past tense.

a. Note carefully the difference between the following tenses: 

I {was finishing } my work (imperfect, Sec. 134)
{used to finish}
I finished my work         (perfect indefinite)
I have finished my work    (perfect definite)

When telling a story the Latin uses the perfect indefinite to mark the different forward steps of the narrative, and the imperfect to describe situations and circumstances that attend these steps.  If the following sentences were Latin, what tenses would be used?

“Last week I went to Boston.  I was trying to find an old friend of
mine, but he was out of the city.  Yesterday I returned home.”

191. Inflection of the Perfect.  We learned in Sec. 186 that any perfect is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem.  The inflection in the four regular conjugations is then as follows: 

CONJ.  I    ama:vi:    I have loved, I loved or did love
CONJ.  II   monui:     I have advised, I advised or did advise
CONJ.  III  re:xi:     I have ruled, I ruled or did rule
ce:pi:     I have taken, I took or did take
CONJ.  IV   audi:vi:   I have heard, I heard or did hear

PERFECT STEMS
ama:v- monu- re:x- ce:p- audi:v-

   SINGULAR

1. ama:’vi:  mo’nui:  re:’xi:  ce:’pi:  audi:’vi: 
2. ama:vis’ti:  monuis’ti:  re:xis’ti:  ce:pis’ti:  audi:vis’ti: 
3. ama:’vit mo’nuit re:’xit ce:’pit audi:’vit

     PLURAL
  1. ama:’vimus monu’imus re:’ximus ce:’pimus audi:’vimus
  2. ama:vis’tis monuis’tis re:xis’tis ce:pis’tis audi:vis’tis
  3. ama:ve:’runt monue:’runt re:xe:’runt ce:pe:’runt audi:ve:’runt
       or or or or or
     ama:ve:’re monue:’re re:xe:’re ce:pe:’re audi:ve:’re

  1.  The first person of the perfect is always given as the third of the
  principal parts.  From this we get the perfect stem. This shows the
  absolute necessity of learning the principal parts thoroughly.

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  2.  Nearly all perfects of the first conjugation are formed by adding
  -vi:  to the present stem.  Like amavi\ inflect paravi\, vocavi\,
  
curavi\, laudavi\.

  3.  Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect.  Drill on it.

192. Learn the principal parts and inflect the perfects: 

PRES.  INDIC.  PRES.  INFIN.  PERF.  INDIC. do:  dare dedi:  give de:leo:  de:le:re de:le:vi:  destroy habeo:  habe:re habui:  have moveo:  move:re mo:vi:  move pa:reo:  pa:re:re pa:rui:  obey prohibeo:  prohibe:re prohi:bui:  restrain, keep from video:  vide:re vi:di:  see di:co:  di:cere di:xi:  say disce:do:  disce:dere discessi:  depart du:co:  du:cere du:xi:  lead facio:  facere fe:ci:  make, do mitto:  mittere mi:si:  send mu:nio:  mu:ni:re mu:ni:vi:  fortify venio:  veni:re ve:ni:  come

193. PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (Continued)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.

Cepheus, adversa fortuna maxime commotus, discessit et multis cum lacrimis populo Aethiopiae verba oraculi narravit.  Fata Andromedae, puellae pulchrae, a toto populo deplorabantur, tamen nullum erat auxilium.  Deinde Cepheus cum pleno tristitiae animo caram suam filiam ex oppidi porta ad aquam duxit et bracchia eius ad saxa dura revinxit.  Tum amici puellae miserae longe discesserunt et diu monstrum saevum exspectaverunt.

Tum forte Perseus, alis fretus, super Aethiopiam volabat.  Vidit populum, Andromedam, lacrimas, et, magnopere attonitus, ad terram descendit.  Tum Cepheus ei totas curas narravit et ita dixit:  “Parebo verbis oraculi, et pro patria filiam meam dabo; sed si id monstrum interficies et Andromedam servabis, tibi (to you) eam dabo.”

LESSON XXXIII

PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE
PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE

194. CONJ.  I CONJ.  II CONJ.  III CONJ.  IV
                  amo:  moneo:  rego:  capio:  audio: 
  PERFECT STEMS ama:v- monu- re:x- ce:p- audi:v-

PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE
TENSE SIGN -era:-

SINGULAR
I had loved I had advised I had ruled I had taken I had heard

1. ama:’veram     monu’eram     re:’xeram     ce:’peram     audi:’veram
2. ama:’vera:s    monu’era:s    re:’xera:s    ce:’pera:s    audi:’vera:s
3. ama:’verat     monu’erat     re:’xerat     ce:’perat     audi:’verat

PLURAL 1. ama:vera:’mus monuera:’mus re:xera:’mus ce:pera:’mus —­era:’mus 2. ama:vera:’tis monuera:’tis re:xera:’tis ce:pera:’tis —­era:’tis 3. ama’verant monu’erant re:’xerant ce:’perant audi:’verant

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  FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE
  TENSE SIGN -eri-

     SINGULAR
   I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have
      loved advised ruled taken heard

1. ama:’vero:     monu’ero:     re:’xero:     ce:’pero:     audi:’vero: 
2. ama:’veris    monu’eris    re:’xeris    ce:’peris    audi:’veris
3. ama:’verit    monu’erit    re:’xerit    ce:’perit    audi:’verit

     PLURAL
  1. ama:ve’rimus monue’rimus re:xe’rimus ce:pe’rimus audi:ve’rimus
  2. ama:ve’ritis monue’ritis re:xe’ritis ce:pe’ritis audi:ve’ritis
  3. ama:’verint monu’erint re:’xerint ce:’perint audi:’verint

  1.  Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for
  formation given in Sec. 187.2-4 hold good here.

  2.  In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative
  active of do\, porto\, deleo\, moveo\, habeo\, dico\, discedo\,
  
facio\, venio\, munio\.

195. The Perfect Active Infinitive.  The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding -isse to the perfect stem.

CONJ       PERFECT STEM  PERFECT INFINITIVE
I.       ama:v-        ama:vis’se, to have loved
II.       monu-         monuis’se, to have advised
III. (a) re:x-         re:xis’se, to have ruled
(b) ce:p-         ce:pis’se, to have taken
IV.       audi:v\       audi:vis’se, to have heard
sum        fu-           fuis’se, to have been

  1.  In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of do\, porto\,
  deleo\, moveo\, habeo\, dico\, discedo\, facio\, venio\,
  
munio\.

196. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Habuisti, moverunt, miserant. 2.  Vidit, dixeris, duxisse. 3.  Misistis, paruerunt, discesseramus. 4.  Munivit, dederam, misero. 5.  Habuerimus, delevi, paruit, fuisse. 6.  Dederas, muniveritis, veneratis, misisse. 7.  Veneras, fecisse, dederatis, portaveris.

8.  Quem verba oraculi moverant?  Populum verba oraculi moverant. 9.  Cui Cepheus verba oraculi narraverit?  Perseo Cepheus verba oraculi narraverit. 10.  Amici ab Andromeda discesserint. 11.  Monstrum saevum domicilia multa deleverat. 12.  Ubi monstrum vidistis?  Id in aqua vidimus. 13.  Quid monstrum faciet?  Monstrum Andromedam interficiet.

II. 1.  They have obeyed, we have destroyed, I shall have had. 2.  We shall have sent, I had come, they have fortified. 3.  I had departed, he has obeyed, you have sent (sing. and plur.). 4.  To have destroyed, to have seen, he will have given, they have carried. 5.  He had destroyed, he has moved, you have had (sing. and plur.). 6.  I have given, you had moved (sing. and plur.), we had said. 7.  You will have made (sing. and plur.), they will have led, to have given.

8.  Who had seen the monster?  Andromeda had seen it. 9.  Why had the men departed from[1] the towns?  They had departed because the monster had come. 10.  Did Cepheus obey[2] the oracle[3]?  He did.

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    [Footnote 1:  ex\.  What would ab\ mean?]

    [Footnote 2:  Did ... obey, perfect tense.]

    [Footnote 3:  What case?]

LESSON XXXIV

REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE

  [Special Vocabulary]

ADVERBS celeriter\, _quickly_ (celerity) de:nique\, finally graviter\, _heavily, severely_ (gravity) subito:\, suddenly

VERB
reporto:, -a:re, -a:vi:\, _bring back, restore; win, gain_ (report)

197. A review of the tenses of the indicative active shows the following formation: 

{ PRESENT = First of the principal parts
TENSES { IMPERFECT = Present stem + -ba-m
OF THE { FUTURE = Present stem + -bo, Conj.  I and II
INDICATIVE { -a-m, Conj.  III and IV
{ PERFECT = Third of the principal parts
{ PLUPERFECT = Perfect stem + -era-m
{ FUTURE PERFECT = Perfect stem + -ero

198. The synopsis of the active voice of amo\, as far as we have learned the conjugation, is as follows: 

PRINCIPAL PARTS amo:, ama:re, ama:vi: 

PRES.  STEM ama:-

{ Pres.      amo: 
INDIC. { Imperf.    ama:bam
{ Fut.       ama:bo: 
PRES.  IMV.            ama: 
PRES.  INFIN.          ama:re

PERF.  STEM ama:v-

{ Perf. ama:vi: 
INDIC. { Pluperf. ama:veram
{ Fut. perf. ama:vero: 
PERF.  INFIN. ama:visse

1.  Learn to write in the same form and to give rapidly the principal parts and synopsis of paro\, do\, laudo\, deleo\, habeo\, moveo\, pareo\, video\, dico\, discedo\, duco\, mitto\, capio\, munio\, venio\.[1]

[Footnote 1:  Learn to give synopses rapidly, and not only in the
first person singular but in any person of either number.]

199. Learn the following principal parts:[2]

    PRES.  INDIC.  PRES.  INFIN.  PERF.  INDIC.

IRREGULAR VERBS
sum           esse           fui:            be
ab’sum        abes’se        a:’fui:          be away
do:             dare           dedi:           give
CONJUGATION II
contineo:       contine:re      continui:       hold in, keep
doceo:          doce:re         docui:          teach
egeo:           ege:re          egui:           need
faveo:          fave:re         fa:vi:           favor
iubeo:          iube:re         iussi:          order
noceo:          noce:re         nocui:          injure
persua:deo:      persua:de:re     persua:si:       persuade
respondeo:      responde:re     respondi:       reply
sedeo:          sede:re         se:di:           sit

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studeo:  stude:re studui:  be eager
CONJUGATION III
ago:            agere          e:gi:            drive
cre:do:          cre:dere        cre:didi:        believe
fugio:          fugere         fu:gi:           flee
iacio:          iacere         ie:ci:           hurl
interficio:     interficere    interfe:ci:      kill
rapio:          rapere         rapui:          seize
resis’to:       resis’tere     re’stiti:       resist

  CONJUGATION IV
    repe’rio:  reperi:’re rep’peri:  find

    [Footnote 2:  These are all verbs that you have had before, and the
    perfect is the only new form to be learned.]

200. PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (Concluded)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.  Read the whole story.

Perseus semper proelio studebat[3] et respondit,[3] “Verba tua sunt maxime grata,” et laetus arma sua magica paravit.[3] Subito monstrum videtur; celeriter per aquam properat et Andromedae adpropinquat.  Eius amici longe absunt et misera puella est sola.  Perseus autem sine mora super aquam volavit.[3] Subito descendit[3] et duro gladio saevum monstrum graviter vulneravit.[3] Diu pugnatur,[4] diu proelium est dubium.  Denique autem Perseus monstrum interfecit[3] et victoriam reportavit.[3] Tum ad saxum venit[3] et Andromedam liberavit[3] et eam ad Cepheum duxit.[3] Is, nuper miser, nunc laetus, ita dixit[3]:  “Tuo auxilio, mi amice, cara filia mea est libera; tua est Andromeda.”  Diu Perseus cum Andromeda ibi habitabat[3] et magnopere a toto populo amabatur.[3]

    [Footnote 3:  See if you can explain the use of the perfects and
    imperfects in this passage.]

[Footnote 4:  The verb pugnatur means, literally, it is fought; translate freely, the battle is fought, or the contest rages.  The verb pugno in Latin is intransitive, and so does not have a personal subject in the passive.  A verb with an indeterminate subject, designated in English by it, is called impersonal.]

LESSON XXXV

THE PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE
THE PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE

201. The fourth and last of the principal parts (Sec. 183) is the perfect passive participle\. _From it we get the participial stem on which are formed the future active infinitive and all the passive perfects._

1.  Learn the following principal parts, which are for the first time
given in full: 

CONJ.  PRES.  INDIC.  PRES.  INFIN.  PERF.  INDIC.  PERF.  PASS.  PART. 
I. amo:  ama:’-re ama:’v-i:  ama:’t-us
This is the model for all regular verbs of the first conjugation. 
II. mo’neo:  mone:’-re mo’nu-i:  mo’nit-us
III. rego:  re’ge-re re:x-i:  re:ct-us
ca’pio:  ca’pe-re ce:p-i:  capt-us
IV. au’dio:  audi:’-re audi:’v-i:  audi:’t-us

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2.  The base of the participial stem is found by dropping -us from
the perfect passive participle.

202. In English the perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses of the indicative passive are made up of forms of the auxiliary verb to be and the past participle; as, I have been loved, I had been loved, I shall have been loved.

Very similarly, in Latin, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive tenses use respectively the present, imperfect, and future of sum\ as an auxiliary verb with the perfect passive participle, as

  Perfect passive, ama’tus sum\, _I have been_ or _was loved_
  Pluperfect passive,
ama’tus eram\, I had been loved
  Future perfect passive, ama’tus ero\, _I shall have been loved_

  1.  In the same way give the synopsis of the corresponding tenses of
  moneo\, rego\, capio\, and audio\, and give the English meanings.

203. Nature of the Participle.  A participle is partly verb and partly adjective.  As a verb it possesses tense and voice.  As an adjective it is declined and agrees with the word it modifies in gender, number, and case.

204. The perfect passive participle is declined like bonus, bona, bonum\, and in the compound tenses (Sec. 202) it agrees as a predicate adjective with the subject of the verb.

EXAMPLES IN SINGULAR
Vir laudatus est, the man was praised, or has been praised
Puella laudata est, the girl was praised, or has been praised
Consilium laudatum est, the plan was praised, or
has been praised

EXAMPLES IN PLURAL
Viri laudati sunt, the men were praised, or have been praised
Puellae laudatae sunt, the girls were praised, or
have been praised
Consilia laudata sunt, the plans were praised, or
have been praised

1.  Inflect the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative
passive of amo\, moneo\, rego\, capio\, and audio\ (Secs.
488-492).

205. The perfect passive infinitive is formed by adding esse\, the present infinitive of sum\, to the perfect passive participle; as, ama’t-us (-a, -um) esse\, _to have been loved_; mo’nit-us (-a, -um) esse\, to have been advised.

  1.  Form the perfect passive infinitive of rego\, capio\, audio\,
  and give the English meanings.

206. The future active infinitive is formed by adding esse\, the present infinitive of sum\, to the future active participle.  This participle is made by adding /-urus, -a, -um\ to the base of the participial stem.  Thus the future active infinitive of amo\ is amat-u’rus (-a, -um) esse\, to be about to love.

    a. Note that in forming the three tenses of the active infinitive
    we use all three conjugation stems: 

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      Present, amare (present stem), to love
      Perfect, amavisse (perfect stem), to have loved
      Future, amaturus esse (participial stem), to be about to love

  1.  Give the three tenses of the active infinitive of laudo\, moneo\,
  rego\, capio\, audio\, with the English meanings.

207. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Fabula Andromedae narrata est. 2.  Multae fabulae a magistro narratae sunt. 3.  Ager ab agricola valido aratus erat. 4.  Agri ab agricolis validis arati erant. 5.  Aurum a servo perfido ad domicilium suum portatum erit. 6.  Nostra arma a legato laudata sunt.  Quis vestra arma laudavit? 7.  Ab ancilla tua ad cenam vocatae sumus. 8.  Andromeda monstro non data est, quia monstrum a Perseo necatum erat.

II. 1.  The provinces were laid waste, the field had been laid waste, the towns will have been laid waste. 2.  The oracles were heard, the oracle was heard, the oracles had been heard. 3.  The oracle will have been heard, the province had been captured, the boats have been captured. 4.  The fields were laid waste, the man was advised, the girls will have been advised. 5.  The towns had been ruled, we shall have been captured, you will have been heard.

LESSON XXXVI

REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS :  PREPOSITIONS YES-OR-NO QUESTIONS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  dexter, dextra, dextrum\, _right_ (dextrous)
  
sinister, sinistra, sinistrum\, left
  fru:stra:\, adv., _in vain_ (frustrate)

  gero:, gerere, gessi:, gestus\, _bear, carry on; wear_;
    
bellum gerere\, to wage war
  occupo:, occupa:re, occupa:vi:, occupa:tus\, _seize, take possession
    of_ (occupy)
  
postulo:, postula:re, postula:vi:, postula:tus\, demand
    (ex-postulate)
  recu:so:, recu:sa:re, recu:sa:vi:, recu:sa:tus\, _refuse_
  
sto:, sta:re, steti:, status\, stand
  tempto:, tempta:re, tempta:vi:, tempta:tus\, _try, tempt, test;
    attempt_
  
teneo:, tene:re, tenui:, ——­\, keep, hold (tenacious)

  The word ubi\, which we have used so much in the sense of _where_ in
  asking a question, has two other uses equally important: 

  1. ubi\ = _when_, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as,
    
Ubi monstrum audiverunt, fugerunt\, when they heard the monster,
    they fled

  2. ubi\ = _where_, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as,
    
Video oppidum ubi Galba habitat\, I see the town where Galba
    lives

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ubi\ is called a _relative conjunction_ because it is equivalent to a relative pronoun. _When_ in the first sentence is equivalent to _at the time at which\;_ and in the second, where is equivalent to the place /in which\.

208. The following list shows the principal parts of all the verbs you have had excepting those used in the paradigms.  The parts you have had before are given for review, and the perfect participle is the only new form for you to learn.  Sometimes one or more of the principal parts are lacking, which means that the verb has no forms based on that stem.  A few verbs lack the perfect passive participle but have the future active participle in -u:rus, which appears in the principal parts instead.

  IRREGULAR VERBS

sum     esse     fui:     futu:rus    be
absum   abesse   a:fui:    a:futu:rus   be away
do:[1]   dare     dedi:    datus      give

    [Footnote 1:  do:\ is best classed with the irregular verbs because
    of the short
a\ in the present and participial stems.]

  CONJUGATION I

  porto:  porta:re porta:vi:  porta:tus carry

  So for all verbs of this conjugation thus far used.

  CONJUGATION II

contineo:  contine:re continui:  contentus hold in, keep de:leo:  de:le:re de:le:vi:  de:le:tus destroy doceo:  doce:re docui:  doctus teach egeo:  ege:re egui:  ——­ lack faveo:  fave:re fa:vi:  fautu:rus favor iubeo:  iube:re iussi:  iussus order moveo:  move:re mo:vi:  mo:tus move noceo:  noce:re nocui:  nocitu:rus injure pa:reo:  pa:re:re pa:rui:  ——­ obey persua:deo:  persua:de:re persua:si:  persua:sus persuade (from) prohibeo:  prohibe:re prohibui:  prohibitus restrain, keep respondeo:  responde:re respondi:  respo:nsus reply sedeo:  sede:re se:di:  -sessus sit studeo:  stude:re studui:  ——­ be eager video:  vide:re vi:di:  vi:sus see

  CONJUGATION III

ago:  agere e:gi:  a:ctus drive cre:do:  cre:dere cre:didi:  cre:ditus believe di:co:  di:cere di:xi:  dictus say disce:do:  disce:dere discessi:  discessus depart du:co:  du:cere du:xi:  ductus lead facio:[2] facere fe:ci:  factus make fugio:  fugere fu:gi:  fugitu:rus flee iacio:  iacere ie:ci:  iactus hurl interficio:  interficere interfe:ci:  interfectus kill mitto:  mittere mi:si:  missus send rapio:  rapere rapui:  raptus seize resisto:  resistere restiti:  ——­ resist

  CONJUGATION IV

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mu:nio:      mu:ni:re     mu:ni:vi:      mu:ni:tus    fortify
reperio:    reperi:re   rep’peri:    repertus   find
venio:      veni:re     ve:ni:        ventus     come

    [Footnote 2:  facio\ has an irregular passive which will be
    presented later.]

209. Prepositions.
  1.  We learned in Secs. 52, 53 that only the accusative and the
  ablative are used with prepositions, and that prepositions
  expressing ablative relations govern the ablative case.  Those we have
  had are here summarized.  The table following should be learned.

a:  or ab, from, by cum, with de:, down from, concerning e:  or ex, out from, out of pro:, before, in front of; for, in behalf of sine, without

  2.  Prepositions not expressing ablative relations must govern the
  accusative (Sec. 52).  Of these we have had the following: 

    ad, to;
    apud, among;
    per, through

  There are many others which you will meet as we proceed.

  3.  The preposition in\ when meaning _in_ or _on_ governs the
  _ablative_; when meaning _to, into, against_ (relations foreign to the
  ablative)
in\ governs the accusative.

210. Yes-or-No Questions.  Questions not introduced by some interrogative word like who, why, when, etc., but expecting the answer yes or no, may take one of three forms: 

  1. Is he coming? (Asking for information.  Implying nothing as to
       the answer expected.)
  2. Is he not coming? (Expecting the answer yes.)
  3. He isn’t coming, is he? (Expecting the answer no.)

These three forms are rendered in Latin as follows: 

  1.  Venitne? is he coming?
  2.  Nonne venit? is he not coming?
  3.  Num venit? he isn’t coming, is he?

    a. -ne, the question sign, is usually added to the verb, which
    then stands first.

b. We learned in Sec. 56.b that yes-or-no questions are usually answered by repeating the verb, with or without a negative.  Instead of this, ita\, vero\, certe\, etc. (_so, truly, certainly_, etc.) may be used for _yes_, and non\, minime\, etc. for _no_ if the denial is emphatic, as, _by no means_, _not at all_.

_211._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.

I. 1.  Nonne habebat Cornelia ornamenta auri?  Habebat. 2.  Num Sextus legatus scutum in dextro bracchio gerebat?  Non in dextro, sed sinistro in bracchio Sextus scutum gerebat. 3.  Frustra bella multa ab Gallis gesta erant. 4.  Ubi oppidum a perfido Sexto occupatum est, oppidani miseri gladio interfecti sunt. 5.  Id oppidum erat plenum frumenti. 6.  Nonne Sextus ab oppidanis frumentum postulavit?  Vero, sed ii recusaverunt frumentum dare. 7.  Cur oppidum ab Sexto deletum est?  Quia frumentum recusatum est. 8.  Ea victoria non dubia erat. 9.  Oppidani erant defessi et armis egebant. 10.  Num fugam temptaverunt?  Minime.

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II. 1.  Where was Julia standing?  She was standing where you had ordered. 2.  Was Julia wearing any ornaments?  She had many ornaments of gold. 3.  Did she not attempt flight when she saw the danger?  She did. 4.  Who captured her?  Galba captured her without delay and held her by the left arm. 5.  She didn’t have the lady’s gold, did she?  No, the gold had been taken by a faithless maid and has been brought back.

* * * * *

  Fourth Review, Lessons XXVII-XXXVI, Secs. 513-516

* * * * *

LESSON XXXVII

CONJUGATION OF POSSUM :  THE INFINITIVE USED AS IN ENGLISH

  [Special Vocabulary]

  neque\ or nec\, conj., neither, nor, and ... not;
    neque ... neque\, _neither ... nor_
  
castellum, -i:\, n., redoubt, fort (castle)
  coti:die:\, adv., _daily_
   cesso:, cessa:re, cessa:vi:, cessa:tus, _cease_, with the infin.

  incipio:, incipere, ince:pi:, inceptus\, _begin_ (incipient),
    with the infin.
  
oppugno:, oppugna:re, oppugna:vi:, oppugna:tus\, storm, assail
  peto:, petere, petivi\ or petii:, peti:tus\, aim at, assail, storm,
    attack; seek, ask
(petition)
  po:no:, po:nere, posui:, positus\, _place, put_ (position);
    
castra po:nere\, to pitch camp
  possum, posse, potui:, ——­\, _be able, can_ (potent), with the
    infin.
  
veto:, veta:re, vetui:, vetitus\, forbid (veto), vith the infin.;
    opposite of iubeo:\, _command_
  
vinco:, vincere, vi:ci:, victus\, conquer (in-vincible)
  vi:vo:, vi:vere, vi:xi:, ——­\, _live, be alive_ (re-vive)

212. Learn the principal parts of possum\, _I am able_, _I can_, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf.  Sec. 495.)

    a. Possum\, _I can_, is a compound of potis\, able, and sum\,
    _I am_.

213. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative.  The infinitive (cf.  Sec. 173) is a verbal noun.  Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun.  As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb.  The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English.

1.  In English certain verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, he commanded the men to flee.  Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.
Similarly in Latin, some verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, Is viros fugere iussit\, _he commanded the men to flee_.

_214._ RULE.  Subject of the Infinitive. _The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative._

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215. The Complementary Infinitive.  In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls.  This is called the complementary infinitive, as the predicate is not complete without the added infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, verbs of incomplete predication are completed by the infinitive.  Among such verbs are possum\, _I am able, I can_; propero\, maturo\, _I hasten_; tempto\, I attempt; as

  Romani Gallos superare possunt,
    the Romans are able to (or can) conquer the Gauls
  Bellum gerere maturant,
    they hasten to wage war

    a. A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive
    agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main
    verb.

      Mali pueri esse boni non possunt, bad boys are not able to
        (or cannot) be good.

    Observe that boni\ agrees with pueri\.

216. The Infinitive used as a Noun.  In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative.  For example, To conquer (= conquering) is pleasing; To see (= seeing) is to believe (= believing).  The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with est\, as

  Superare est gratum, to conquer is pleasing
  Videre est credere, to see is to believe

    a. In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject,
    which must then be in the accusative case, as

      Galbam superare inimicos est gratum multis,
        for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many

b. An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular.  Thus, in the sentence superare est gratum\, the predicate adjective gratum\ is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with superare\ the subject.

_217._ EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1.  Magister ludi liberos cum diligentia laborare iussit. 2.  Egere cibo et vino est viris molestum. 3.  Viri armati vetuerunt Gallos castra ibi ponere. 4.  Estne legatus in castello an in muro?  Is est pro porta. 5.  Ubi nostri[1] fugere inceperunt, legatus ab vestris[1] captus est. 6.  Galli castellum ibi oppugnaverant ubi praesidium erat infirmum. 7.  Alii pugnare temptabant, alii portas petebant. 8.  Feminae pro domiciliis sedebant neque resistere validis Gallis poterant. 9.  Bellum est saevum, nec infirmis nec miseris favet. 10.  Sed viri arma postulabant et studebant Gallos de muris agere. 11.  Id castellum ab Gallis occupari Romanis non gratum erit. 12.  Galli ubi a Romanis victi sunt, esse liberi[2] cessaverunt. 13.  Diu sine aqua vivere non potestis.

II. 1.  The girl began daily to carry water from the river to the gates. 2.  The Gauls had pitched their camp in a place suitable for a battle. 3.  For a long time they tried in vain to seize the redoubt. 4.  Neither did they cease to hurl weapons against[3] the walls. 5.  But they were not able to (could not) take the town.

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    [Footnote 1:  Supply men. nostri\, vestri\, and sui\ are often
    used as nouns in this way.]

[Footnote 2:  Not children.  The Romans used liberi\ either as an adjective, meaning _free_, or as a noun, meaning _the free_, thereby signifying their _free-born children_.  The word was never applied to children of slaves.]

    [Footnote 3:  in\ with the accusative.]

218. THE FAITHLESS TARPE’IA

Sabini olim cum Romanis bellum gerebant et multas victorias reportaverant.  Iam agros proximos muris vastabant, iam oppido adpropinquabant.  Romani autem in Capitolium fugerant et longe periculo aberant.  Muris validis et saxis altis credebant.  Frustra Sabini tela iaciebant, frustra portas duras petebant; castellum occupare non poterant.  Deinde novum consilium ceperunt.[4]

Tarpeia erat puella Romana pulchra et superba.  Cotidie aquam copiis Romanis in Capitolium portabat.  Ei[5] non nocebant Sabini, quod ea sine armis erat neque Sabini bellum cum feminis liberisque gerebant.  Tarpeia autem maxime amabat ornamenta auri.  Cotidie Sabinorum ornamenta videbat et mox ea desiderare incipiebat.  Ei unus ex[6] Sabinis dixit, “Duc copias Sabinas intra portas, Tarpeia, et maxima erunt praemia tua.”

    [Footnote 4:  consilium capere\, _to make a plan_.  Why is the
    _perfect_ tense used here and the imperfect in the preceding
    sentences?  Explain the use of tenses in the next paragraph.]

    [Footnote 5:  Dative with nocebant\. (Cf.  Sec. 154.)]

    [Footnote 6:  ex\, _out of_, i.e. _from the nuumber of_; best
    translated _of_.]

  [Illustration:  TARPEIA PUELLA PERFIDA]

LESSON XXXVIII

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

219. Sentences are simple, compound, or complex.

    a. A simple sentence is a sentence containing but one statement,
    that is, one subject and one predicate:  The Romans approached the
    town.

    b. A compound sentence is a sentence containing two or more
    independent statements: 
      The Romans approached the town | and | the enemy fled.

NOTE.  An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not depend upon another statement.

    c. A complex sentence is a sentence containing one independent
    statement and one or more dependent statements: 
      When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled.

NOTE.  A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or qualifies another statement; thus the enemy fled is independent, and when the Romans approached the town is dependent or subordinate.

d. The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are called clauses.  In a complex sentence the independent statement is called the main clause and the dependent statement the subordinate clause.

220. Examine the complex sentence

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  The Romans killed the men who were taken

Here are two clauses: 

  a. The main clause, The Romans killed the men

  b. The subordinate clause, who were taken

The word who is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun men.  It also connects the subordinate clause who were taken with the noun men.  Hence the clause is an adjective clause.  A pronoun that connects an adjective clause with a substantive is called a relative pronoun, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is called its antecedent.  The relative pronouns in English are who, whose, whom, which, what, that.

221. The relative pronoun in Latin is qui:\, quae\, quod\, and it is declined as follows: 

SINGULAR                  PLURAL
MASC.    FEM.     NEUT.      MASC.      FEM.       NEUT. 
Nom.  qui:     quae    quod      qui:       quae      quae
Gen.  cuius   cuius   cuius     quo:rum   qua:rum   quo:rum
Dat.  cui     cui     cui       quibus    quibus    quibus
Acc.  quem    quam    quod      quo:s     qua:s     quae
Abl.  quo:     qua:     quo:       quibus    quibus    quibus

1.  Review the declension of is\, Sec. 114, and note the similarity in
the endings.  The forms
qui:\, quae\, and quibus\ are the only forms
showing new endings.

NOTE.  The genitive cuius\ and the dative cui\ are pronounced c[oo]i’y[oo]s (two syllables) and c[oo]i (one syllable).

222. The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:[1]

         MASC.  AND FEM.  NEUT. 
  Nom. who, that which, what, that
  Gen. of whom, whose of which, of what, whose
  Dat. to or for whom to or for which, to or for what
  Acc. whom, that which, what, that
  Abl. from, etc., whom from, etc., which or what

[Footnote 1:  This table of meanings need not be memorized.  It is
inserted for reference when translating.]

a. We see from the table above that qui:\, when it refers to a person, is translated by some form of _who_ or by _that_; and that when it refers to anything else it is translated by _which, what_, or _that_.

_223._ Note the following sentences: 

The Romans killed the men who were taken The Romans killed the woman who was taken Romani interfecerunt viros qui capti sunt\ Romani interfecerunt feminam quae capta est\

In the first sentence who (qui) refers to the antecedent men (viros), and is masculine plural.  In the second, who (quae) refers to woman (feminam), and feminine singular.  From this we learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in gender and number.  In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives in the same case. Viros\ and feminam\ are accusatives, and qui\ and quae\ are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses.  Hence

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224. RULE.  Agreement of the Relative. A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause.

225. Interrogative Pronouns.  An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question.  In English the interrogatives are who? which? what? In Latin they are quis?\ quid?\ (pronoun) and qui:?\ quae?\ quod?\ (adjective).

226. Examine the sentences

  a. Who is the man? Quis est vir?
  b. What man is leading them? Qui vir eos ducit?

In a, who is an interrogative pronoun.  In b, what is an interrogative adjective.  Observe that in Latin quis\, quid\ is the pronoun and qui:\, quae\, quod\ is the _adjective_.

227. 1.  The interrogative adjective qui:\, quae\, quod\ is declined just like the relative pronoun. (See Sec. 221.)

2.  The interrogative pronoun quis\, quid\ is declined like qui:\,
quae\, quod\ in the plural.  In the singular it is declined as
follows: 

MASC.  AND FEM.  NEUT. 
Nom. quis, who? quid, what? which?
Gen. cuius, whose? cuius, whose?
Dat. cui, to or for whom? cui, to or for
what or which?
Acc. quem, whom? quid, what? which?
Abl. quo:, from, etc., whom? quo:, from, etc.,
which or what?

NOTE.  Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis and quid.

228. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Quis est aeger?  Servus quem amo est aeger. 2.  Cuius scutum habes?  Scutum habeo quod legatus ad castellum misit. 3.  Cui legatus suum scutum dabit?  Filio meo scutum dabit. 4.  Ubi Germani antiqui vivebant?  In terra quae est proxima Rheno Germani vivebant. 5.  Quibuscum[1] Germani bellum gerebant?  Cum Romanis, qui eos superare studebant, Germani bellum gerebant. 6.  Qui viri castra ponunt?  Ii sunt viri quorum armis Germani victi sunt. 7.  Quibus telis copiae nostrae eguerunt?  Gladiis et telis nostrae copiae eguerunt. 8.  A quibus porta sinistra tenebatur?  A sociis porta sinistra tenebatur. 9.  Quae provinciae a Romanis occupatae sunt?  Multae provinciae a Romanis occupatae sunt. 10.  Quibus viris dei favebunt?  Bonis viris dei favebunt.

    [Footnote 1:  cum\ is added to the ablative of relative,
    interrogative, and personal pronouns instead of being placed
    before them.]

  [Illustration:  GERMANI ANTIQUI]

II. 1.  What victory will you announce? 2.  I will announce to the people the victory which the sailors have won. 3.  The men who were pitching camp were eager for battle. 4.  Nevertheless they were soon conquered by the troops which Sextus had sent. 5.  They could not resist our forces, but fled from that place without delay.

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229. THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (Concluded)[2]

Tarpeia, commota ornamentis Sabinorum pulchris, diu resistere non potuit et respondit:  “Date mihi[3] ornamenta quae in sinistris bracchis geritis, et celeriter copias vestras in Capitolium ducam.”  Nec Sabini recusaverunt, sed per duras magnasque castelli portas properaverunt quo[1] Tarpeia duxit et mox intra validos et altos muros stabant.  Tum sine mora in[2] Tarpeiam scuta graviter iecerunt; nam scuta quoque in sinistris bracchiis gerebant.  Ita perfida puella Tarpeia interfecta est; ita Sabini Capitolium occupaverunt.

    [Footnote 2:  Explain the use of the tenses in this selection.]

    [Footnote 3:  to me.]

    [Footnote 1:  quo = whither, to the place where.  Here quo\ is
    the relative adverb.  We have had it used before as the interrogative
    adverb, _whither?_ _to what place?_]

    [Footnote 2:  upon.]

LESSON XXXIX

THE THIRD DECLENSION :  CONSONANT STEMS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  barbarus, -a, -um\, _strange, foreign, barbarous_.  As a noun,
    
barbari:, -o:rum\, m., plur., savages, barbarians
  dux, ducis\, m., _leader_ (duke).  Cf. the verb du:co:\
  eques, equitis\, m., _horseman, cavalryman_ (equestrian)
   iu:dex, iu:dicis, _m., judge_
  
lapis, lapidis\, m., stone (lapidary)
  mi:les, mi:litis\, m., _soldier_ (militia)
  
pedes, peditis\, m., foot soldier (pedestrian)
  pe:s, pedis\,[A] m., _foot_ (pedal)
  
pri:nceps, pri:ncipis\, m., chief (principal)
  re:x, re:gis\, m., _king_ (regal)
  
summus, -a, -um\, highest, greatest (summit)
  virtu:s, virtu:tis\, f., _manliness, courage_ (virtue)

    [Footnote A:  Observe that e\ is _long_ in the nom. sing, and
    _short_ in the other cases.]

230. Bases and Stems.  In learning the first and second declensions we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we called the base\.  If to the base we add -a:  in the first declension, and -o in the second, we get what is called the stem\.  Thus porta\ has the base port- and the stem porta:-; servus\ has the base serv- and the stem servo-.

These stem vowels, -a:- and -o-, play so important a part in the formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from them respectively the A- and O-Declensions.

231. Nouns of the Third Declension.  The third declension is called the Consonant or I-Declension, and its nouns are classified according to the way the stem ends.  If the last letter of the stem is a consonant, the word is said to have a consonant stem; if the stem ends in -i-, the word is said to have an i-stem. In consonant stems the stem is the same as the base.  In i-stems the stem is formed by adding -i- to the base. The presence of the i\ makes a difference in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one.

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232. Consonant stems are divided into two classes: 

I. Stems that add -s to the base to form the nominative singular. 
II.  Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular.

CLASS I

233. Stems that add -s to the base in the nominative singular are either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows: 

pri:nceps, mi:les, m., lapis,
m., chief soldier m., stone
BASES OR
STEMS pri:ncip- mi:lit- lapid-

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
M. AND F.
Nom. pri:nceps mi:les lapis -s
Gen. pri:n’cipis mi:litis lapidis -is
Dat. pri:n’cipi:  mi:liti:  lapidi:  -i: 
Acc. pri:n’cipem mi:litem lapidem -em
Abl. pri:n’cipe mi:lite lapide -e

PLURAL
Nom.    pri:n’cipe:s     mi:lite:s      lapide:s     -e:s
Gen.    pri:n’cipum      mi:litum       lapidum      -um
Dat.    pri:nci’pibus    mi:litibus     lapidibus    -ibus
Acc.    pri:n’cipe:s     mi:lite:s      lapide:s     -e:s
Abl.    pri:nci’pibus    mi:litibus     lapidibus    -ibus

re:x, iu:dex, virtu:s, f.,
m., king m.,_judge_ manliness
BASES OR
STEMS re:g- iu:dic- virtu:t-

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
M. AND F.
Nom. re:x iu:dex virtu:s -s
Gen. re:gis iu:dicis virtu:’tis -is
Dat. re:gi:  iu:dici:  virtu:’ti:  -i: 
Acc. re:gem iu:dicem virtu:’tem -em
Abl. re:ge iu:dice virtu:’te -e

PLURAL
Nom.      re:ge:s      iu:dice:s     virtu:’te:s    -e:s
Gen.      re:gum       iu:dicum      virtu:’tum     -um
Dat.      re:gibus     iu:dicibus    virtu:’tibus   -ibus
Acc.      re:ge:s      iu:dice:s     virtu:’te:s    -e:s
Abl.      re:gibus     iu:dicibus    virtu:’tibus   -ibus

1.  The base or stem is found by dropping -is in the genitive singular.

2.  Most nouns of two syllables, like pri:nceps\ (pri:ncip-), mi:les\
(mi:lit-), iu:dex\ (iu:dic-), have i\ in the base, but e\ in the
nominative.

    a. lapis\ is an exception to this rule.

  3.  Observe the consonant changes of the base or stem in the
  nominative: 

    a. A final -t or -d is dropped before -s; thus miles\ for
    
milets\, lapis\ for lapids\, virtus\ for virtuts\.

    b. A final -c or -g unites with -s and forms -x; thus
    iudec\ + s\ = iudex\, reg\ + s\ = rex\.

  4.  Review Sec. 74 and apply the rules to this declension.

  In like manner decline dux, ducis\, m., _leader_; eques, equitis\,
  m., horseman; pedes, peditis\, m., _foot soldier_; pes, pedis\,
  m.,_foot_.

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234. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1.  Neque pedites neque equites occupare castellum Romanum poterant. 2.  Summa virtute muros altos cotidie oppugnabant. 3.  Pedes militum lapidibus qui de muro iaciebantur saepe vulnerabantur. 4.  Quod novum consilium dux cepit? 5.  Is perfidam puellam pulchris ornamentis temptavit. 6.  Quid puella fecit? 7.  Puella commota auro milites per portas duxit. 8.  Tamen praemia quae summo studio petiverat non reportavit. 9.  Apud Romanos antiquos Tarpeia non est laudata.

II. 1.  What ship is that which I see?  That (illud) ship is the Victory.  It is sailing now with a favorable wind and will soon approach Italy. 2.  The judges commanded the savages to be seized and to be killed. 3.  The chiefs of the savages suddenly began to flee, but were quickly captured by the horsemen. 4.  The king led the foot soldiers to the wall from which the townsmen were hurling stones with the greatest zeal.

  [Illustration:  NAVIGIUM]

LESSON XL

THE THIRD DECLENSION :  CONSONANT STEMS (Continued)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  Caesar, -aris\, m., _Caesar_
  
capti:vus, -i:\, m., captive, prisoner
  co:nsul, -is\, m., _consul_
  
fra:ter, fra:tris\, m., brother (fraternity)
  homo:, hominis\, m., _man, human being_
  
impedi:mentum, -i:\, n., hindrance (impediment); plur.
    impedi:menta, -o:rum\, _baggage_
  
impera:tor, impera:to:ris\, m., commander in chief, general
    (emperor)
  legio:, legio:nis\, f., _legion_
  
ma:ter, ma:tris\, f., mother (maternal)
  o:rdo:, o:rdinis\, m., _row, rank_ (order)
  
pater, patris\, m., father (paternal)
  salu:s, salu:tis\, f., _safety_ (salutary)
  
soror, soro:ris\, f., sister (sorority)

CLASS II

235. Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add /-s\.  They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter.

236. PARADIGMS

MASCULINES AND FEMININES

co:nsul, legio:, f., o:rdo:, pater, m.,
m., consul legion m., row father
BASES OR
STEMS co:nsul- legio:n- o:rdin- patr-

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
M. AND F.
Nom. co:nsul legio:  o:rdo:  pater —­
Gen. co:nsulis legio:nis o:rdinis patris -is
Dat. co:nsuli:  legio:ni:  o:rdini:  patri:  -i: 
Acc. co:nsulem legio:nem o:rdinem patrem -em
Abl. co:nsule legio:ne o:rdine patre -e

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PLURAL
Nom.      co:nsule:s    legio:ne:s    o:rdine:s    patre:s    -e:s
Gen.      co:nsulum     legio:num     o:rdinum     patrum     -um
Dat.      co:nsulibus   legio:nibus   o:rdinibus   patribus   -ibus
Acc.      co:nsule:s    legio:ne:s    o:rdine:s    patre:s    -e:s
Abl.      co:nsulibus   legio:nibus   o:rdinibus   patribus   -ibus

1.  With the exception of the nominative, the terminations are exactly
the same as in Class I, and the base or stem is found in the same way.

2.  Masculines and feminines with bases or stems in -in- and -o:n-
drop -n- and end in -o:  in the nominative, as legio:  (base or stem
legio:n-), o:rdo:  (base or stem o:rdin-).

  3.  Bases or stems in -tr- have -ter in the nominative, as pater (base
  or stem patr-).

  4.  Note how the genitive singular gives the clue to the whole
  declension. Always learn this with the nominative.

237. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1.  Audisne tubas, Marce?  Non solum tubas audio sed etiam ordines militum et carros impedimentorum plenos videre possum. 2.  Quas legiones videmus?  Eae legiones nuper ex Gallia venerunt. 3.  Quid ibi fecerunt?  Studebantne pugnare an sine virtute erant? 4.  Multa proelia fecerunt[1] et magnas victorias et multos captivos reportaverunt. 5.  Quis est imperator earum legionum?  Caesar, summus Romanorum imperator. 6.  Quis est eques qui pulchram coronam gerit?  Is eques est frater meus.  Ei corona a consule data est quia summa virtute pugnaverat et a barbaris patriam servaverat.

II. 1.  Who has seen my father to-day? 2.  I saw him just now (nuper).  He was hastening to your dwelling with your mother and sister. 3.  When men are far from the fatherland and lack food, they cannot be restrained[2] from wrong[3]. 4.  The safety of the soldiers is dear to Caesar, the general. 5.  The chiefs were eager to storm a town full of grain which was held by the consul. 6.  The king forbade the baggage of the captives to be destroyed.

    [Footnote 1:  proelium facere\ = _to fight a battle._]

    [Footnote 2:  contineo\.  Cf.  Sec. 180.]

    [Footnote 3:  Abl. iniuria.]

LESSON XLI

THE THIRD DECLENSION :  CONSONANT STEMS (Concluded)

  [Special Vocabulary]

calamita:s, calamita:tis\, f., _loss, disaster, defeat_ (calamity) caput, capitis\, n., head (capital) flu:men, flu:minis\, n., _river_ (flume) labor, labo:ris\, m., labor, toil opus, operis\, n., _work, task_ o:ra:tor, o:ra:to:ris\, m., orator ri:pa, -ae\, f., _bank_ (of a stream) tempus, temporis\, n., time (temporal) terror, terro:ris\, m., _terror, fear_ victor, victo:ris\, m., victor

accipio:, accipere, acce:pi:, acceptus\, _receive, accept_
co:nfirmo:, co:nfi:rma:re, co:nfi:rma:vi:, co:nfi:rma:tus\,
strengthen, establish, encourage (confirm)

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238. Neuter consonant stems add no termination in the nominative and are declined as follows: 

flu:men, tempus, opus, caput,
n., river n., time n., work n., head
BASES OR
STEMS flu:min- tempor- oper- capit-

SINGULAR                                     TERMINATIONS
Nom.      flu:men       tempus       opus        caput       —­
Gen.      flu:minis     temporis     operis      capitis     -is
Dat.      flu:mini:      temperi:      operi:       capiti:      -i: 
Acc.      flu:men       tempus       opus        caput       —­
Abl.      flu:mine      tempore      opere       capite      -e
PLURAL
Nom.      flu:mina      tempora      opera      capita       -a
Gen.      flu:minum     temporum     operum     capitum      -um
Dat.      flu:minibus   temporibus   operibus   capitibus    -ibus
Acc.      flu:mina      tempora      opera      capita       -a
Abl.      flu:minibus   temporibus   operibus   capitibus    -ibus

1.  Review Sec. 74 and apply the rules to this declension.

2.  Bases or stems in -in- have -e- instead of -i- in the nominative,
as flu:men, base or stem flu:min-.

  3.  Most bases or stems in -er- and -or- have -us in the nominative, as
  opus, base or stem oper-; tempus, base or stem tempor-.

239. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. 1.  Barbari ubi Romam ceperunt, maxima regum opera deleverunt. 2.  Romani multas calamitates a barbaris acceperunt. 3.  Ubi erat summus terror apud oppidanos, animi dubii eorum ab oratore claro confirmati sunt. 4.  Roma est in ripis fiuminis magni. 5.  Ubi Caesar imperator milites suos arma capere iussit, ii a proelio contineri non potuerunt. 6.  Ubi proelium factum est, imperator reperiri non potuit. 7.  Imperator sagitta in capite vulneratus erat et stare non poterat. 8.  Eum magno labore pedes ex proelio portavit. 9.  Is bracchiis suis imperatorem tenuit et eum ex periculis summis servavit. 10.  Virtute sua bonus miles ab imperatore coronam accepit.

II. 1.  The consul placed a crown on the head of the victor. 2.  Before the gates he was received by the townsmen. 3.  A famous orator praised him and said, “By your labors you have saved the fatherland from disaster.” 4.  The words of the orator were pleasing to the victor. 5.  To save the fatherland was a great task.

  [Illustration:  Corona]

LESSON XLII

REVIEW LESSON

240. Review the paradigms in Secs. 233, 236, 238; and decline all nouns of the third declension in this selection.

TERROR CIMBRICUS[1]

Olim Cimbri et Teutones, populi Germaniae, cum feminis liberisque Italiae adpropinquaverant et copias Romanas maximo proelio vicerant.  Ubi fuga legionum nuntiata est, summus erat terror totius Romae, et Romani, graviter commoti, sacra crebra deis faciebant et salutem petebant.

Page 80

Tum Manlius orator animos populi ita confirmavit:—­“Magnam calamitatem accepimus.  Oppida nostra a Cimbris Teutonibusque capiuntur, agricolae interficiuntur, agri vastantur, copiae barbarorum Romae adpropinquant.  Itaque, nisi novis animis proelium novum faciemus et Germanos ex patria nostra sine mora agemus, erit nulla salus feminis nostris liberisque.  Servate liberos!  Servate patriam!  Antea superati sumus quia imperatores nostri fuerunt infirmi.  Nunc Marius, clarus imperator, qui iam multas alias victorias reportavit, legiones ducet et animos nostros terrore Cimbrico liberare maturabit.”

Marius tum in Africa bellum gerebat.  Sine mora ex Africa in Italiam vocatus est.  Copias novas non solum toti Italiae sed etiam provinciis sociorum imperavit.[2] Disciplina autem dura laboribusque perpetuis milites exercuit.  Tum cum peditibus equitibusque, qui iam proelio studebant, ad Germanorum castra celeriter properavit.  Diu et acriter pugnatum est.[3] Denique barbari fugerunt et multi in fuga ab equitibus sunt interfecti.  Marius pater patriae vocatus est.

[Footnote 1:  About the year 100 B.C. the Romans were greatly alarmed by an invasion of barbarians from the north known as Cimbri and Teutons.  They were traveling with wives and children, and had an army of 300,000 fighting men.  Several Roman armies met defeat, and the city was in a panic.  Then the Senate called upon Marius, their greatest general, to save the country.  First he defeated the Teutons in Gaul.  Next, returning to Italy, he met the Cimbri.  A terrible battle ensued, in which the Cimbri were utterly destroyed; but the terror Cimbricus continued to haunt the Romans for many a year thereafter.]

    [Footnote 2:  He made a levy (of troops) upon, imperavit\ with
    the acc. and the dat.]

    [Footnote 3:  Cf.  Sec. 200.  II. 2.]

LESSON XLIII

THE THIRD DECLENSION :  I-STEMS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  animal, anima:lis (-ium[A])\, n., _animal_
  
avis, avis (-ium)\, f., bird (aviation)
  caede:s, caedis (-ium)\, f., _slaughter_
  calcar, calca:ris (-ium), n., _spur_
  
ci:vis, ci:vis (-ium)\, m. and f., citizen (civic)
  clie:ns, clientis (-ium)\, m., _retainer, dependent_ (client)
  
fi:nis, fi:nis (-ium)\, m., end, limit (final);
    plur., country, territory
  hostis, hostis (-ium)\, m. and f., _enemy_ in war (hostile). 
    Distinguish from
inimi:cus\, which means a personal enemy
  ignis, ignis (-ium)\, m., _fire_ (ignite)
  
i:nsigne, i:nsignis (-ium)\, n. decoration, badge (ensign)
  mare, maris (-ium[B])\, n., _sea_ (marine)
  
na:vis, na:vis (-ium)\, f., ship (naval);
  na:vis longa\, _man-of-war_
  
turris, turris (-ium)\, f., tower (turret)
  urbs, urbis (-ium)\, f., _city_ (suburb).  An urbs\ is larger than an
    oppidum\.

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    [Footnote A:  The genitive plural ending -ium is written to mark
    the i-stems.]

    [Footnote B:  The genitive plural of mare\ is not in use.]

241. To decline a noun of the third declension correctly we must know whether or not it is an i-stem.  Nouns with i-stems are

  1.  Masculines and feminines: 

    a. Nouns in -e:s and -i:s with the same number of syllables in
    the genitive as in the nominative.  Thus caede:s, caedis\, is an
    i-stem, but
mi:les, mi:litis\, is a consonant stem.

    b. Nouns in -ns and -rs.

    c. Nouns of one syllable in -s or -x preceded by a consonant.

  2.  Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar.

242. The declension of i-stems is nearly the same as that of consonant stems.  Note the following differences: 

a. Masculines and feminities have -ium in the genitive plural and -i:s or -e:s in the accusative plural.

b. Neuters have -i:  in the ablative singular, and an -i- in every form of the plural.

243. Masculine and Feminine I-Stems.  Masculine and feminine i-stems are declined as follows: 

caede:s, f.,  hostis,      urbs, f.,  clie:ns, m.,
slaughter   m., enemy  city     retainer
STEMS  caedi-        hosti-       urbi-      clienti-
BASES  caed-         host-        urb-       client-

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
M. AND F.
Nom. caede:s hostis urbs clie:ns[1] -s, -is,
or -e:s
Gen. caedis hostis urbis clientis -is
Dat. caedi:  hosti:  urbi:  clienti:  -i: 
Acc. caedem hostem urbem clientem -em (-im)
Abl. caede hoste urbe cliente -e (-i:)

PLURAL
Nom.   caede:s       hoste:s      urbe:s     cliente:s      -e:s
Gen.   caedium       hostium      urbium     clientium      -ium
Dat.   caedibus      hostibus     urbibus    clientibus     -ibus
Acc.   caedi:s,      hosti:s,     urbi:s,    clienti:s,     -i:s,
-e:s          -e:s         -e:s       -e:s           -e:s
Abl.   caedibus      hostibus     urbibus    clientibus     -ibus

[Footnote 1:  Observe that the vowel before -ns is long, but that
it is shortened before -nt.  Cf.  Sec. 12.2, 3.]

1. avis\, ci:vis\, fi:nis\, ignis\, navis\ have the ablative
singular in -i:  or -e.

2. turris\ has accusative turrim\ and ablative turri:\ or turre\.

244. Neuter I-Stems.  Neuter i-stems are declined as follows: 

Page 82

i:nsigne, n.,    animal, n.,     calcar,
decoration     animal        n., spur
STEMS   i:nsigni-        anima:li-       calca:ri-
BASES   i:nsign-         anima:l-        calca:r-
SINGULAR                                 TERMINATIONS
Nom.    i:nsigne         animal          calcar       -e or —­
Gen.    i:nsignis        anima:lis       calca:ris    -is
Dat.    i:nsigni:         anima:li:        calca:ri:     -i: 
Acc.    i:nsigne         animal          calcar       -e or —­
Abl.    i:nsigni:         anima:li:        calca:ri:     -i: 
PLURAL
Nom.    i:nsignia        anima:lia       calca:ria    -ia
Gen.    i:nsignium       anima:lium      calca:rium   -ium
Dat.    i:nsignibus      anima:libus     calca:ribus  -ibus
Acc.    i:nsignia        anima:lia       calca:ria    -ia
Abl.    i:nsignibus      anima:libus     calca:ribus  -ibus

  1.  Review Sec. 74 and see how it applies to this declension.

  2.  The final -i- of the stem is usually dropped in the nominative. 
  If not dropped, it is changed to -e.

  3.  A long vowel is shortened before final -l or -r. (Cf.  Sec. 12.2.)

245. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. 1.  Quam urbem videmus?  Urbs quam videtis est Roma. 2.  Cives Romani urbem suam turribus altis et muris longis muniverant. 3.  Venti navis longas prohibebant finibus hostium adpropinquare. 4.  Imperator a clientibus suis calcaria auri et alia insignia accepit. 5.  Milites Romani cum hostibus bella saeva gesserunt et eos caede magna superaverunt. 6.  Alia animalia terram, alia mare amant. 7.  Naves longae quae auxilium ad imperatorem portabant igni ab hostibus deletae sunt. 8.  In eo mari avis multas vidimus quae longe a terra volaverant. 9.  Nonne vidistis navis longas hostium et ignis quibus urbs nostra vastabatur?  Certe, sed nec caedem civium nec fugam clientium vidimus. 10.  Aves et alia animalia, ubi ignem viderunt, salutem fuga petere celeriter inceperunt. 11.  Num. iudex in peditum ordinibus stabat?  Minime, iudex erat apud equites et equus eius insigne pulchrum gerebat.

  [Illustration:  NAVES LONGAE]

II. 1.  Because of the lack of grain the animals of the village were not able to live. 2.  When the general[2] heard the rumor, he quickly sent a horseman to the village. 3.  The horseman had a beautiful horse and wore spurs of gold. 4.  He said to the citizens, “Send your retainers with horses and wagons to our camp, and you will receive an abundance of grain.” 5.  With happy hearts they hastened to obey his words.[3]

    [Footnote 2:  Place first.]

    [Footnote 3:  Not the accusative.  Why?]

LESSON XLIV

IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION :  GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION

  [Special Vocabulary]

Page 83

  arbor, arboris\, f., _tree_ (arbor)
  
collis, collis (-ium)\, m., hill
  de:ns, dentis (-ium)\, m., _tooth_ (dentist)
   fo:ns, fontis (-ium), m.. _fountain, spring; source_
  
iter, itineris\, n., march, journey, route (itinerary)
  me:nsis, me:nsis (-ium)\, m., _month_
  
moenia, -ium\, n., plur., walls, fortifications.  Cf. mu:rus\
  
mo:ns, montis (-ium)\, m., mountain;
    summus mo:ns\, _top of the mountain_
  
numquam\, adv., never
  po:ns, pontis\, m., _bridge_ (pontoon)
  
sanguis, sanguinis\, m., blood (sanguinary)
  summus, -a, -um\, _highest, greatest_ (summit)
  
tra:ns\, prep, with acc., across (transatlantic)
  vi:s (vi:s)\, gen. plur. virium\, f. strength, force, violence
    (vim)

246. PARADIGMS

[Transcriber’s Note:  The original text gives vi:- and vi:r- as the “Bases” of vi:s\, and omits the “Stems” for both words.  The forms have been regularized to agree with the inflectional table in the Appendix.]
vi:s, f., _force_  iter, n., _march_
STEMS   vi:- and vi:ri-    iter- and itiner-
BASES   v- and vi:r-       iter- and itiner-
SINGULAR
Nom.    vi:s               iter
Gen.    vi:s (rare)        itineris
Dat.    vi:  (rare)         itineri: 
Acc.    vim                iter
Abl.    vi:                 itinere
PLURAL
Nom.    vi:re:s            itinera
Gen.    vi:rium            itinerum
Dat.    vi:ribus           itineribus
Acc.    vi:ri:s, or -e:s   itinera
Abl.    vi:ribus           itineribus

_247._ There are no rules for gender in the third declension that do not present numerous exceptions.[1] The following rules, however, are of great service, and should be thoroughly mastered: 

  1. Masculine\ are nouns in -or, -o:s, -er, -es (gen. -itis).

    a. arbor\, _tree_, is feminine; and iter\, march, is neuter.

  2. Feminine\ are nouns in -o:, -is, -x, and in -s preceded by
  a consonant or by any long vowel but
o:\.

    a. Masculine are collis\ (_hill_), lapis\, me:nsis\ (_month_),
    
o:rdo:\, pe:s\, and nouns in -nis and -guis—­as ignis\,
    sanguis\ (_blood_)—­and the four monosyllables

      de:ns\, _a tooth_; mo:ns\, a mountain
      po:ns\, _a bridge_; fo:ns\, a fountain

  3. Neuters\ are nouns in -e, -al, -ar, -n, -ur, -us, and
  
caput\.

    [Footnote 1:  Review Sec. 60.  Words denoting males are, of course,
    masculine, and those denoting females, feminine.]

248. Give the gender of the following nouns and the rule by which it is determined: 

animal calamitas flumen lapis navis avis caput ignis legio opus caede:s eques i:nsigne mare salu:s calcar fi:nis labor mi:les urbs

249. EXERCISES

Page 84

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. The First Bridge over the Rhine. Salus sociorum erat semper cara Romanis.  Olim Galli, amici Romanorum, multas iniurias ab Germanis qui trans flumen Rhenum vivebant acceperant.  Ubi legati ab iis ad Caesarem imperatorem Romanum venerunt et auxilium postulaverunt, Romani magnis itineribus ad hostium finis properaverunt.  Mox ad ripas magni fluminis venerunt.  Imperator studebat copias suas trans fluvium ducere, sed nulla via[2] poterat.  Nullas navis habebat.  Alta erat aqua.  Imperator autem, vir clarus, numquam adversa fortuna commotus, novum consilium cepit.  Iussit suos[3] in[4] lato flumine facere pontem.  Numquam antea pons in Rheno visus erat.  Hostes ubi pontem quem Romani fecerant viderunt, summo terrore commoti, sine mora fugam parare inceperunt.

II. 1.  The enemy had taken (possession of) the top of the mountain. 2.  There were many trees on the opposite hills. 3.  We pitched our camp near (ad) a beautiful spring. 4.  A march through the enemies’ country is never without danger. 5.  The time of the month was suitable for the march. 6.  The teeth of the monster were long. 7.  When the foot soldiers[5] saw the blood of the captives, they began to assail the fortifications with the greatest violence.[2]

    [Footnote 2:  Abl. of manner.]

    [Footnote 3:  suos\, used as a noun, _his men_.]

    [Footnote 4:  We say build a bridge over; the Romans, make a
    bridge on
.]

    [Footnote 5:  Place first.]

* * * * *

  Fifth Review, Lessons XXXVII-XLIV, Secs. 517-520

* * * * *

LESSON XLV

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION :  I-STEMS

  [Special Vocabulary]

a:cer, a:cris, a:cre\, _sharp, keen, eager_ (acrid) brevis, breve\, short, brief difficilis, difficile\, _difficult_ facilis, facile\, facile, easy fortis, forte\, _brave_ (fortitude) gravis, grave\, heavy, severe, serious (grave) omnis, omne\, _every, all_ (omnibus) pa:r\, gen. paris\, _equal_ (par) pauci:, -ae, -a\, few, only a few (paucity) secundus, -a, -um\, _second; favorable_, opposite of adversus signum, -i:\, n., signal, sign, standard ve:lo:x\, gen. ve:lo:cis\, swift (velocity)

  conloco:, conloca:re, conloca:vi:, conloca:tus\, _arrange, station,
    place_ (collocation)
  
de:mo:nstro:, de:mo:nstra:re, de:mo:nstra:vi:, de:mo:nstra:tus\,
    point out, explain (demonstrate)
  mando:, manda:re, manda:vi:, manda:tus\, _commit, intrust_ (mandate)

250. Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions (like bonus\, aeger\, or liber\), or they are of the third declension.

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251. Nearly all adjectives of the third declension have i-stems, and they are declined almost like nouns with i-stems.

252. Adjectives learned thus far have had a different form in the nominative for each gender, as, bonus\, m.; bona\, f.; bonum\, n.  Such an adjective is called an _adjective of three endings_.  Adjectives of the third declension are of the following classes: 

    I. Adjectives of three endings—­
      a different form in the nominative for each gender.

   II.  Adjectives of two endings—­
      masculine and feminine nominative alike, the neuter different.

  III.  Adjectives of one ending—­
      masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative all alike.

253. Adjectives of the third declension in -er have three endings; those in -is have two endings; the others have one ending.

CLASS I

254. Adjectives of Three Endings are declined as follows: 

        a:cer, a:cris, a:cre, keen, eager
        STEM a:cri-
        BASE a:cr-

SINGULAR                PLURAL
MASC.    FEM.     NEUT.    MASC.           FEM.            NEUT. 
Nom.  a:cer   a:cris  a:cre     a:cre:s        a:cre:s        a:cria
Gen.  a:cris  a:cris  a:cris    a:crium        a:crium        a:crium
Dat.  a:cri:   a:cri:   a:cri:     a:cribus       a:cribus       a:cribus
Acc.  a:crem  a:crem  a:cre     a:cri:s, -e:s  a:cri:s, -e:s  a:cria
Abl.  a:cri:   a:cri:   a:cri:     a:cribus       a:cribus       a:cribus

CLASS II

255. Adjectives of Two Endings are declined as follows: 

        omnis, omne, every, all[1]
        STEM omni-
        BASE omn-

SINGULAR                 PLURAL
MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT.     MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT. 
Nom.  omnis           omne     omne:s          omnia
Gen.  omnis           omnis    omnium          omnium
Dat.  omni:            omni:     omnibus         omnibus
Acc.  omnem           omne     omni:s, -e:s    omnia
Abl.  omni:            omni:     omnibus         omnibus

    [Footnote 1:  omnis\ is usually translated _every_ in the singular
    and _all_ in the plural.]

CLASS III

256. Adjectives of One Ending are declined as follows: 

        pa:r, equal
        STEM pari-
        BASE par-

SINGULAR                 PLURAL
MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT.     MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT. 
Nom.  pa:r            pa:r     pare:s          paria
Gen.  paris           paris    parium          parium
Dat.  pari:            pari:     paribus         paribus
Acc.  parem           pa:r     pari:s, -e:s    paria
Abl.  pari:            pari:     paribus         paribus

  1.  All i-stem adjectives have -i:  in the ablative singular.

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  2.  Observe that the several cases of adjectives of one ending have the
  same form for all genders excepting in the accusative singular and in
  the nominative and accusative plural.

  3.  Decline vir acer\, legio acris\, animal acre\, ager omnis\,
  scutum omne\, proelium par\.

257. There are a few adjectives of one ending that have consonant stems.  They are declined exactly like nouns with consonant stems.

258. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. The Romans invade the Enemy’s Country. Olim pedites Romani cum equitibus velocibus in hostium urbem iter faciebant.  Ubi non longe afuerunt, rapuerunt agricolam, qui eis viam brevem et facilem demonstravit.  Iam Romani moenia alta, turris validas aliaque opera urbis videre poterant.  In moenibus stabant multi principes.  Principes ubi viderunt Romanos, iusserunt civis lapides aliaque tela de muris iacere.  Tum milites fortes contineri a proelio non poterant et acer imperator signum tuba dari iussit.  Summa vi omnes maturaverunt.  Imperator Sexto legato impedimenta omnia mandavit.  Sextus impedimenta in summo colle conlocavit.  Grave et acre erat proelium, sed hostes non pares Romanis erant.  Alii interfecti, alii capti sunt.  Apud captivos erant mater sororque regis.  Pauci Romanorum ab hostibus vulnerati sunt.  Secundum proelium Romanis erat gratum.  Fortuna fortibus semper favet.

II. 1.  Some months are short, others are long. 2.  To seize the top of the mountain was difficult. 3.  Among the hills of Italy are many beautiful springs. 4.  The soldiers were sitting where the baggage had been placed because their feet were weary. 5.  The city which the soldiers were eager to storm had been fortified by strong walls and high towers. 6.  Did not the king intrust a heavy crown of gold and all his money to a faithless slave?  Yes, but the slave had never before been faithless.

  [Illustration:  AQUILA LEGIONIS]

LESSON XLVI

THE FOURTH OR U-DECLENSION

  [Special Vocabulary]

  adventus, -u:s\, m., _approach, arrival_ (advent)
  
ante\, prep, with acc., before (ante-date)
  cornu:, -u:s\, n., _horn, wing_ of an army (cornucopia);
    
a:  dextro:  cornu:\, on the right wing;
    a:  sinistro:  cornu:\, _on the left wing_
  
equita:tus, -u:s\, m., cavalry
  exercitus, -u:s\, m., _army_
  
impetus, -u:s\, m., attack (impetus);
    impetum facere in\, with acc., _to make an attack on_
  
lacus, -u:s, dat. and abl. plur. lacubus\, m., lake
  manus, -u:s\, f., _hand; band, force_ (manual)
  
portus, -u:s\, m., harbor (port)
  post\, prep, with acc., _behind, after_ (post-mortem)

  cremo:, crema:re, crema:vi:, crema:tus\, _burn_ (cremate)
  
exerceo:, exerce:re, exercui:, exercitus\, practice, drill, train
    (exercise)

Page 87

259. Nouns of the fourth declension are either masculine or neuter.

260. Masculine nouns end in -us, neuters in -u:.  The genitive ends in -u:s.

a. Feminine by exception are domus\, _house_; manus\, hand;
and a few others.

PARADIGMS

[Transcriber’s Note: 
The “Stems” are missing in the printed book.  They have been supplied
from the inflectional table in the Appendix.]

adventus, cornu:,
m., arrival n., horn
STEMS adventu- cornu-
BASES advent- corn-

SINGULAR                  TERMINATIONS
MASC.            NEUT. 
Nom.   adventus        cornu:      -us       -u: 
Gen.   adventu:s       cornu:s    -u:s      -u:s
Dat.   adventui:  (u:)  cornu:      -ui:  (u:) -u: 
Acc.   adventum        cornu:      -um       -u: 
Abl.   adventu:         cornu:      -u:        -u: 
PLURAL
Nom.   adventu:s       cornua     -u:s      -ua
Gen.   adventuum       cornuum    -uum      -uum
Dat.   adventibus      cornibus   -ibus     -ibus
Acc.   adventu:s       cornua     -u:s      -ua
Abl.   adventibus      cornibus   -ibus     -ibus

  1.  Observe that the base is found, as in other declensions, by
  dropping the ending of the genitive singular.

  2. lacus\, _lake_, has the ending -ubus in the dative and ablative
  plural;
portus\, harbor, has either -ubus or -ibus.

  3. cornu:\ is the only neuter that is in common use.

261. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. 1.  Ante adventum Caesaris veloces hostium equites acrem impetum in castra fecerunt. 2.  Continere exercitum a proelio non facile erat. 3.  Post adventum suum Caesar iussit legiones ex castris duci. 4.  Pro castris cum hostium equitatu pugnatum est. 5.  Post tempus breve equitatus trans flumen fugit ubi castra hostium posita erant. 6.  Tum victor imperator agros vastavit et vicos hostium cremavit. 7.  Castra autem non oppugnavit quia milites erant defessi et locus difficilis. 8.  Hostes non cessaverunt iacere tela, quae paucis nocuerunt. 9.  Post adversum proelium principes Gallorum legatos ad Caesarem mittere studebant, sed populo persuadere non poterant.

II. 1.  Did you see the man-of-war on the lake? 2.  I did not see it (fem.) on the lake, but I saw it in the harbor. 3.  Because of the strong wind the sailor forbade his brother to sail. 4.  Caesar didn’t make an attack on the cavalry on the right wing, did he? 5.  No, he made an attack on the left wing. 6.  Who taught your swift horse to obey? 7.  I trained my horse with my (own) hands, nor was the task difficult. 8.  He is a beautiful animal and has great strength.

LESSON XLVII

EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE :  THE DECLENSION OF DOMUS

Page 88

  [Special Vocabulary]

   Athe:nae, -a:rum, f., plur., Athens
   Corinthus, -i:, f., Corinth
  domus, -u:s\, locative domi:\, f., house, home (dome).  Cf.
    domicilium\
  
Gena:va, -ae\, f., Geneva
   Pompe:ii, -o:rum, m., plur., Pompeii, a city in Campania.  See map
  propter\, prep. with acc., _on account of, because of_
   ru:s, ru:ris, in the plur. only nom. and acc.
ru:ra\, n., country
    (rustic)
  tergum, tergi:\, n., _back_; a:  tergo:\, behind, in the rear
  vulnus, vulneris\, n., _wound_ (vulnerable)

  committo:, committere, commi:si:, commissus\, _intrust, commit;_
    
proelium committere\, join battle
  convoco:, convoca:re, convoca:vi:, convoca:tus\, _call together,
    summon_ (convoke)
  
timeo:, time:re, timui:, ——­\, fear; be afraid (timid)
  verto:, vertere, verti:, versus\, _turn, change_ (convert);
    
terga vertere\, to turn the backs, hence to retreat

262. We have become thoroughly familiar with expressions like the following: 

  Galba ad (or in) oppidum properat
  Galba ab (de or ex) oppido properat
  Galba in oppido habitat

From these expressions we may deduce the following rules: 

263. RULE.  Accusative of the Place to. The /place to which\ is expressed by /ad\ or /in\ with the accusative.  This answers the question Whither?

264. RULE.  Ablative of the Place from. The /place from which\ is expressed by /a:\ or /ab\, /de\, /e:\ or /ex\, with the separative ablative.  This answers the question Whence? (Cf.  Rule, Sec. 179.)

265. RULE.  Ablative of the Place at or in. The /place at or in which\ is expressed by the ablative with /in\.  This answers the question Where?

    a. The ablative denoting the place where is called the locative
    ablative
(cf. locus\, _place_).

266. Exceptions.  Names of towns, small islands,[1] domus\, _home_, ru:s\, country, and a few other words in common use omit the prepositions in expressions of place, as,

  Galba Athenas properat, Galba hastens to Athens
  Galba Athenis properat, Galba hastens from Athens
  Galba Athenis habitat, Galba lives at (or in) Athens
  Galba domum properat, Galba hastens home
  Galba rus properat, Galba hastens to the country
  Galba domo properat, Galba hastens from home
  Galba rure properat, Galba hastens from the country
  Galba ruri (less commonly rure) habitat,
    Galba lives in the country

    a. Names of countries, like Germania\, Italia\, etc., do not
    come under these exceptions. With them prepositions must not be
    omitted.

Page 89

    [Footnote 1:  Small islands are classed with towns because they
    generally have but one town, and the name of the town is the same as
    the name of the island.]

267. The Locative Case.  We saw above that the place-relation expressed by at or in is regularly covered by the locative ablative.  However, Latin originally expressed this relation by a separate form known as the locative case.  This case has been everywhere merged in the ablative excepting in the singular number of the first and second declensions.  The form of the locative in these declensions is like the genitive singular, and its use is limited to names of towns and small islands, domi:\, _at home_, and a few other words.

268. RULE.  Locative and Locative Ablative. To express the /place in which\ with names of towns and small islands, /if they are singular and of the first or second declension\, use the locative; otherwise use the locative ablative without a preposition; as,

  Galba Romae habitat, Galba lives at Rome
  Galba Corinthi habitat, Galba lives at Corinth
  Galba domi habitat, Galba lives at home

Here Romae\, Corinthi\, and domi\ are _locatives_, being _singular_ and of the first and second declensions respectively.  But in

  Galba Athenis habitat, Galba lives at Athens,
  Galba Pompeiis habitat, Galba lives at Pompeii

Athenis\ and Pompeiis\ are locative ablatives.  These words can have no locative case, as the nominatives Athenae\ and Pompeii\ are_plural_ and there is no plural locative case form.

269. The word domus\, _home, house_, has forms of both the second and the fourth declension.  Learn its declension (Sec. 468).

270. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. 1.  Corinthi omnia insignia auri a ducibus victoribus rapta erant. 2.  Caesar Genavam exercitum magnis itineribus duxit. 3.  Quem pontem hostes cremaverant?  Pontem in Rheno hostes cremaverant. 4.  Pompeiis multas Romanorum domos videre poteritis. 5.  Roma consul equo veloci rus properavit. 6.  Domi consulis homines multi sedebant. 7.  Imperator iusserat legatum Athenas cum multis navibus longis navigare. 8.  Ante moenia urbis sunt ordines arborum altarum. 9.  Propter arbores altas nec lacum nec portum reperire potuimus. 10.  Proeliis crebris Caesar legiones suas quae erant in Gallia exercebat. 11.  Cotidie in loco idoneo castra ponebat et muniebat.

II. 1.  Caesar, the famous general, when he had departed from Rome, hastened to the Roman province on a swift horse.[2] 2.  He had heard a rumor concerning the allies at Geneva. 3.  After his arrival Caesar called the soldiers together and commanded them to join battle. 4.  The enemy hastened to retreat, some because[3] they were afraid, others because[3] of wounds. 5.  Recently I was at Athens and saw the place where the judges used to sit.[4] 6.  Marcus and Sextus are my brothers; the one lives at Rome, the other in the country.

Page 90

    [Footnote 2:  Latin says “by a swift horse.”  What construction?]

    [Footnote 3:  Distinguish between the English conjunction because
    (quia or quod) and the preposition because of (propter).]

    [Footnote 4:  used to sit, express by the imperfect.]

  [Illustration:  DAEDALUS ET ICARUS]

271. DAED’ALUS AND IC’ARUS

Creta est insula antiqua quae aqua alta magni maris pulsatur.  Ibi olim Minos erat rex.  Ad eum venit Daedalus qui ex Graecia patria fugiebat.  Eum Minos rex benignis verbis accepit et ei domicilium in Creta dedit. [5]Quo in loco Daedalus sine cura vivebat et regi multa et clara opera faciebat.  Post tempus longum autem Daedalus patriam caram desiderare incepit.  Domum properare studebat, sed regi persuadere non potuit et mare saevum fugam vetabat.

[Footnote 5:  And in this place; quo\ does not here introduce a subordinate relative clause, but establishes the connection with the preceding sentence.  Such a relative is called a _connecting relative_, and is translated by _and_ and a demonstrative or personal pronoun.]

LESSON XLVIII

THE FIFTH OR E:-DECLENSION :  THE ABLATIVE OF TIME

  [Special Vocabulary]

  acie:s, -e:i:\, f., _line of battle_
  
aesta:s, aesta:tis\, f., summer
  annus, -i:\, m., _year_ (annual)
  
die:s, die:i:\, m., day (diary)
  fide:s, fidei:\, no plur., f., _faith, trust; promise, word;
    protection_;
in fidem veni:re\, to come under the protection
  fluctus, -u:s\, m. _wave, billow_ (fluctuate)
  
hiems, hiemis\, f., winter
  ho:ra, -ae\, f., _hour_
  
lu:x, lu:cis\, f., light (lucid); pri:ma lux\, _daybreak_
  
meri:die:s\, acc. -em, abl. -e:, no plur., m., midday (meridian)
  nox, noctis (-ium)\, f., _night_ (nocturnal)
  
pri:mus, -a, -um\, first (prime)
  re:s, rei:\, f., _thing, matter_ (real);
  
re:s gestae\, deeds, exploits (lit. things performed);
    re:s adversae\, _adversity_; re:s secundae\, prosperity
  spe:s, spei:\, f., _hope_

272. Gender.  Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except die:s\, _day_, and meri:die:s\, midday, which are usually masculine.

273. PARADIGMS

[Transcriber’s Note: 
The “Stems” are missing in the printed book.  They have been supplied
from the inflectional table in the Appendix.]

die:s, re:s, f.,
m., day thing
STEMS die:- re:-
BASES di- r-

Page 91

SINGULAR            TERMINATIONS
Nom.   die:s       re:s      -e:s
Gen.   die:i:       rei:       -e:i:  or -ei: 
Dat.   die:i:       rei:       -e:i:  or -ei: 
Acc.   diem        rem       -em
Abl.   die:         re:        -e: 
PLURAL
Nom.   die:s       re:s      -e:s
Gen.   die:rum     re:rum    -e:rum
Dat.   die:bus     re:bus    -e:bus
Acc.   die:s       re:s      -e:s
Abl.   die:bus     re:bus    -e:bus

1.  The vowel e\ which appears in every form is regularly long.  It is
shortened in the ending -ei:  after a consonant, as in
r-ei:\; and
before -m in the accusative singular, as in di-em\. (Cf.  Sec. 12.2.)

  2.  Only die:s\ and re:s\ are complete in the plural.  Most other
  nouns of this declension lack the plural. Acie:s\, _line of battle_,
  and
spe:s\, hope, have the nominative and accusative plural.

274. The ablative relation (Sec. 50) which is expressed by the prepositions at, in, or on may refer not only to place, but also to time, as at noon, in summer, on the first day.  The ablative which is used to express this relation is called the ablative of time.

275. RULE.  The Ablative of Time. The time /when\ or /within which\ anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition.

    a. Occasionally the preposition /_in_\ is found.  Compare the
    English Next day we started and On\ the next day we started_.

276. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294.

I. Galba the Farmer. Galba agricola ruri vivit.  Cotidie prima luce laborare incipit, nec ante noctem in studio suo cessat.  Meridie Iulia filia eum ad cenam vocat.  Nocte pedes defessos domum vertit.  Aestate filii agricolae auxilium patri dant.  Hieme agricola eos in ludum mittit.  Ibi magister pueris multas fabulas de rebus gestis Caesaris narrat.  Aestate filii agricolae perpetuis laboribus exercentur nec grave agri opus est iis molestum.  Galba sine ulla cura vivit nec res adversas timet.

II. 1.  In that month there were many battles in Gaul. 2.  The cavalry of the enemy made an attack upon Caesar’s line of battle. 3.  In the first hour of the night the ship was overcome by the billows. 4.  On the second day the savages were eager to come under Caesar’s protection. 5.  The king had joined battle, moved by the hope of victory. 6.  That year a fire destroyed many birds and other animals. 7.  We saw blood on the wild beast’s teeth.

277. DAED’ALUS AND IC’ARUS (Continued)

Tum Daedalus gravibus curis commotus filio suo Icaro ita dixit:  “Animus meus, Icare, est plenus tristitiae nec oculi lacrimis egent.  Discedere ex Creta, Athenas properare, maxime studeo; sed rex recusat audire verba mea et omnem reditus spem eripit.  Sed numquam rebus adversis vincar.  Terra et mare sunt inimica, sed aliam fugae viam reperiam.”  Tum in artis ignotas animum dimittit et mirum capit consilium.  Nam pennas in ordine ponit et veras alas facit.

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LESSON XLIX

PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED :  PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  ami:citia, -ae\, f., _friendship_ (amicable)
  
itaque\, conj., and so, therefore, accordingly
  littera, -ae\, f., _a letter_ of the alphabet;
    plur., _a letter, an epistle_
  
metus, metu:s\, m., fear
  nihil, indeclinable\, n., _nothing_ (nihilist)
  
nu:ntius, nu:nti:\, m., messenger.  Cf. nu:ntio:\
  
pa:x, pa:cis\, f., peace (pacify)
  re:gnum, -i:\, n., _reign, sovereignty, kingdom_
  
supplicum, suppli’ci:\, n., punishment;
    supplicum su:mere de:\, with abl., _inflict punishment on_;
    
supplicum dare\, suffer punishment.  Cf. poena\

  placeo:, place:re, placui:, placitus\, _be pleasing to, please_,
    with dative.  Cf.  Sec. 154
  
su:mo:, su:mere, su:mpsi:, su:mptus\, take up, assume
  sustineo:, sustine:re, sustinui:, sustentus\, _sustain_

278. We have the same kinds of pronouns in Latin as in English.  They are divided into the following eight classes: 

  1. Personal pronouns\, which show the person speaking, spoken to, or
  spoken of; as,
ego\, I; tu\, _you_; is\, he. (Cf.  Sec. 279.
  etc.)

  2. Possessive pronouns\, which denote possession; as, meus\, tuus\,
  
suus\, etc. (Cf.  Sec. 98.)

  3. Reflexive pronouns\, used in the predicate to refer back to the
  subject; as, _he saw himself_. (Cf.  Sec. 281.)

  4. Intensive pronouns\, used to emphasize a noun or pronoun; as, _I
  myself saw it_. (Cf.  Sec. 285.)

  5. Demonstrative pronouns\, which point out persons or things; as,
  
is\, this, that. (Cf.  Sec. 112.)

  6. Relative pronouns\, which connect a subordinate adjective clause
  with an antecedent; as,
qui\, who. (Cf.  Sec. 220.)

  7. Interrogative pronouns\, which ask a question; as, quis\, who?
  (Cf.  Sec. 225.)

  8. Indefinite pronouns\, which point out indefinitely; as, _some one,
  any one, some, certain ones_, etc. (Cf.  Sec. 296.)

279. The demonstrative pronoun is\, ea\, id\, as we learned in Sec. 115, is regularly used as the personal pronoun of the third person (_he_, _she_, _it_, _they_, etc.).

280. The personal pronouns of the first person are ego\, _I_; no:s\, we; of the second person, tu:\, _thou_ or _you_; vo:s\, ye or you.  They are declined as follows: 

       SINGULAR
       FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON
  Nom. ego, I tu:, you
  Gen. mei:, of me tui:, of you
  Dat. mihi, to or for me tibi, to or for you
  Acc. me:, me te:, you
  Abl. me:, with, from, etc., me te:, with, from, etc., you

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PLURAL
Nom. no:s, we                     vo:s, you
Gen. nostrum or nostri:, of us    vestrum or vestri:, of you
Dat. no:bi:s, to or for us      vo:bi:s, to or for you
Acc. no:s, us                     vo:s, you
Abl. no:bi:s, with, from,         vo:bi:s, with, from,
etc., us                     etc., you

1.  The personal pronouns are not used in the nominative excepting for
emphasis or contrast.

281. The Reflexive Pronouns. 1.  The personal pronouns ego\ and tu:\ may be used in the predicate as reflexives; as,

video me, I see myself
videmus nos, we see ourselves
vides te, you see yourself
videtis vos, you see yourselves

  2.  The reflexive pronoun of the third person (himself, herself,
  itself, themselves
) has a special form, used only in these senses,
  and declined alike in the singular and plural.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL
    Gen. sui:  Acc. se: 
    Dat. sibi Abl. se: 

  EXAMPLES
    Puer se videt, the boy sees himself
    Puella se videt, the girl sees herself
    Animal se videt, the animal sees itself
    Ii se vident, they see themselves

    a. The form se:\ is sometimes doubled, se:se:\, for emphasis.

  3.  Give the Latin for

I teach myself        We teach ourselves
You teach yourself    You teach yourselves
He teaches himself    They teach themselves

282. The preposition cum\, when used with the ablative of ego\, tu:\, or sui:\, is appended to the form, as, me:cum\, _with me_; te:cum\, with you; no:bi:scum\, _with us_; etc.

283. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294.

I. 1.  Mea mater est cara mihi et tua mater est cara tibi. 2.  Vestrae litterae erant gratae nobis et nostrae litterae erant gratae vobis. 3.  Nuntius regis qui nobiscum est nihil respondebit. 4.  Nuntii pacem amicitiamque sibi et suis sociis postulaverunt. 5.  Si tu arma sumes, ego regnum occupabo. 6.  Uter vestrum est civis Romanus?  Neuter nostrum. 7.  Eo tempore multi supplicium dederunt quia regnum petierant. 8.  Sume supplicium, Caesar, de hostibus patriae acribus. 9.  Prima luce alii metu commoti sese fugae mandaverunt; alii autem magna virtute impetum exercitus nostri sustinuerunt. 10.  Soror regis, ubi de adverso proelio audivit, sese Pompeiis interfecit.

II. 1.  Whom do you teach?  I teach myself. 2.  The soldier wounded himself with his sword. 3.  The master praises us, but you he does not praise. 4.  Therefore he will inflict punishment on you, but we shall not suffer punishment. 5.  Who will march (i.e. make a march) with me to Rome? 6.  I will march with you to the gates of the city. 7.  Who will show us[1] the way?  The gods will show you[1] the way.

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    [Footnote 1:  Not accusative.]

DAED’ALUS AND IC’ARUS (Concluded)

284. Puer Icarus una[2] stabat et mirum patris opus videbat.  Postquam manus ultima[3] alis imposita est, Daedalus eas temptavit et similis avi in auras volavit.  Tum alas umeris fili adligavit et docuit eum volare et dixit, “Te veto, mi fili, adpropinquare aut soli aut mari.  Si fluctibus adpropinquaveris,[4] aqua alis tuis nocebit, et si soli adpropinquaveris,[4] ignis eas cremabit.”  Tum pater et filius iter difficile incipiunt.  Alas movent et aurae sese committunt.  Sed stultus puer verbis patris non paret.  Soli adpropinquat.  Alae cremantur et Icarus in mare decidit et vitam amittit.  Daedalus autem sine ullo periculo trans fluctus ad insulam Siciliam volavit.

    [Footnote 2:  Adverb, see vocabulary.]

    [Footnote 3:  manus ultima\, _the finishing touch_.  What literally?]

    [Footnote 4:  Future perfect.  Translate by the present.]

LESSON L

THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN IPSE AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE IDEM

  [Special Vocabulary]

corpus, corporis\, n., _body_ (corporal) de:nsus, -a, -um\, dense i:dem, e’adem, idem\, demonstrative pronoun, _the same_ (identity) ipse, ipsa, ipsum\, intensive pronoun, self; even, very mi:rus, -a, -um\, _wonderful, marvelous_ (miracle) o:lim\, adv., formerly, once upon a time pars, partis (-ium)\, f., _part, region, direction_ quoque\, adv., also.  Stands after the word which it emphasizes so:l, so:lis\, m., _sun_ (solar) ve:rus, -a, -um\, true, real (verity)

  de:beo:, de:be:re, de:bui:, de:bitus\, _owe, ought_ (debt)
  
e:ripio:, e:ripere, e:ripui:, e:reptus\, snatch from

285. Ipse\ means _-self_ (_him-self, her-self_, etc.) or is translated by _even_ or _very_.  It is used to emphasize a noun or pronoun, expressed or understood, with which it agrees like an adjective.

    a. Ipse\ must be carefully distinguished from the reflexive
    
sui\.  The latter is always used as a pronoun, while ipse\ is
    regularly adjective.  Compare

      Homo se videt, the man sees himself (reflexive)
      Homo ipse periculum videt,
        the man himself (intensive) sees the danger
      Homo ipsum periculum videt,
        the man sees the danger itself (intensive)

286. Except for the one form ipse\, the intensive pronoun is declined exactly like the nine irregular adjectives (cf.  Secs. 108, 109).  Learn the declension (Sec. 481).

287. The demonstrative idem\, meaning _the same_, is a compound of is\.  It is declined as follows: 

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SINGULAR
MASC.         FEM.          NEUT. 
Nom.  i:dem        e’adem       idem
Gen.  eius’dem     eius’dem     eius’dem
Dat.  ei:’dem      ei:’dem       ei:’dem
Acc.  eun’dem      ean’dem      idem
Abl.  eo:’dem      ea:’dem       eo:’dem

PLURAL
Nom. ii:’dem eae’dem e’adem
ei:’dem
Gen. eo:run’dem ea:run’dem eo:run’dem
Dat. ii:s’dem ii:s’dem ii:s’dem
ei:s’dem ei:s’dem ei:s’dem
Acc. eo:s’dem ea:s’dem e’adem
Abl. ii:s’dem ii:s’dem ii:s’dem
ei:s’dem ei:s’dem ei:s’dem

a. From forms like eundem\ (eum + -dem), eo:rundem\ (eo:rum
+ -dem), we learn the rule that m\ before d\ is changed to n\.

b. The forms ii:dem\, ii:sdem\ are often spelled and pronounced
with one i:\.

288. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. 1.  Ego et tu[1] in eadem urbe vivimus. 2.  Iter ipsum non timemus sed feras saevas quae in silva densa esse dicuntur. 3.  Olim nos ipsi idem iter fecimus. 4.  Eo tempore multas feras vidimus. 5.  Sed nobis non nocuerunt. 6.  Caesar ipse scutum de manibus militis eripuit et in ipsam aciem properavit. 7.  Itaque milites summa virtute tela in hostium corpora iecerunt. 8.  Romani quoque gravia vulnera acceperunt. 9.  Denique hostes terga verterunt et ommis in partis[2] fugerunt. 10.  Eadem hora litterae Romam ab imperatore ipso missae sunt. 11.  Eodem mense captivi quoque in Italiam missi sunt. 12.  Sed multi propter vulnera iter difficile trans montis facere recusabant et Genavae esse dicebantur.

II. 1.  At Pompeii there is a wonderful mountain. 2.  When I was in that place, I myself saw that mountain. 3.  On the same day many cities were destroyed by fire and stones from that very mountain. 4.  You have not heard the true story of that calamity, have you?[3] 5.  On that day the very sun could not give light to men. 6.  You yourself ought to tell (to) us that story.

    [Footnote 1:  Observe that in Latin we say I and you, not you
    and I
.]

    [Footnote 2:  Not parts, but directions.]

    [Footnote 3:  Cf.  Sec. 210.]

289. HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE[4]

Tarquinius Superbus, septimus et ultimus rex Romanorum, ubi in exsilium ab iratis Romanis eiectus est, a Porsena, rege Etruscorum, auxilium petiit.  Mox Porsena magnis cum copiis Romam venit, et ipsa urbs summo in periculo erat.  Omnibus in partibus exercitus Romanus victus erat.  Iam rex montem Ianiculum[5] occupaverat.  Numquam antea Romani tanto metu tenebantur.  Ex agris in urbem properabant et summo studio urbem ipsam muniebant.

    [Footnote 4:  The story of Horatius has been made familiar by
    Macaulay’s well-known poem “Horatius” in his Lays of Ancient Rome
    Read the poem in connection with this selection.]

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    [Footnote 5:  The Janiculum is a high hill across the Tiber from
    Rome.]

LESSON LI

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS HIC, ISTE, ILLE

  [Special Vocabulary]

  hic, haec, hoc\, demonstrative pronoun, _this_ (of mine);
    _he, she, it_
  
ille, illa, illud\, demonstrative pronoun that (yonder);
    he, she, it
  invi:sus, -a, -um\, _hateful, detested_, with dative Cf.  Sec. 143
  
iste, ista, istud\, demonstrative pronoun, that (of yours);
    he, she, it
  li:berta:s, -a:tis\, f., _liberty_
  
modus, -i:\, m., measure; manner, way, mode
  no:men, no:minis\, n., _name_ (nominate)
  
oculus, -i:\, m., eye (oculist)
  pri:stinus, -a, -um\, _former, old-time_ (pristine)
  
pu:blicus, -a, -um\, public, belonging to the state;
    re:s pu:blica, rei:  pu:blicae\, f., _the commonwealth, the state,
    the republic_
  
vesti:gium, vesti:’gi:\, n., footprint, track; trace, vestige
  vo:x, vo:cis\, f., _voice_

290. We have already learned the declension of the demonstrative pronoun is\ and its use. (Cf.  Lesson XVII.) That pronoun refers to persons or things either far or near, and makes no definite reference to place or time.  If we wish to point out an object definitely in place or time, we must use hic\, iste\, or ille\.  These demonstratives, like is\, are used both as pronouns and as adjectives, and their relation to the speaker may be represented graphically thus: 

hic            iste          ille
SPEAKER ------------->-------------->--------------->
this, he;  that, he;  that, he
(near);       (remote);     (more remote)
a. In dialogue hic\ refers to a person or thing near the speaker; iste\, to a person or thing near the person addressed; ille\, to a person or thing remote from both.  These distinctions are illustrated in the model sentences, Sec. 293, which should be carefully studied and imitated.

_291._ Hic\ is declined as follows: 

SINGULAR
MASC.     FEM.      NEUT. 
Nom.  hic      haec     hoc
Gen.  huius    huius    huius
Dat.  huic     huic     huic
Acc.  hunc     hanc     hoc
Abl.  ho:c     ha:c     ho:c
PLURAL
Nom.  hi:       hae      haec
Gen.  ho:rum   ha:rum   ho:rum
Dat.  hi:s     hi:s     hi:s
Acc.  ho:s     ha:s     haec
Abl.  hi:s     hi:s     hi:s

    a. Huius\ is pronounced _h[oo]’y[oo]s_, and huic\ is pronounced
    h[oo]ic (one syllable).

292. The demonstrative pronouns iste\, ista\, istud\, and ille\, illa\, illud\, except for the nominative and accusative singular neuter forms istud\ and illud\, are declined exactly like ipse\, ipsa\, ipsum\. (See Sec. 481.)

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293. MODEL SENTENCES

  Is this horse (of mine) strong?
    Estne hic equus validus?

  That horse (of yours) is strong, but that one (yonder) is weak
    Iste equus est validus, sed ille est infirmus

  Are these (men by me) your friends?
    Suntne hi amici tui?

  Those (men by you) are my friends,
      but those
(men yonder) are enemies
    Isti sunt amici mei, sed illi sunt inimici

294. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. A German Chieftain addresses his Followers. Ille fortis Germanorum dux suos convocavit et hoc modo animos eorum confirmavit.  “Vos, qui in his finibus vivitis, in hunc locum convocavi[1] quia mecum debetis istos agros et istas domos ab iniuriis Romanorum liberare.  Hoc nobis non difficile erit, quod illi hostes has silvas densas, feras saevas quarum vestigia vident, montes altos timent.  Si fortes erimus, dei ipsi nobis viam salutis demonstrabunt.  Ille sol, isti oculi calamitates nostras viderunt.[1] Itaque nomen illius rei publicae Romanae non solum nobis, sed etiam omnibus hominibus qui libertatem amant, est invisum.  Ad arma vos voco.  Exercete istam pristinam virtutem et vincetis.”

    [Footnote 1:  The perfect definite. (Cf.  Sec. 190.)]

II. 1.  Does that bird (of yours)[2] sing? 2.  This bird (of mine)[2] sings both[3] in summer and in winter and has a beautiful voice. 3.  Those birds (yonder)[2] in the country don’t sing in winter. 4.  Snatch a spear from the hands of that soldier (near you)[2] and come home with me. 5.  With those very eyes (of yours)[2] you will see the tracks of the hateful enemy who burned my dwelling and made an attack on my brother. 6.  For (propter) these deeds (res) we ought to inflict punishment on him without delay. 7.  The enemies of the republic do not always suffer punishment.

    [Footnote 2:  English words in parentheses are not to be translated. 
    They are inserted to show what demonstratives should be used. 
    (Cf.  Sec. 290.)]

    [Footnote 3:  both ... and, et ... et\.]

  [Illustration:  HORATIUS PONTEM DEFENDIT]

295. HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (Continued)

Altera urbis pars muris, altera flumine satis muniri videbatur.  Sed erat pons in flumine qui hostibus iter paene dedit.  Tum Horatius Cocles, fortis vir, magna voce dixit, “Rescindite pontem, Romani!  Brevi tempore Porsena in urbem copias suas traducet.”  Iam hostes in ponte erant, sed Horatius cum duobus (cf.  Sec. 479) comitibus ad extremam pontis partem properavit, et hi soli aciem hostium sustinuerunt.  Tum vero cives Romani pontem a tergo rescindere incipiunt, et hostes frustra Horatium superare temptant.

LESSON LII

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

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  [Special Vocabulary]

  incolumis, -e\, _unharmed_
  
ne:  ... quidem\, adv., not even.  The emphatic word stands between
    ne:\ and quidem\
  nisi\, conj., _unless, if ... not_
  
paene\, adv., almost (pen-insula)
  satis\, adv., _enough, sufficiently_ (satisfaction)
  
tantus, -a, -um\, so great
  ve:ro:\, adv., _truly, indeed, in fact_.  As a conj. _but, however_,
    usually stands second, never first.

de:cido:, de:cidere, de:cidi:, ——­\, _fall down_ (deciduous) de:silio:, de:sili:re, de:silui:, de:sultus\, leap down, dismount maneo:, mane:re, ma:nsi:, ma:nsu:rus\, _remain_ tra:du:co:, tra:du:cere, tra:du:xi:, tra:ductus\, lead across

296. The indefinite pronouns are used to refer to some person or some thing, without indicating which particular one is meant.  The pronouns quis\ and qui\, which we have learned in their interrogative and relative uses, may also be indefinite; and nearly all the other indefinite pronouns are compounds of quis\ or qui\ and declined almost like them.  Review the declension of these words, Secs. 221, 227.

297. Learn the declension and meaning of the following indefinites: 

MASC.  FEM.  NEUT.
quis quid, some one, any one (substantive)
qui:  qua or quae quod, some, any (adjective), Sec. 483
aliquis aliquid, some one, any one
(substantive), Sec. 487
aliqui:  aliqua aliquod, some, any (adjective), Sec. 487
qui:dam quaedam quoddam, quiddam, a certain,
a certain one
, Sec. 485
quisquam quicquam or quidquam (no plural), any one
(at all) (substantive), Sec. 486
quisque quidque, each one, every one
(substantive), Sec. 484
quisque quaeque quodque, each, every (adjective), Sec. 484

[Transcriber’s Note: 
In the original text, the combined forms (masculine/feminine) were
printed in the “masculine” column.]

NOTE.  The meanings of the neuters, something, etc., are easily inferred from the masculine and feminine.

    a. In the masculine and neuter singular of the indefinites,
    quis-forms and quid-forms are mostly used as substantives,
    qui-forms and quod-forms as adjectives.

b. The indefinites quis\ and qui\ never stand first in a clause, and are rare excepting after si\, nisi\, ne:\, num\ (as, si quis, if any one; si quid, if anything; nisi quis, unless some one).  Generally aliquis\ and aliqui\ are used instead.
c. The forms qua\ and aliqua\ are both feminine nominative singular and neuter nominative plural of the indefinite adjectives qui\

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and
aliqui\ respectively.  How do these differ from the corresponding forms of the relative qui\?
_d._ Observe that qui:dam\ (qui:  + -dam) is declined like qui:\, except that in the accusative singular and genitive plural m\ of qui:\ becomes n\ (cf.  Sec. 287.a):  quendam\, quandam\, quorundam\, quarundam\; also that the neuter has quiddam\ (substantive) and quoddam\ (adjective) in the nominative and accusative singular. Qui:dam\ is the least indefinite of the indefinite pronouns, and implies that you could name the person or thing referred to if you cared to do so.

    _e._ Quisquam\ and quisque\ (substantive) are declined like
    
quis\.

    f. Quisquam\, _any one_ (quicquam or quidquam, _anything_),
    is always used substantively and chiefly in negative sentences.  The
    corresponding adjective _any_ is
u:llus, -a, -um\ (Sec. 108).

298. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. 1.  Aliquis de ponte in flumen decidit sed sine ullo periculo servatus est. 2.  Est vero in vita cuiusque hominis aliqua bona fortuna. 3.  Ne militum quidem[1] quisquam in castris mansit. 4.  Si quem meae domi vides, iube eum discedere. 5.  Si quis pontem tenet, ne tantus quidem exercitus capere urbem potest. 6.  Urbs non satis munita erat et meridie rex quidam paene copias suas trans pontem traduxerat. 7.  Denique miles quidam armatus in fluctus desiluit et incolumis ad alteram ripam oculos vertit. 8.  Quisque illi forti militi aliquid dare debet. 9.  Tanta vero virtus Romanus semper placuit. 10.  Olim Corinthus erat urbs satis magna et paene par Romae ipsi; nunc vero moenia deciderunt et pauca vestigia urbis illius reperiri possunt. 11.  Quisque libertatem amat, et aliquibus vero nomen regis est invisum.

II. 1.  If you see a certain Cornelius at Corinth, send him to me. 2.  Almost all the soldiers who fell down into the waves were unharmed. 3.  Not even at Pompeii did I see so great a fire. 4.  I myself was eager to tell something to some one. 5.  Each one was praising his own work. 6.  Did you see some one in the country?  I did not see any one. 7.  Unless some one will remain on the bridge with Horatius, the commonwealth will be in the greatest danger.

    [Footnote 1:  Observe that qui:dam\ and quidem\ are different
    words.]

299. HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (Concluded)

Mox, ubi parva pars pontis mansit, Horatius iussit comites discedere et solus mira constantia impetum illius totius exercitus sustinebat.  Denique magno fragore pons in flumen decidit.  Tum vero Horatius tergum vertit et armatus in aquas desiluit.  In eum hostes multa tela iecerunt; incolumis autem per fiuctus ad alteram ripam tranavit.  Ei propter tantas res gestas populus Romanus non solum alia magna praemia dedit sed etiam statuam Horati in loco publico posuit.

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* * * * *

  Sixth Review, Lessons XLV-LII, Secs. 521-523

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LESSON LIII

REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

  [Special Vocabulary]

  aquila, -ae\, f., _eagle_ (aquiline)
  
auda:x\, gen. auda:cis\, adj., _bold, audacious_
  
celer, celeris, celere\, swift, quick (celerity).  Cf. ve:lo:x\
  
explo:rato:r, -o:ris\, m., scout, spy (explorer)
  inge:ns\, gen. ingentis\, adj., huge, vast
  medius, -a., -um\, _middle, middle part of_ (medium)
  
me:ns, mentis (-ium)\, f., mind (mental).  Cf. animus\
  
opportu:nus, -a, -um\, opportune
  quam\, adv., _than_.  With the superlative quam\ gives the force of
    as possible, as quam auda:cissimi:  viri:\, _men as bold as
    possible_
  
recens\, gen. recentis\, adj., _recent_
  
tam\, adv., so.  Always with an adjective or adverb, while ita\ is
    generally used with a verb

  quaero:, quaerere, quaesi:vi:, quaesi:tus\, _ask, inquire, seek_
    (question).  Cf.
peto:\

300. The quality denoted by an adjective may exist in either a higher or a lower degree, and this is expressed by a form of inflection called comparison.  The mere presence of the quality is expressed by the positive degree, its presence in a higher or lower degree by the comparative, and in the highest or lowest of all by the superlative.  In English the usual way of comparing an adjective is by using the suffix _-er_ for the comparative and _-est_ for the superlative; as, positive high, comparative higher, superlative highest.  Less frequently we use the adverbs more and most; as, positive beautiful, comparative more beautiful, superlative most beautiful.

In Latin, as in English, adjectives are compared by adding suffixes or by using adverbs.

301. Adjectives are compared by using suffixes as follows: 

  POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
  cla:rus, -a, -um cla:rior, cla:ri:us cla:rissimus, -a, -um
    (bright) (brighter) (brightest)
    (BASE cla:r-)
  brevis, breve brevior, brevius brevissimus, -a, -um
    (short) (shorter) (shortest)
    (BASE brev-)
  ve:lo:x ve:lo:cior, ve:lo:cius ve:lo:cissimus, -a, -um
    (swift) (swifter) (swiftest)
    (BASE veloc-)

    a. The comparative is formed from the base of the positive by
    adding -ior masc. and fem., and -ius neut.; the superlative by
    adding /-issimus, -issima, -issimum\.

302. Less frequently adjectives are compared by using the adverbs magis\, _more_; maxime:\, most; as, ido:neus\, _suitable_; magis ido:neus\, more suitable; maxime:  ido:neus\, _most suitable._

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303. Declension of the Comparative.  Adjectives of the comparative degree are declined as follows: 

SINGULAR                       PLURAL
MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT.           MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT. 
Nom.  cla:rior        cla:ri:us      cla:ri:o:re:s   cla:rio:ra
Gen.  cla:rio:ris     cla:rio:ris    cla:rio:rum     cla:rio:rum
Dat.  cla:rio:ri:      cla:rio:ri:     cla:rio:ribus   cla:rio:ribus
Acc.  cla:rio:rem     cla:rius       cla:rio:re:s    cla:rio:ra
Abl.  cla:rio:re      cla:rio:re     cla:rio:ribus   cla:rio:ribus

    a. Observe that the endings are those of the consonant stems of
    the third declension.

    b. Compare longus\, _long_; fortis\, brave; recens\ (base,
    recent-), _recent_; and decline the comparative of each.

304. Adjectives in -er form the comparative regularly, but the superlative is formed by adding -rimus, -a, -um to the nominative masculine of the positive; as,

  POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
  a:cer, a:cris, a:cre a:crior, a:crius a:cerrimus, -a, -um
    (BASE acr-)
  pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum pulchrior, pulchrius pulcherrimus,
    (BASE pulchr-) -a, -um
  li:ber, li:bera, li:berum li:berior, li:berius li:berrimus, -a, -um
    (BASE li:ber-)

    a. In a similar manner compare miser\, aeger\, creber\.

305. The comparative is often translated by quite, too, or somewhat, and the superlative by very; as, altior\, _quite_ (_too, somewhat_) _high_; altissimus\, very high.

306. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1.  Quid exploratores quaerebant?  Exploratores tempus opportfuissimum itineri quaerebant. 2.  Media in silva ignis quam creberrimos fecimus, quod feras tam audacis numquam antea videramus. 3.  Antiquis temporibus Germani erant fortiores quam Galli. 4.  Caesar erat clarior quam inimici[1] qui eum necaverunt. 5.  Quisque scutum ingens et pilum longius gerebat. 6.  Apud barbaros Germani erant audacissimi et fortissimi. 7.  Mens hominum est celerior quam corpus. 8.  Viri aliquarum terrarum sunt miserrimi. 9.  Corpora Germanorum erant ingentiora quam Romanorum. 10.  Acerrimi Gallorum principes sine ulla mora trans flumen quoddam equos velocissimos traduxerunt. 11.  Aestate dies sunt longiores quam hieme. 12.  Imperator quidam ab exploratoribus de recenti adventu navium longarum quaesivit.

II. 1.  Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest. 2.  Certain animals are swifter than the swiftest horse. 3.  The Roman name was most hateful to the enemies of the commonwealth. 4.  The Romans always inflicted the severest[2] punishment on faithless allies. 5.  I was quite ill, and so I hastened from the city to the country. 6.  Marcus had some friends dearer than Caesar.[3] 7.  Did you not seek a more recent report concerning the battle? 8.  Not even after a victory so opportune did he seek the general’s friendship.

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    [Footnote 1:  Why is this word used instead of hostes\?]

    [Footnote 2:  Use the superlative of gravis\.]

    [Footnote 3:  Accusative.  In a comparison the noun after quam\ is in
    the same case as the one before it.]

N.B.  Beginning at this point, the selections for reading will be found near the end of the volume. (See p. 197.)

LESSON LIV

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
THE ABLATIVE WITH COMPARATIVES WITHOUT QUAM

  [Special Vocabulary]

  alacer, alacris, alacre\, _eager, spirited, excited_ (alacrity)
  
celerita:s, -a:tis\, f., speed (celerity)
  cla:mor, cla:mo:ris\, m., _shout, clamor_
  
le:nis, le:ne\, mild, gentle (lenient)
  mulier, muli’eris\, f., _woman_
  
multitu:do:, multitu:dinis\, f., multitude
  ne:mo\, dat. ne:mini:\, acc. ne:minem\ (gen. nu:lli:us\, abl.
    nu:llo:\, from nu:llus\), no plur., m. and f., no one
  no:bilis, no:bile\, _well known, noble_
  
noctu:\, adv. (an old abl.), by night (nocturnal)
  statim\, adv., _immediately, at once_
  
subito:\, adv., suddenly
  tardus, -a, -um\, _slow_ (tardy)
  
cupio:, cupere, cupi:vi:, cupi:tus\, desire, wish (cupidity)

307. The following six adjectives in -lis form the comparative regularly; but the superlative is formed by adding -limus to the base of the positive.  Learn the meanings and comparison.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE facilis, -e, easy facilior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um difficilis, -e, hard difficilior, -ius difficillimus, -a, -um similis, -e, like similior, -ius simillimus, -a, -um dissimilis, -e, unlike dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um gracilis, -e, slender gracilior, -ius gracillimus, -a, -um humilis, -e, low humilior, -ius humillimus, -a, -um

308. From the knowledge gained in the preceding lesson we should translate the sentence Nothing is brighter than the sun

  Nihil est clarius quam sol

But the Romans, especially in negative sentences, often expressed the comparison in this way,

  Nihil est clarius sole

which, literally translated, is Nothing is brighter away from the sun; that is, starting from the sun as a standard, nothing is brighter.  This relation is expressed by the separative ablative sole\.  Hence the rule

309. RULE.  Ablative with Comparatives. The comparative degree, if /quam\ is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative.

310. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

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I. 1.  Nemo milites alacriores Romanis vidit. 2.  Statim imperator iussit nuntios quam celerrimos litteras Romam portare. 3.  Multa flumina sunt leniora Rheno. 4.  Apud Romanos quis erat clarior Caesare? 5.  Nihil pulchrius urbe Roma vidi. 6.  Subito multitudo audacissima magno clamore proelium acrius commisit. 7.  Num est equus tuus tardus?  Non vero tardus, sed celerior aquila. 8.  Ubi Romae fui, nemo erat mihi amicior Sexto. 9.  Quaedam mulieres cibum militibus dare cupiverunt. 10.  Rex vetuit civis ex urbe noctu discedere. 11.  Ille puer est gracilior hac muliere. 12.  Explorator duas (two) vias, alteram facilem, alteram difficiliorem, demonstravit.

II. 1.  What city have you seen more beautiful than Rome? 2.  The Gauls were not more eager than the Germans. 3.  The eagle is not slower than the horse. 4.  The spirited woman did not fear to make the journey by night. 5.  The mind of the multitude was quite gentle and friendly. 6.  But the king’s mind was very different. 7.  The king was not like (similar to) his noble father. 8.  These hills are lower than the huge mountains of our territory.

  [Illustration:  ARMA ROMANA]

LESSON LV

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (Continued)

  [Special Vocabulary]

  aedificium, aedifi’ci:\, n., _building, dwelling_ (edifice)
  
imperium, impe’ri:\, n., command, chief power; empire
  mors, mortis (-ium)\, f., _death_ (mortal)
  
reliquus, -a, -um\, remaining, rest of.  As a noun, m. and n. plur.,
    the rest (relic)
  scelus, sceleris\, n., _crime_
  
servitu:s, -u:tis\, f., slavery (servitude)
  valle:s, vallis (-ium)\, f., _valley_

  abdo:, abdere, abdidi:, abditus\, _hide_
  
contendo:, contendere, contendi:, contentus\, strain, struggle;
    hasten
(contend)
  occi:do:, occi:dere, occi:di:, occi:sus\, _cut down, kill_.  Cf.
    
neco:\, interficio:\
  
perterreo:, perterre:re, perterrui:, perterritus\, terrify,
    frighten

  recipio:, recipere, rece:pi:, receptus\, _receive, recover_;
    
se:  recipere\, betake one’s self, withdraw, retreat
  tra:do:, tra:dere, tra:didi:, tra:ditus\, _give over, surrender,
    deliver_ (traitor)

311. Some adjectives in English have irregular comparison, as good, better, best; many, more, most. So Latin comparison presents some irregularities.  Among the adjectives that are compared irregularly are

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE bonus, -a, -um, good melior, melius optimus, -a, -um magnus, -a, -um, great maior, maius maximus, -a, -um malus, -a, -um, bad peior, peius pessimus, -a, -um multus, -a, -um, much ——­, plu:s plu:rimus, -a, -um multi:, -ae, -a, many plu:re:s, plu:ra plu:rimi:, -ae, -a parvus, -a, -um, small minor, minus minimus, -a, -um

312. The following four adjectives have two superlatives.  Unusual forms are placed in parentheses.

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  exterus, -a, -um, (exterior, -ius, { extre:mus, -a, -um }
    outward outer) {(extimus, -a, -um) }
          
                                      outermost, last
  i:nferus, -a, -um, i:nferior, -ius, { i:nfimus, -a, -um }
    low lower { i:mus, -a, -um }
          
                                      lowest
  posterus, -a, -um, (posterior, -ius, { postre:mus, -a, -um }
    next later) {(postumus, -a, -um) }
          
                                      last
  superus, -a, -um, superior, -ius { supre:mus, -a, -um }
    above higher { summus, -a, -um }
          
                                      highest

313. Plu:s\, _more_ (plural _more, many, several_), is declined as follows: 

SINGULAR                  PLURAL
MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT.      MASC.  AND FEM.    NEUT. 
Nom.       ——­       plu:s     plu:re:s         plu:ra
Gen.       ——­       plu:ris   plu:rium         plu:rium
Dat.       ——­       ——­      plu:ribus        plu:ribus
Acc.       ——­       plu:s     plu:ri:s, -e:s   plu:ra
Abl.       ——­       plu:re    plu:ribus        plu:ribus

    a. In the singular plu:s\ is used only as a neuter substantive.

314. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1.  Reliqui hostes, qui a dextro cornu proelium commiserant, de superiore loco fugerunt et sese in silvam maximam receperunt. 2.  In extrema parte silvae castra hostium posita erant. 3.  Plurimi captivi ab equitibus ad Caesarem ducti sunt. 4.  Caesar vero iussit eos in servitutem tradi. 5.  Postero die magna multitudo mulierum ab Romanis in valle ima reperta est. 6.  Hae mulieres maxime perterritae adventu Caesaris sese occidere studebant. 7.  Eae quoque pluris fabulas de exercitus Romani sceleribus audiverant. 8.  Fama illorum militum optima non erat. 9.  In barbarorum aedificiis maior copia frumenti reperta est. 10.  Nemo crebris proeliis contendere sine aliquo periculo potest.

II. 1.  The remaining women fled from their dwellings and hid themselves. 2.  They were terrified and did not wish to be captured and given over into slavery. 3.  Nothing can be worse than slavery. 4.  Slavery is worse than death. 5.  In the Roman empire a great many were killed because they refused to be slaves. 6.  To surrender the fatherland is the worst crime.

LESSON LVI

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (Concluded)
ABLATIVE OF THE MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE

  [Special Vocabulary]

  aditus, -u:s\, m., _approach, access; entrance_
  
ci:vita:s, ci:vita:tis\, f., citizenship; body of citizens, state
    (city)
  inter\, prep, with acc., _between, among_ (interstate commerce)
  
nam\, conj., for
  obses, obsidis\, m. and f., _hostage_
  
paulo:\, adv. (abl. n. of paulus\), _by a little, somewhat_

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  incolo:, incolere, incolui:, —­\, transitive, _inhabit_;
    intransitive, _dwell_.  Cf.
habito:\, vi:vo:\
  
relinquo:, relinquere, reli:qui:, relictus\, leave, abandon
    (relinquish)
  statuo:, statuere, statui:, statu:tus\, _fix, decide_ (statute),
    usually with infin.

315. The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the superlative and have no positive.  Forms rarely used are in parentheses.

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE citerior, hither (citimus, hithermost) interior, inner (intimus, inmost) prior, former pri:mus, first propior, nearer proximus, next, nearest ulterior, further ultimus, furthest

316. In the sentence Galba is a head taller than Sextus, the phrase a head taller expresses the measure of difference\ in height between Galba and Sextus.  The Latin form of expression would be _Galba is taller than Sextus by a head\_.  This is clearly an ablative relation, and the construction is called the ablative of the measure of difference\.

EXAMPLES

  Galba est altior capite quam Sextus
    Galba is a head taller (taller by a head) than Sextus
  Illud iter ad Italiam est multo brevius
    That route to Italy is much shorter (shorter by much)

317. RULE.  Ablative of the Measure of Difference. With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference.

    a. Especially common in this construction are the neuter ablatives

  eo:, by this, by that nihilo:,[1] by nothing
  ho:c, by this paulo:, by a little
  multo:, by much

    [Footnote 1:  nihil\ was originally nihilum\ and declined like
    pilum\.  There is no plural.]

318. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1.  Barbari proelium committere statuerunt eo magis quod Romani infirmi esse videbantur. 2.  Meum consilium est multo melius quam tuum quia multo facilius est. 3.  Haec via est multo latior quam illa. 4.  Barbari erant nihilo tardiores quam Romani. 5.  Tuus equus est paulo celerior quam meus. 6.  Ii qui paulo fortiores erant prohibuerunt reliquos aditum relinquere. 7.  Inter illas civitates Germania milites habet optimos. 8.  Propior via quae per hanc vallem ducit est inter portum et lacum. 9.  Servi, qui agros citeriores incolebant, priores dominos relinquere non cupiverunt, quod eos amabant. 10.  Ultimae Germaniae partes numquam in fidem Romanorum venerunt. 11.  Nam trans Rhenum aditus erat multo difficilior exercitui Romano.

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II. 1.  Another way much more difficult (more difficult by much) was left through hither Gaul. 2.  In ancient times no state was stronger than the Roman empire. 3.  The states of further Gaul did not wish to give hostages to Caesar. 4.  Slavery is no better (better by nothing) than death. 5.  The best citizens are not loved by the worst. 6.  The active enemy immediately withdrew into the nearest forest, for they were terrified by Caesar’s recent victories.

LESSON LVII

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  aequus, -a, -um\, _even, level; equal_
  
cohors, cohortis (-ium)\, f., cohort, a tenth part of a legion,
    about 360 men
  curro:, currere, cucurri:, cursus\, _run_ (course)
  
difficulta:s, -a:tis\, f., difficulty
  fossa, -ae\, f., _ditch_ (fosse)
  
ge:ns, gentis (-ium)\, f., race, tribe, nation (Gentile)
  nego:tium, nego:ti:\, n., _business, affair, matter_ (negotiate)
  
regio:, -o:nis\, f., region, district
  ru:mor, ru:mo:ris\, m., _rumor, report_.  Cf. fa:ma\
  simul atque\, conj., _as soon as_

  suscipio:, suscipere, susce:pi:, susceptus\, _undertake_
  
traho:, trahere, tra:xi:, tra:ctus\, drag, draw (ex-tract)
  valeo:, vale:re, valui:, valitu:rus\, _be strong_; plu:rimum vale:re,
    _to be most powerful, have great influence_ (value).  Cf. validus

319. Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. sweet, adv. sweetly).  Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension.

320. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows: 

POSITIVE                COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
Adj.  ca:rus, dear           ca:rior       ca:rissimus
Adv.  ca:re:, dearly          ca:rius       ca:rissime: 
Adj.  pulcher, beautiful    pulchrior    pulcherrimus
Adv.  pulchre:, beautifully  pulchrius    pulcherrime: 
Adj.  li:ber, free           li:berior     li:berrimus
Adv.  li:bere:, freely        li:berius     li:berrime: 

    a. The positive of the adverb is formed by adding -e:  to the base
    of the positive of the adjective.  The superlative of the adverb is
    formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way.

    b. The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular
    of the comparative of the adjective.

321. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative.  The positive is usually formed by adding -iter to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and -ter to the base of those of one ending;[1] as,

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POSITIVE              COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
Adj.  fortis, brave       fortior      fortissimus
Adv.  fortiter, bravely   fortius      fortissime: 
Adj.  auda:x, bold         auda:cior     auda:cissimus
Adv.  auda:cter, boldly    auda:cius     auda:cissime: 

[Footnote 1:  This is a good working rule, though there are some
exceptions to it.]

322. Case Forms as Adverbs.  As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially.  So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as,

Adj. facilis, easy pri:mus, first
Adv. facile (acc.), easily pri:mum (acc.), first
pri:mo:  (abl.), at first
Adj. multus, many plu:rimus, most
Adv. multum (acc.), much plu:rimum (acc.), most
multo:  (abl.), by much

323. Learn the following irregular comparisons: 

bene, well melius, better optime:, best diu:, long (time) diu:tius, longer diu:tissime:, longest magnopere, greatly magis, more maxime:, most parum, little minus, less minime:, least prope, nearly, near propius, nearer proxime:, nearest saepe, often saepius, oftener saepissime:, oftenest

324. Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them:  laetus\, superbus\, molestus\, amicus\, acer\, brevis\, gravis\, recens\.

325. RULE.  Adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

326. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1.  Nulla res melius gesta est quam proelium illud[2] ubi Marius multo minore exercitu multo maiores copias Germanorum in fugam dedit. 2.  Audacter in Romanorum cohortis hostes impetus fecerunt 3.  Marius autem omnes hos fortissime sustinuit. 4.  Barbari nihilo fortiores erant quam Romani. 5.  Primo barbari esse superiores videbantur, tum Romani acrius contenderunt. 6.  Denique, ubi iam diutissime paene aequo proelio pugnatum est, barbari fugam petierunt. 7.  Quaedam Germanorum gentes, simul atque rumorem illius calamitatis audiverunt, sese in ultimis regionibus finium suorum abdiderunt. 8.  Romani saepius quam hostes vicerunt, quod meliora arma habebant. 9.  Inter omnis gentis Romani plurimum valebant. 10.  Hae cohortes simul atque in aequiorem regionem se receperunt, castra sine ulla difficultate posuerunt.

II. 1.  Some nations are easily overcome by their enemies. 2.  Germany is much larger than Gaul. 3.  Were not the Romans the most powerful among the tribes of Italy? 4.  On account of (his) wounds the soldier dragged his body from the ditch with the greatest difficulty. 5.  He was able neither to run nor to fight. 6.  Who saved him?  A certain horseman boldly undertook the matter. 7.  The rumors concerning the soldier’s death were not true.

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    [Footnote 2:  ille\ standing after its noun means _that well-known,
    that famous_.]

LESSON LVIII

NUMERALS :  THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE

  [Special Vocabulary]

commea:tus, -u:s\, m.. _provisions_ la:titu:do:, -inis\, f., width (latitude) longitu:do:, -inis\, f., _length_ (longitude) magnitu:do:, -inis\, f., size, magnitude merca:tor, merca:to:ris\, m., _trader, merchant_ mu:ni:tio:, -o:nis\, f., fortification (munition) spatium, spati:\, n., _room, space, distance; time_

  cogno:sco:, cogno:scere, cogno:vi:, cognitus\, learn;
    in the perfect tenses, know (re-cognize)
  co:go:, co:gere, coe:gi:, coa:ctus\, _collect; compel_ (cogent)
  
de:fendo:, de:fendere, de:fendi:, de:fe:nsus\, defend
  incendo:, incendere, incendi:, ince:nsus\, _set fire to, burn_
    (incendiary).  Cf.
cremo:\
  obtineo:, obtine:re, obtinui:, obtentus\, _possess, occupy, hold_
    (obtain)
  
pervenio:, perveni:re, perve:ni:, perventus\, come through, arrive

327. The Latin numeral adjectives may be classified as follows: 

  1. Cardinal Numerals\, answering the question _how many?_ as,
  
u:nus\, one; duo\, _two_; etc.

  2. Ordinal Numerals\, derived in most cases from the cardinals and
  answering the question _in what order?_ as,
pri:mus\, first;
  secundus\, _second_; etc.

  3. Distributive Numerals\, answering the question _how many at a
  time?_ as,
singuli:\, one at a time.

328. The Cardinal Numerals.  The first twenty of the cardinals are as follows: 

1, u:nus 6, sex 11, u:ndecim 16, se:decim 2, duo 7, septem 12, duodecim 17, septendecim 3, tre:s 8, octo:  13, tredecim 18, duode:vi:ginti:  4, quattuor 9, novem 14, quattuordecim 19, u:nde:vi:ginti:  5, qui:nque 10, decem 15, qui:ndecim 20, vi:ginti: 

    a. Learn also centum\ = 100, ducenti:\ = 200, mi:lle\ = 1000.

329. Declension of the Cardinals.  Of the cardinals only u:nus\, duo\, tre:s\, the hundreds above one hundred, and mi:lle\ used as a noun, are declinable.

a. u:nus\ is one of the nine irregular adjectives, and is declined like nu:llus\ (cf.  Secs. 109, 470).  The plural of u:nus\ is used to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning, as, u:na castra\, one camp; and with other nouns in the sense of only, as, Galli u:ni\, _only the Gauls_.

    _b._ Learn the declension of duo\, two; tre:s\, _three_; and
    
mi:lle\, a thousand. (Sec. 479.)

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    c. The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of
    bonus\; as,

      ducenti:, -ae, -a
      ducento:rum, -a:rum, -o:rum
        etc. etc. etc.

330. We have already become familiar with sentences like the following: 

  Omnium avium aquila est velocissima
    Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest
  Hoc oraculum erat omnium clarissimum
    This oracle was the most famous of all

In such sentences the genitive denotes the whole, and the word it modifies denotes a part of that whole.  Such a genitive, denoting the whole of which a part is taken, is called a partitive genitive\.

331. RULE.  Partitive Genitive. Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the /partitive genitive\.

a. Words denoting a part are especially pronouns, numerals, and other adjectives.  But cardinal numbers excepting mille\ regularly take the ablative with ex\ or de\ instead of the partitive genitive.
_b._ Mille\, a thousand, in the singular is usually an indeclinable adjective (as, mille milites\, _a thousand soldiers_), but in the plural it is a declinable noun and takes the partitive genitive (as, decem milia militum\, ten thousand soldiers).

EXAMPLES: 

  Fortissimi horum sunt Germani
    The bravest of these are the Germans
  Decem milia hostium interfecta sunt
    Ten thousand (lit. thousands) of the enemy were slain
  Una ex captivis erat soror regis
    One of the captives was the king’s sister

332. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1.  Caesar maximam partem aedificiorum incendit. 2.  Magna pars munitionis aqua fluminis deleta est. 3.  Galli huius regionis quinque milia hominum coegerant. 4.  Duo ex meis fratribus eundem rumorem audiverunt. 5.  Quis Romanorum erat clarior Caesare? 6.  Quinque cohortes ex illa legione castra quam fortissime defendebant. 7.  Hic locus aberat aequo spatio[1] ab castris Caesaris et castris Germanorum. 8.  Caesar simul atque pervenit, plus commeatus ab sociis postulavit. 9.  Nonne mercatores magnitudinem insulae cognoverant?  Longitudinem sed non latitudinem cognoverant. 10.  Pauci hostium obtinebant collem quem exploratores nostri viderunt.

II. 1.  I have two brothers, and one of them lives at Rome. 2.  Caesar stormed that very town with three legions. 3.  In one hour he destroyed a great part of the fortification. 4.  When the enemy could no longer[2] defend the gates, they retreated to a hill which was not far distant.[3] 5.  There three thousand of them bravely resisted the Romans.[4]

    [Footnote 1:  Ablative of the measure of difference.]

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    [Footnote 2:  Not longius\.  Why?]

    [Footnote 3:  Latin, was distant by a small space.]

    [Footnote 4:  Not the accusative.]

LESSON LIX

NUMERALS (Continued) :  THE ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT

  [Special Vocabulary]

  agmen, agminis\, n., _line of march, column_;
    
pri:mum agmen\, the van;
    novissimum agmen\, _the rear_
  
atque\, ac\, conj., _and_; atque\ is used before vowels and
    consonants, ac\ before consonants only.  Cf. et\ and /-que\
  concilium, conci’li:\, n., _council, assembly_
  
Helve:tii:, -o:rum\, m., the Helvetii, a Gallic tribe
  passus, passu:s\, m., _a pace_, five Roman feet;
    
mi:lle passuum\, a thousand (of) paces, a Roman mile
  qua:  de:  causa:\, _for this reason, for what reason_
  
va:llum, -i:\, n., earth-works, rampart

  cado:, cadere, cecidi:, ca:su:rus\, _fall_ (decadence)
  
de:do:, de:dere, de:didi:, de:ditus\, surrender, give up;
    with a reflexive pronoun, surrender one’s self, submit, with the
    dative of the indirect object
  premo:, premere, pressi:, pressus\, _press hard, harass_
  
vexo:, vexa:re, vexa:vi:, vexa:tus\, annoy, ravage (vex)

333. Learn the first twenty of the ordinal numerals (Sec. 478).  The ordinals are all declined like bonus\.

334. The distributive numerals are declined like the plural of bonus\.  The first three are

    singuli:, -ae, -a, one each, one by one
    bi:ni:, -ae, -a, two each, two by two
    terni:, -ae, -a, three each, three by three

335. We have learned that, besides its use as object, the accusative is used to express space relations not covered by the ablative.  We have had such expressions as per plurimos annos\, _for a great many years_; per totum diem\, for a whole day.  Here the space relation is one of extent of time.  We could also say per decem pedes\, _for ten feet_, where the space relation is one of _extent of space_.  While this is correct Latin, the usual form is to use the accusative with no preposition, as,

  Vir totum diem cucurrit, the man ran for a whole day
  Caesar murum decem pedes movit, Caesar moved the wall ten feet

336. RULE.  Accusative of Extent. Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative.

    a. This accusative answers the questions how long? how far?

    b. Distinguish carefully between the accusative of time how long
    and the ablative of time when, or within which.

Select the accusatives of time and space and the ablatives of time in the following: 

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When did the general arrive?  He arrived at two o’clock.  How long had he been marching?  For four days.  How far did he march?  He marched sixty-five miles.  Where has he pitched his camp?  Three miles from the river, and he will remain there several days.  The wall around the camp is ten feet high.  When did the war begin?  In the first year after the king’s death.

337. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298.

I. Caesar in Gaul.  Caesar bellum in Gallia septem annos gessit.  Primo anno Helvetios vicit, et eodem anno multae Germanorum gentes ei sese dediderunt.  Multos iam annos Germani Gallos vexabant[1] et duces Germani copias suas trans Rhenum saepe traducebant.[1] Non singuli veniebant, sed multa milia hominum in Galliam contendebant.  Qua de causa principes Galliae concilium convocaverunt atque statuerunt legates ad Caesarem mittere.  Caesar, simul atque hunc rumorem audivit, copias suas sine mora coegit.  Prima luce fortiter cum Germanis proelium commisit.  Totum diem acriter pugnatum est.  Caesar ipse a dextro cornu acicm duxit.  Magna pars exercitus Germani cecidit.  Post magnam caedem pauci multa milia passuum ad flumen fugerunt.

II. 1.  Caesar pitched camp two miles from the river. 2.  He fortified the camp with a ditch fifteen feet wide and a rampart nine feet high. 3.  The camp of the enemy was a great way off (was distant by a great space). 4.  On the next day he hastened ten miles in three hours. 5.  Suddenly the enemy with all their forces made an attack upon (in\ _with acc._) the rear. 6.  For two hours the Romans were hard pressed by the barbarians. 7.  In three hours the barbarians were fleeing.

    [Footnote 1:  Translate as if pluperfect.]

LESSON LX

DEPONENT VERBS

  [Special Vocabulary]

  aut\, conj., _or_; aut ... aut\, either ... or
  causa:\, abl. of causa\, for the sake of, because of.  Always
    stands after the gen. which modifies it
  fere:\, adv., _nearly, almost_
  
opi:nio:, -o:nis\, f., opinion, supposition, expectation
  re:s fru:menta:ria, rei:  fru:menta:riae\, f. (lit. _the grain
    affair_), _grain supply_
  
timor, -o:ris\, m., fear.  Cf. timeo:\
  
undique\, adv., from all sides

  co:nor, co:na:ri:, co:na:tus sum\, _attempt, try_
  
e:gredior, e:gredi:, e:gressus sum\, move out, disembark;
    pro:gredior\, _move forward, advance_ (egress, progress)
  
moror, mora:ri:, mora:tus sum\, delay
  orior, oriri:, ortus sum\, _arise, spring; begin; be born_ (_from_)
    (origin)
  
profici:scor, profici:sci:, profectus sum\, set out
  revertor, reverti:, reversus sum\, _return_ (revert).  The forms of
    this verb are usually active,

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and not deponent, in the perfect
    system.  Perf. act.,
reverti:\
  sequor, sequi:, secu:tus sum\, _follow_ (sequence).  Note the
    following compounds of
sequor\ and the force of the different
    prefixes: 
    co:nsequor\ (_follow with_), _overtake_;
    
i:nsequor\ (follow against), pursue;
    subsequor\ (_follow under_), _follow close after_

338. A number of verbs are passive in form but active in meaning; as, hortor\, _I encourage_; vereor\, I fear.  Such verbs are called deponent\ because they have laid aside (de-ponere\, to lay aside) the active forms.

a. Besides having all the forms of the passive, deponent verbs
have also the future active infinitive and a few other active forms
which will be noted later. (SecSecs. 375, 403.b.)

339. The principal parts of deponents are of course passive in form, as,

Conj.  I hortor, hortari:, hortatus sum, encourage
Conj.  II vereor, vere:ri:, veritus sum, fear
Conj.  III (a) sequor, sequi:, secu:tus sum, follow
(b) patior, pati:, passus sum, suffer, allow
Conj.  IV partior, parti:ri:, parti:tus sum, share, divide

Learn the synopses of these verbs. (See Sec. 493.) Patior\ is conjugated like the passive of capio\ (Sec. 492).

340. PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE

The prepositions with the accusative that occur most frequently are

ante, before apud, among circum, around contra:, against, contrary to extra:, outside of in, into, in, against, upon inter, between, among intra:, within ob, on account of (quam ob rem, wherefore, therefore) per, through, by means of post, after, behind propter, on account of, because of tra:ns, across, over

    a. Most of these you have had before.  Review the old ones and
    learn the new ones.  Review the list of prepositions governing the
    ablative, Sec. 209.

341. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298.

I. 1.  Tres ex legatis, contra Caesaris opinionem, iter facere per hostium finis verebantur. 2.  Quis eos hortatus est?  Imperator eos hortatus est et iis persuadere conatus est, sed non potuit. 3.  Quid legatos perterruit?  Aut timor hostium, qui undique premebant, aut longitudo viae eos perterruit. 4.  Tamen omnes fere Caesarem multo magis quam hostis veriti sunt. 5.  Fortissimae gentes Galliae ex Germanis oriebantur. 6.  Quam ob rem tam fortes erant?  Quia nec vinum nec alia quae virtutem delent ad se portari patiebantur. 7.  Caesar ex mercatoribus de insula Britannia quaesivit, sed nihil cognoscere potuit. 8.  Itaque ipse statuit hanc terram petere, et media fere aestate cum multis navibus longis profectus est. 9.  Magna celeritate iter confecit et in opportunissimo loco egressus est. 10.  Barbari summis viribus eum ab insula prohibere conati sunt. 11.  Ille autem barbaros multa milia passuum insecutus est; tamen sine equitatu eos consequi non potuit.

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II. 1.  Contrary to our expectation, the enemy fled and the cavalry followed close after them. 2.  From all parts of the multitude the shouts arose of those who were being wounded. 3.  Caesar did not allow the cavalry to pursue too far.[1] 4.  The cavalry set out at the first hour and was returning[2] to camp at the fourth hour. 5.  Around the Roman camp was a rampart twelve feet high. 6.  Caesar will delay three days because of the grain supply. 7.  Nearly all the lieutenants feared the enemy and attempted to delay the march.

    [Footnote 1:  Comparative of longe\.]

    [Footnote 2:  Will this be a deponent or an active form?]

* * * * *

  Seventh Review, Lessons LIII-LX, Secs. 524-526

* * * * *

  [Illustration]

PART III

CONSTRUCTIONS

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

The preceding part of this book has been concerned chiefly with forms and vocabulary.  There remain still to be learned the forms of the Subjunctive Mood, the Participles, and the Gerund of the regular verb, and the conjugation of the commoner irregular verbs.  These will be taken up in connection with the study of constructions, which will be the chief subject of our future work.  The special vocabularies of the preceding lessons contain, exclusive of proper names, about six hundred words.  As these are among the commonest words in the language, they must be mastered.  They properly form the basis of the study of words, and will be reviewed and used with but few additions in the remaining lessons.

For practice in reading and to illustrate the constructions presented, a continued story has been prepared and may be begun at this point (see p. 204).  It has been divided into chapters of convenient length to accompany progress through the lessons, but may be read with equal profit after the lessons are finished.  The story gives an account of the life and adventures of Publius Cornelius Lentulus, a Roman boy, who fought in Caesar’s campaigns and shared in his triumph.  The colored plates illustrating the story are faithful representations of ancient life and are deserving of careful study.

LESSON LXI

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

342. In addition to the indicative, imperative, and infinitive moods, which you have learned, Latin has a fourth mood called the subjunctive.  The tenses of the subjunctive are

  PRESENT }
  IMPERFECT } ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
  PERFECT }
  PLUPERFECT }

343. The tenses of the subjunctive have the same time values as the corresponding tenses of the indicative, and, in addition, each of them may refer to future time.  No meanings of the tenses will be given in the paradigms, as the translation varies with the construction used.

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344. The present subjunctive is inflected as follows: 

     CONJ.  I CONJ.  II CONJ.  III CONJ.  IV
     ACTIVE VOICE
     SINGULAR
  1. a’mem mo’neam re’gam ca’piam au’diam
  2. a’me:s mo’nea:s re’ga:s ca’pia:s au’dia:s
  3. a’met mo’neat re’gat ca’piat au’diat

PLURAL
1. ame:’mus   monea:’mus    rega:’mus    capia:’mus    audia:’mus
2. ame:’tis   monea:’tis    rega:’tis    capia:’tis    audia:’tis
3. a’ment     mo’neant      re’gant      ca’piant      au’diant
PASSIVE VOICE
SINGULAR
1. a’mer       mo’near       re’gar       ca’piar       au’diar
2. ame:’ris    monea:’ris    rega:’ris    capia:’ris    audia:’ris
(-re)         (-re)        (-re)         (-re)         (-re)
3. ame:’tur    monea:’tur    rega:’tur    capia:’tur    audia:’tur
   PLURAL

1. ame:’mur monea:’mur rega:’mur capia:’mur audia:’mur
2. ame:’mini:  monea:’mini:  rega:’mini:  capia:’mini:  audia:’mini: 
3. amen’tur monean’tur regan’tur capian’tur audian’tur

a. The present subjunctive is formed from the present stem.

b. The mood sign of the present subjunctive is -e:- in the first conjugation and -a:- in the others.  It is shortened in the usual places (cf.  Sec. 12), and takes the place of the final vowel of the stem in the first and third conjugations, but not in the second and fourth.

    c. The personal endings are the same as in the indicative.

    d. In a similar way inflect the present subjunctive of curo\,
    
iubeo\, sumo\, iacio\, munio\.

345. The present subjunctive of the irregular verb sum\ is inflected as follows: 

{ 1.  sim             { 1.  si:mus
SING. { 2.  si:s     PLURAL { 2.  si:tis
{ 3.  sit             { 3.  sint

346. The Indicative and Subjunctive Compared.

1.  The two most important of the finite moods are the indicative and the subjunctive.  The indicative deals with facts either real or assumed.  If, then, we wish to assert something as a fact or to inquire after a fact, we use the indicative.
2.  On the other hand, if we wish to express a desire or wish, a purpose, a possibility, an expectation, or some such notion, we must use the subjunctive.  The following sentences illustrate the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive ideas.

INDICATIVE IDEAS SUBJUNCTIVE IDEAS

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1. He is brave 1. May he be brave
Fortis est Fortis sit (idea of wishing)
2. We set out at once 2. Let us set out at once
Statim proficiscimur Statim proficiscamur
(idea of willing)
3. You hear him every day 3. You can hear him every day
Cotidie eum audis Cotidie eum audias
(idea of possibility)
4. He remained until the ship 4. He waited until the ship
arrived should arrive
Mansit dum navis pervenit Exspectavit dum navis
perveniret[1]
(idea of expectation)
5. Caesar sends men who find the 5. Caesar sends men
bridge who are to find
(or to find) the bridge
Caesar mittit homines qui Caesar homines mittit qui
pontem reperiunt pontem reperiant
(idea of purpose)

[Footnote 1:  perveniret\, imperfect subjunctive.]

NOTE.  From the sentences above we observe that the subjunctive may be used in either independent or dependent clauses; but it is far more common in the latter than in the former.

347. EXERCISE

Which verbs in the following paragraph would be in the indicative and which in the subjunctive in a Latin translation?

There have been times in the history of our country when you might be proud of being an American citizen.  Do you remember the day when Dewey sailed into Manila Bay to capture or destroy the enemy’s fleet?  You might have seen the admiral standing on the bridge calmly giving his orders.  He did not even wait until the mines should be removed from the harbor’s mouth, but sailed in at once.  Let us not despair of our country while such valor exists, and may the future add new glories to the past.

LESSON LXII

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE

348. Observe the sentence

  Caesar homines mittit qui pontem reperiant,
  Caesar sends men to find the bridge

The verb reperiant\ in the dependent clause is in the subjunctive because it tells us what Caesar wants the men to do; in other words, it expresses his will and the purpose in his mind.  Such a use of the subjunctive is called the subjunctive of purpose.

349. RULE.  Subjunctive of Purpose. The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the purpose of the action in the principal clause.

350. A clause of purpose is introduced as follows: 

I. If something is wanted, by

  qui:\, the relative pronoun (as above)
  
ut\, conj., in order that, that
  quo:\ (abl. of qui:\, by which), in order that, that, used when
    the purpose clause contains a comparative.  The ablative quo:\
    expresses the measure of difference. (Cf.  Sec. 317.)

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II.  If something is not wanted, by

  ne:\, conj., _in order that not, that not, lest_

351. EXAMPLES

  1.  Caesar copias cogit quibus hostis insequatur
    Caesar collects troops with which to pursue the foe

  2.  Pacem petunt ut domum revertantur
    They ask for peace in order that they may return home

  3.  Pontem faciunt quo facilius oppidum capiant
    They build a bridge that they may take the town more easily
    (lit. by which the more easily)

  4.  Fugiunt ne vulnerentur
     They flee that they may not (or lest they) be wounded

352. Expression of Purpose in English.  In English, purpose clauses are sometimes introduced by that or in order that, but much more frequently purpose is expressed in English by the infinitive, as We eat to live, She stoops to conquer.  In Latin prose, on the other hand, purpose is never expressed by the infinitive\.  Be on your guard and do not let the English idiom betray you into this error.

353. EXERCISES

I.
  1.  Veniunt ut { ducant, mittant, videant, audiant,
                        { ducantur, mittantur, videantur, audiantur.
  2.  Fugimus ne:  { capiamur, tradamur, videamus,
                        { necemur, rapiamur, resistamus.
  3.  Mittit nuntios qui { dicant, audiant, veniant,
                        { narrent, audiantur, in concilio sedeant.
  4.  Castra muniunt { sese defendant, impetum sustineant,
         quo:  facilius { hostis vincant, salutem petant.

II. 1.  The Helvetii send ambassadors to seek[1] peace. 2.  They are setting out at daybreak in order that they may make a longer march before night. 3.  They will hide the women in the forest (acc. with in\) that they may not be captured. 4.  The Gauls wage many wars to free[1] their fatherland from slavery. 5.  They will resist the Romans[2] bravely lest they be destroyed.

[Footnote 1:  Not infinitive.]

    [Footnote 2:  Not accusative.]

LESSON LXIII

INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

354. The imperfect subjunctive may be formed by adding the personal endings to the present active infinitive.

   CONJ.  I CONJ.  II CONJ.  III CONJ.  IV
   ACTIVE
1. ama:’rem mone:’rem re’gerem ca’perem audi:’rem 2. ama:’re:s mone:’re:s re’gere:s ca’pere:s audi:’re:s 3. ama:’ret mone:’ret re’geret ca’peret audi:’ret

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1. ama:re:’mus    mone:re:’mus   regere:’mus   capere:’mus   audi:re:’mus
2. ama:re:’tis    mone:re:’tis   regere:’tis   capere:’tis   audi:re:’tis
3. ama:’rent      mone:’rent     re’gerent     ca’perent     audi:’rent
PASSIVE
1. ama:’rer       mone:’rer      re’gerer      ca’perer      audi:’rer
2. ama:re:’ris    mone:re:’ris   regere:’ris   capere:’ris   audi:re:’ris
(-re)           (-re)         (-re)         (-re)          (-re)
3. ama:re:’tur    mone:re:’tur   regere:’tur   capere:’tur   audi:re:’tur

1. ama:re:’mur mone:re:’mur regere:’mur capere:’mur —­re:’mur 2. ama:re:’mini:  mone:re:’mini:  regere:’mini:  capere:’mini:  —­re’mini:  3. ama:ren’tur mone:ren’tur regeren’tur caperen’tur —­ren’tur

a. In a similar way inflect the imperfect subjunctive, active and
passive, of curo\, iubeo\, sumo\, iacio\, munio\.

355. The imperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb sum\ is inflected as follows: 

{ 1. es’sem            { 1. esse:’mus
SING. { 2. es’se:s    PLURAL { 2. esse:’tis
{ 3. es’set            { 3. es’sent

356. The three great distinctions of time are present, past, and future.  All tenses referring to present or future time are called primary tenses\, and those referring to past time are called secondary tenses\.  Now it is a very common law of language that in a complex sentence the tense in the dependent clause should be of the same kind as the tense in the principal clause.  In the sentence He /says\ that he /is\ coming, the principal verb, says, is present, that is, is in a primary tense; and is coming, in the dependent clause, is naturally also primary.  If I change he says to he said,—­in other words, if I make the principal verb secondary in character,—­I feel it natural to change the verb in the dependent clause also, and I say, He /said\ that he /was\ coming.  This following of a tense by another of the same kind is called tense sequence, from sequi:, “to follow.”

In Latin the law of tense sequence is obeyed with considerable regularity, especially when an indicative in the principal clause is followed by a subjunctive in the dependent clause.  Then a primary tense of the indicative is followed by a primary tense of the subjunctive, and a secondary tense of the indicative is followed by a secondary tense of the subjunctive.  Learn the following table: 

357. TABLE FOR SEQUENCE OF TENSES

+-----+-------------------+----------------------------

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+-----+-------------------+----------------------------
---------------+ | | PRINCIPAL VERB | DEPENDENT VERBS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE | | P | IN THE +---------------------+---------------------+ | R | INDICATIVE | Incomplete or | Completed Action | | I | | Continuing Action | | | M +-------------------+---------------------+-----------
----------+ | A | Present | | | | R | Future | Present | Perfect | | T | Future perfect | | | +-----+-------------------+---------------------+-----------
----------+ | S D | | | | | E A | Imperfect | | | | C R | Perfect | Imperfect | Pluperfect | | O Y | Pluperfect | | | | N- | | | | +-----+-------------------+---------------------+-----------
----------+

358. RULE.  Sequence of Tenses. Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses and secondary by secondary.

359. EXAMPLES

I. Primary tenses in principal and dependent clauses: 

  Mittit }
  Mittet } homines ut agros vastent
  Miserit }

{ sends          }       { that they may           }
He { will send      } men { in order to             }
{ will have sent }       { to lay waste the fields }

II.  Secondary tenses in principal and dependent clauses: 

  Mittebat}
  Misit } homines ut agros vastarent
  Miserat }

{ was sending      }       { that they might         }
He { sent or has sent } men { in order to             }
{ had sent         }       { to lay waste the fields }

360. EXERCISES

I.
  1.  Venerant ut {ducerent, mitterent, viderent, audirent,
                 {ducerentur, mitterentur, viderentur, audirentur

2.  Fugiebat ne {caperetur, traderetur, videretur,
{necaretur, raperetur, resisteret.

3.  Misit nuntios qui {dicerent, audirent, venirent
{narrarent, audirentur, in concilio sederent.

4.  Castra muniverunt {sese defenderent, impetum sustinerent,
quo facilius {hostis vincerent, salutem peterent.

II. 1.  Caesar encouraged the soldiers in order that they might fight more bravely. 2.  The Helvetii left their homes to wage war. 3.  The scouts set out at once lest they should be captured by the Germans. 4.  Caesar inflicted punishment on them in order that the others might be more terrified. 5.  He sent messengers to Rome to announce the victory.

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LESSON LXIV

THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE

361. The perfect and the pluperfect subjunctive active are inflected as follows: 

   CONJ.  I CONJ.  II CONJ.  III CONJ.  IV
   PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE
   SINGULAR
1. ama:’verim monu’erim re:’xerim ce:’perim audi:’verim 2. ama:’veris monu’eris re:’xeris ce:’peris audi:’veris 3. ama:’verit monu’erit re:’xerit ce:’perit audi:’verit

PLURAL
1. ama:ve’rimus     monue’rimus  re:xe’rimus  ce:pe’rimus  audi:ve’rimus
2. ama:ve’ritis     monue’ritis  re:xe’ritis  ce:pe’ritis  audi:ve’ritis
3. ama:’verint      monu’erint   re:’xerint   ce:’perint   audi:’verint
PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE
SINGULAR
1. ama:vis’sem      monuis’sem   re:xis’sem   ce:pis’sem   audi:vis’sem
2. ama:vis’se:s     monuis’se:s  re:xis’se:s  ce:pis’se:s  audi:vis’se:m
3. ama:vis’set      monuis’set   re:xis’set   ce:pis’set   audi:vis’set
PLURAL
1. ama:visse:’mus   —­isse:’mus  —­isse:’mus  —­isse:’mus  —­isse:’mus
2. ama:visse:’tis   —­isse:’tis  —­isse:’tis  —­isse:’tis  —­isse:’tis
3. ama:vis’sent     —­is’sent    —­is’sent    —­is’sent    —­is’sent

    a. Observe that these two tenses, like the corresponding ones in
    the indicative, are formed from the perfect stem.

    b. Observe that the perfect subjunctive active is like the future
    perfect indicative active, excepting that the first person singular
    ends in -m and not in -o:.

    c. Observe that the pluperfect subjunctive active may be formed by
    adding /-issem, -isse:s\, etc. to the perfect stem.

    d. In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive
    active of curo\, iubeo\, sumo\, iacio\, munio\.

362. The passive of the perfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with sim\, the present subjunctive of sum\.

     CONJ.  I CONJ.  II CONJ.  III CONJ.  IV
     PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE
     SINGULAR
  1. ama:’tus mo’nitus re:c’tus cap’tus audi:’tus sim
       sim sim sim sim
  2. ama:’tus mo’nitus re:c’tus cap’tus audi:’tus si:s
       si:s si:s si:s si:s
  3. ama:’tus mo’nitus re:c’tus cap’tus audi:’tus sit
       sit sit sit sit

PLURAL
1. ama:’ti:     mo’niti:      re:c’ti:      cap’ti:      audi:’ti:  si:mus
si:mus      si:mus       si:mus       si:mus
2. ama:’ti:     mo’niti:      re:c’ti:      cap’ti:      audi:’ti:  si:tis
si:tis      si:tis       si:tis       si:tis
3. ama:’ti:     mo’niti:      re:c’ti:      cap’ti:      audi:’ti:  sint
sint         sint         sint        sint

363. The passive of the pluperfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with essem\, the imperfect subjunctive of sum\.

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     CONJ.  I CONJ.  II CONJ.  III CONJ.  IV
     PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE
     SINGULAR
  1. ama:tus monitus re:ctus captus audi:tus essem
       essem essem essem essem
  2. ama:tus monitus re:ctus captus audi:tus esse:s
       esse:s esse:s esse:s esse:s
  3. ama:tus monitus re:ctus captus audi:tus esset
       esset esset esset esset
     PLURAL
  1. ama:ti:  moniti:  re:cti:  capti:  audi:ti:  esse:mus
       esse:mus esse:mus esse:mus esse:mus
  2. ama:ti:  moniti:  re:cti:  capti:  audi:ti:  esse:tis
       esse:tis esse:tis esse:tis esse:tis
  3. ama:ti:  moniti:  re:cti:  capti:  audi:ti:  essent
       essent essent essent essent

    a. In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive
    passive of curo\, iubeo\, sumo\, iacio\, munio\.

364. The perfect and pluperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb sum\ are inflected as follows: 

PERFECT PLUPERFECT fu’erim fue’rimus fuis’sem fuisse:’mus fu’eris fue’ritis fuis’se:s fuisse:’tis fu’erit fu’erint fuis’set fuis’sent

365. A substantive clause is a clause used like a noun, as,

  That the men are afraid is clear enough (clause as subject)
  He ordered them to call on him (clause as object)

We have already had many instances of infinitive clauses used in this way (cf.  Sec. 213), and have noted the similarity between Latin and English usage in this respect.  But the Latin often uses the subjunctive in substantive clauses, and this marks an important difference between the two languages.

366. RULE.  Substantive Clauses of Purpose. A substantive clause of purpose with the subjunctive is used as the object of verbs of /commanding\, /urging\, /asking\, /persuading\, or /advising\, where in English we should usually have the infinitive.

EXAMPLES

  1. The general ordered the soldiers to run
       Imperator militibus imperavit ut currerent
  2. He urged them to resist bravely
       Hortatus est ut fortiter resisterent
  3. He asked them to give the children food
       Petivit ut liberis cibum darent
  4. He will persuade us not to set out
       Nobis persuadebit ne proficiscamur
  5. He advises us to remain at home
       Monet ut domi maneamus

    a. The object clauses following these verbs all express the
    purpose or will of the principal subject that something be done or
    not done. (Cf.  Sec. 348.)

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367. The following verbs are used with object clauses of purpose.  Learn the list and the principal parts of the new ones.

  hortor, urge
  impero, order (with the dative of the person ordered and a
    subjunctive clause of the thing ordered done)
  moneo, advise
  peto, quaero, rogo, ask, seek
  persuadeo, persuade (with the same construction as impero)
  postulo, demand, require
  suadeo, advise (cf. persuadeo)

N.B.  Remember that iubeo\, _order_, takes the infinitive as in English.  (Cf.  Sec. 213.1.) Compare the sentences

  Iubeo eum venire, I order him to come
  Impero ei ut veniat, I give orders to him that he is to come

We ordinarily translate both of these sentences like the first, but the difference in meaning between iubeo and impero in the Latin requires the infinitive in the one case and the subjunctive in the other.

368. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Petit atque hortatur ut ipse dicat. 2.  Caesar Helvetiis imperravit ne per provinciam iter facerent. 3.  Caesar non iussit Helvetios per provinciam iter facere. 4.  Ille civibus persuasit ut de finibus suis discederent. 5.  Caesar principes monebit ne proelium committant. 6.  Postulavit ne cum Helvetiis aut cum eorum sociis bellum gererent. 7.  Ab iis quaesivi ne proficiscerentur. 8.  Iis persuadere non potui ut domi manerent.

II. 1.  Who ordered Caesar to make the march? (Write this sentence both with impero\ _and with_ iubeo\.) 2.  The faithless scouts persuaded him to set out at daybreak. 3.  They will ask him not to inflict punishment. 4.  He demanded that they come to the camp. 5.  He advised them to tell everything (omnia).

NOTE.  Do not forget that the English infinitive expressing purpose must be rendered by a Latin subjunctive.  Review Sec. 352.

  [Illustration:  LEGIO ITER FACIT]

LESSON LXV

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF POSSUM :  VERBS OF FEARING

369. Learn the subjunctive of possum\ (Sec. 495), and note especially the position of the accent.

370. Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing.  We have learned that what we want done or not done is expressed in Latin by a subjunctive clause of purpose.  In this class belong also clauses after verbs of fearing, for we fear either that something will happen or that it will not, and we either want it to happen or we do not.  If we want a thing to happen and fear that it will not, the purpose clause is introduced by ut\.  If we do not want it to happen and fear that it will, ne:\ is used.  Owing to a difference between the English and Latin idiom we translate ut\ after a verb of fearing by _that not_, and ne:\ by that or lest.

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371. EXAMPLES

  timeo } { veniat
  timebo } ut {
  timuero } { venerit

I fear, shall fear, shall have feared, that he will not come, has not come

timebam  }      { veniret
timui    } ut {
timueram }      { venisset

I was fearing, feared, had feared, that he would not come, had not come

The same examples with ne:\ instead of ut\ would be translated I fear that or lest he will come, has come, etc.

372. RULE.  Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing. Verbs of fearing are followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by /ut\ (that not) or /ne:\ (that or lest).

373. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Caesar verebatur ut supplicium captivorum Gallis placeret. 2.  Romani ipsi magnopere verebantur ne Helvetii iter per provinciam facerent. 3.  Timebant ut satis rei frumentariae mitti posset. 4.  Vereor ut hostium impetum sustinere possim. 5.  Timuit ne impedimenta ab hostibus capta essent. 6.  Caesar numquam timuit ne legiones vincerentur. 7.  Legiones pugnare non timuerunt.[1]

II. 1.  We fear that they are not coming. 2.  We fear lest they are coming. 3.  We feared that they had come. 4.  We feared that they had not come. 5.  They feared greatly that the camp could not be defended. 6.  Almost all feared[1] to leave the camp.

[Footnote 1:  Distinguish between what one is afraid to do (complementary infinitive as here) and what one is afraid will take place or has taken place (substantive clause with the subjunctive).]

LESSON LXVI

THE PARTICIPLES

374. The Latin verb has the following Participles:[1]

[Transcriber’s Note:  For reasons of space, this table is given in two forms:  first a reduced version without translation, and then the complete text, including translations, split into two elements.]

CONJ.  I CONJ.  II CONJ.  III CONJ.  IV
ACTIVE
PRESENT ama:ns mone:ns rege:ns capie:ns audie:ns
FUTURE ama:tu:rus monitu:rus re:ctu:rus captu:rus audi:tu:rus

PASSIVE
PERFECT   ama:tus    monitus    re:ctus    captus    audi:tus
FUTURE[2] amandus   monendus   regendus  capiendus  audiendus

CONJ.  I CONJ.  II
ACTIVE
PRESENT ama:ns mone:ns
loving advising
FUTURE ama:tu:rus monitu:rus
about to love about to advise

PASSIVE
PERFECT ama:tus monitus
loved, having advised, having been advised
been loved
FUTURE[2] amandus monendus
to be loved to be advised

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CONJ.  III CONJ.  IV
ACTIVE
PRESENT rege:ns capie:ns audie:ns
ruling taking hearing
FUTURE re:ctu:rus captu:rus audi:tu:rus
about to rule about to take about to hear

PASSIVE
PERFECT   re:ctus             captus              audi:tus
ruled, having    taken, having     heard, havinh
been ruled       been taken        been heard
FUTURE[2] regendus           capiendus           audiendus
to be ruled      to be taken       to be heard

[Footnote 1:  Review Sec. 203.]

[Footnote 2:  The future passive participle is often called the
gerundive.]

a. The present active and future passive participles are formed
from the present stem, and the future active and perfect passive
participles are formed from the participial stem.

b. The present active participle is formed by adding -ns to the present stem.  In -io:  verbs of the third conjugation, and in the fourth conjugation, the stem is modified by the addition of -e:-, as capi-e:-ns\, audi-e:-ns\.  It is declined like an adjective of one ending of the third declension. (Cf.  Sec. 256.)

amans, loving
BASE amant- STEM amanti-

SINGULAR                     PLURAL
MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT.         MASC.  AND FEM.       NEUT. 
Nom.  ama:ns          ama:ns       amante:s            amantia
Gen.  amantis         amantis      amantium            amantium
Dat.  amanti:          amanti:       amantibus           amantibus
Acc.  amantem         ama:ns       amanti:s or -e:s  amantia
Abl.  amanti:          amanti:       amantibus           amantibus
or -e         or -e

(1) When used as an adjective the ablative singular ends in -i:;
when used as a participle or as a substantive, in -e.

(2) In a similar way decline monens\, regens\, capiens\, audiens\.

c. The future active participle is formed by adding -u:rus to the
base of the participial stem.  We have already met this form combined
with esse\ to produce the future active infinitive. (Cf.  Sec. 206.)

    d. For the perfect passive participle see Sec. 201.  The future
    passive participle or gerundive is formed by adding -ndus to the
    present stem.

    e. All participles in -us are declined like bonus\.

f. Participles agree with nouns or pronouns like adjectives.

g. Give all the participles of the following verbs:  curo\,
iubeo\, sumo\, iacio\, munio\.

375. Participles of Deponent Verbs.  Deponent verbs have the participles of the active voice as well as of the passive; consequently every deponent verb has four participles, as,

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Pres.  Act. horta:ns, urging
Fut.  Act. horta:tu:rus, about to urge
Perf.  Pass. (in form) horta:tus, having urged
Fut.  Pass. (Gerundive) hortandus, to be urged

a. Observe that the perfect participle of deponent verbs is passive in form but active in meaning. No other verbs have a perfect active participle. On the other hand, the future passive participle of deponent verbs is passive in meaning as in other verbs.

b. Give the participles of conor\, vereor\, sequor\, patior\,
partior\.

376. Tenses of the Participle.  The tenses express time as follows: 

1.  The present active participle corresponds to the English present active participle in _-ing_, but can be used only of an action occurring at the same time as the action of the main verb; as, milites insequentes ceperunt multos\, _the soldiers, while pursuing, captured many._ Here the pursuing and the capturing are going on together.
2.  The perfect participle (excepting of deponents) is regularly passive and corresponds to the English past participle with or without the auxiliary _having been_; as, auditus\, heard or having been heard.

  3.  The future active participle, translated about to, etc., denotes
  time after the action of the main verb.

377. Review Secs. 203, 204, and, note the following model sentences: 

  1. Milites currentes erant defessi\, _the soldiers who were running_
  (lit. _running_) _were weary_.

  2. Caesar profecturus Romam non exspectavit\, _Caesar, when about to
  set out_ (lit. _about to set out_) _for Rome, did not wait_.

  3. Oppidum captum vidimus\, _we saw the town which had been captured_
  (lit. _captured town_).

  4. Imperator triduum moratus profectus est\, _the general, since_
  (_when_, or _after_) _he had delayed_ (lit. _the general, having
  delayed_) _three days, set out_.

  5. Milites victi terga non verterunt\, _the soldiers, though they
  were conquered_ (lit. _the soldiers conquered_), _did not retreat_.

In each of these sentences the literal translation of the participle is given in parentheses.  We note, however, that its proper translation usually requires a clause beginning with some conjunction (when, since, after, though, etc.), or a relative clause.  Consider, in each case, what translation will best bring out the thought, and do not, as a rule, translate the participle literally.

378. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Puer timens ne capiatur fugit. 2.  Aquila ira commota avis reliquas interficere conata erat. 3.  Milites ab hostibus pressi tela iacere non potuerunt. 4.  Caesar decimam legionem laudaturus ad primum agmen progressus est. 5.  Imperator hortatus equites ut fortiter pugnarent signum proelio dedit. 6.  Milites hostis octo milia passuum insecuti multis cum captivis ad castra reverterunt. 7.  Sol oriens multos interfectos vidit. 8.  Romani consilium audax suspicati barbaris sese non commiserunt. 9.  Navis e portu egressa nullo in periculo erat.

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II.[3] 1.  The army was in very great danger while marching through the enemy’s country. 2.  Frightened by the length of the way, they longed for home. 3.  When the scouts were about to set out, they heard the shouts of victory. 4.  When we had delayed many days, we set fire to the buildings and departed. 5.  While living at Rome I heard orators much better than these. 6.  The soldiers who are fighting across the river are no braver than we.

    [Footnote 3:  In this exercise use participles for the subordinate
    clauses.]

LESSON LXVII

THE IRREGULAR VERBS VOLO:, NO:LO:, MALO:
THE ABLATIVE WITH A PARTICIPLE, OR ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE

379. Learn the principal parts and conjugation of volo:\, _wish_; no:lo:\ (ne + volo:), be unwilling; malo:\ (magis + volo:), _be more willing, prefer_ (Sec. 497).  Note the irregularities in the present indicative, subjunctive, and infinitive, and in the imperfect subjunctive. (Cf.  Sec. 354.)

a. These verbs are usually followed by the infinitive with or without a subject accusative; as, volunt venire\, _they wish to come_; volunt amico:s venire\, they wish their friends to come.  The English usage is the same.[1]

    [Footnote 1:  Sometimes the subjunctive of purpose is used after
    these verbs. (See Sec. 366.)]

[ Conjugations given in Sec. 497: 

PRINCIPAL PARTS:  volo:, velle, volui:, ——­, be willing, will, wish no:lo:, no:lle, no:lui:, ——­, be unwilling, will not ma:lo:, ma:lle, ma:lui:, ——­, be more willing, prefer
INDICATIVE
SINGULAR
Pres.  volo:              no:lo:               ma:lo: 
vi:s              no:n vis            ma:vi:s
vult              no:n vult           ma:vult
PLURAL volumus no:lumus ma:lumus vultis no:n vultis ma:vul’tis volunt no:lunt ma:lunt
Impf.  vole:bam          no:le:bam           ma:le:bam
Fut.   volam,            no:lam,             ma:lam, ma:le:s, etc.
vole:s, etc.       no:le:s, etc.
Perf.  volui:             no:lui:              ma:lui: 
Plup.  volueram          no:lueram           ma:lueram
F.  P.  voluero:           no:luero:            ma:luero: 
SUBJUNCTIVE
SINGULAR
Pres.  velim             no:lim              ma:lim
veli:s            no:li:s             ma:li:s
velit             no:lit              ma:lit
PLURAL veli:’mus no:li:’mus ma:li:’mus veli:’tis no:li:’tis ma:li:’tis velint no:lint ma:lint
Impf.  vellem            no:llem             ma:llem
Perf.  voluerim          no:luerim           ma:luerim
Plup.  voluissem         no:luissem          ma:luissem

IMPERATIVE
Pres. no:li: 
no:li:te
Fut. no:li:to:, etc.

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INFINITIVE
Pres.  velle             no:lle              ma:lle
Perf.  voluisse          no:luisse           ma:luisse

PARTICIPLE
Pres. vole:ns, -entis no:le:ns, -entis ——­]

380. Observe the following sentences: 

  1.  Magistro laudante omnes pueri diligenter laborant, with the
  teacher praising
, or since the teacher praises, or the teacher
  praising, all the boys labor diligently.

  2.  Caesare ducente nemo progredi timet, with Caesar leading, or
  when Caesar leads, or if Caesar leads, or Caesar leading, no one
  fears to advance.

  3.  His rebus cognitis milites fugerunt, when this was known, or
  since this was known, or these things having been learned, the
  soldiers fled.

  4.  Proelio commisso multi vulnerati sunt, after the battle had
  begun
, or when the battle had begun, or the battle having been
  joined, many were wounded.

a. One of the fundamental ablative relations is expressed in English by the preposition with (cf.  Sec. 50).  In each of the sentences above we have a noun and a participle in agreement in the ablative, and the translation shows that in each instance the ablative expresses attendant circumstance.  For example, in the first sentence the circumstance attending or accompanying the diligent labor of the boys is the praise of the teacher.  This is clearly a with relation, and the ablative is the case to use.
b. We observe, further, that the ablative and its participle are absolutely independent grammatically of the rest of the sentence.  If we were to express the thought in English in a similar way, we should use the nominative independent or absolute.  In Latin the construction is called the Ablative Absolute, or the Ablative with a Participle.  This form of expression is exceedingly common in Latin, but rather rare in English, so we must not, as a rule, employ the English absolute construction to translate the ablative abolute.  The attendant circumstance may be one of time (when or after), or one of cause (since), or one of concession (though), or one of condition (if).  In each case try to discover the precise relation, and tranlate the ablative and its participle by a clause which will best express the thought.

381. RULE.  Ablative Absolute. The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance.

NOTE 1.  The verb sum\ has no present participle.  In consequence we often find two nouns or a noun and an adjective in the ablative absolute with no participle expressed; as, te duce\, you (being) leader, with you as leader; patre infirmo\, _my father_ (being) _weak_.

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NOTE 2.  Be very careful not to put in the ablative absolute a noun and participle that form the subject or object of a sentence.  Compare

a. The Gauls, having been conquered by Caesar, returned home

b. The Gauls having been conquered by Caesar, the army returned
home

In a the subject is The Gauls having been conquered by Caesar, and we translate,

Galli a Caesare victi domum reverterunt

In b the subject is the army. The Gauls having been conquered by Caesar is nominative absolute in English, which requires the ablative absolute in Latin, and we translate,

  Gallis a Caesare victis exercitus domum revertit

NOTE 3.  The fact that only deponent verbs have a perfect active participle (cf.  Sec. 375.a) often compels a change of voice when translating from one language to the other.  For example, we can translate Caesar having encouraged the legions just as it stands, because hortor\ is a deponent verb.  But if we wish to say _Caesar having conquered the Gauls_, we have to change the voice of the participle to the passive because vinco\ is not deponent, and say, the Gauls having been conquered by Caesar (see translation above).

382. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Mavis, non vis, vultis, nolumus. 2.  Ut nolit, ut vellemus, ut malit. 3.  Noli, velle, noluisse, malle. 4.  Vult, mavultis, ut nollet, nolite. 5.  Sole oriente, aves cantare inceperunt. 6.  Clamoribus auditis, barbari progredi recusabant. 7.  Caesare legiones hortato, milites paulo fortius pugnaverunt. 8.  His rebus cognitis, Helvetii finitimis persuaserunt ut secum iter facerent. 9.  Laboribus confectis, milites a Caesare quaerebant ut sibi praemia daret. 10.  Concilio convocato, principes ita responderunt. 11.  Dux pluris dies in Helvetiorum finibus morans multos vicos incendit. 12.  Magnitudine Germanorum cognita, quidam ex Romanis timebant. 13.  Mercatoribus rogatis, Caesar nihilo plus reperire potuit.

II. 1.  He was unwilling, lest they prefer, they have wished. 2.  You prefer, that they might be unwilling, they wish. 3.  We wish, they had preferred, that he may prefer. 4.  Caesar, when he heard the rumor (the rumor having been heard), commanded (imperare) the legions to advance more quickly. 5.  Since Caesar was leader, the men were willing to make the journey. 6.  A few, terrified[2] by the reports which they had heard, preferred to remain at home. 7.  After these had been left behind, the rest hastened as quickly as possible. 8.  After Caesar had undertaken the business (Caesar, the business having been undertaken), he was unwilling to delay longer.[3]

    [Footnote 2:  Would the ablative absolute be correct here?]

    [Footnote 3:  Not longius\.  Why?]

LESSON LXVIII

THE IRREGULAR VERB FIO: :  THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT

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383. The verb fi:o:\, _be made, happen_, serves as the passive of facio:\, make, in the present system.  The rest of the verb is formed regularly from facio:\.  Learn the principal parts and conjugation (Sec. 500).  Observe that the i\ is long except before -er and in fit\.

    a. The compounds of facio\ with prepositions usually form the
    passive regularly, as,

Active conficio, conficere, confeci, confectus
Passive conficior, confici, confectus sum

[ Conjugation given in Sec. 500: 

PRINCIPAL PARTS fi:o:, fieri:, factus sum\

INDICATIVE                 SUBJUNCTIVE              IMPERATIVE
Pres.  fi:o:       ——­     fi:am          2d Pers. fi:       fi:te
fi:s      ——­
fit      fi:unt
Impf.  fi:e:bam            fierem
Fut.   fi:am              ——­
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Perf. factus, -a, -um sum factus, -a, -um sim Plup. factus, -a, -um eram factus, -a, -um essem F.  P. factus, -a, -um ero: 
INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES Pres. fieri:  Perf. factus, -a, -um Perf. factus, -a, -um esse Ger. faciendus, -a, -um Fut. [[factum i:ri:]]]

384. Observe the following sentences: 

  1.  Terror erat tantus ut omnes fugerent, the terror was so great
  that all fled.

  2.  Terror erat tantus ut non facile milites sese reciperent, the
  terror was so great that the soldiers did not easily recover
  themselves.

  3.  Terror fecit ut omnes fugerent, terror caused all to flee
  (lit. made that all fled).

    a. Each of these sentences is complex, containing a principal
    clause and a subordinate clause.

    b. The principal clause names a cause and the subordinate clause
    states the consequence or result of this cause.

c. The subordinate clause has its verb in the subjunctive, though it is translated like an indicative.  The construction is called the subjunctive of consequence or result, and the clause is called a consecutive or result clause.

    d. In the last example the clause of result is the object of the
    verb fecit\.

    e. The conjunction introducing the consecutive or result clause is
    ut\ = _so that_; negative, ut no:n\ = so that not.

385. RULE.  Subjunctive of Result. Consecutive clauses of result are introduced by /ut\ or /ut no:n\ and have the verb in the subjunctive.

386. RULE. Object clauses of result with /ut\ or /ut no:n\ are found after verbs of /effecting\ or /bringing about\.

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387. Purpose and Result Clauses Compared.  There is great similarity in the expression of purpose and of result in Latin.  If the sentence is affirmative, both purpose and result clauses may be introduced by ut\; but if the sentence is negative, the purpose clause has ne:\ and the result clause ut no:n\.  Result clauses are often preceded in the main clause by such words as tam\, ita\, sic\ (so), and these serve to point them out.  Compare

    a. Tam graviter vulneratus est ut caperetur
      He was so severely wounded that he was captured
    b. Graviter vulneratus est ut caperetur
      He was severely wounded in order that he might be captured

Which sentence contains a result clause, and how is it pointed out?

388. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Fit, fiet, ut fiat, fiebamus. 2.  Fio, fies, ut fierent, fieri, fiunt. 3.  Fietis, ut fiamus, fis, fiemus. 4.  Milites erant tam tardi ut ante noctem in castra non pervenirent. 5.  Sol facit ut omnia sint pulchra. 6.  Eius modi pericula erant ut nemo proficisci vellet. 7.  Equites hostium cum equitatu nostro in itinere contenderunt, ita tamen[1] ut nostri omnibus in partibus superiores essent. 8.  Virtus militum nostrorum fecit ut hostes ne unum quidem[2] impetum sustinerent. 9.  Homines erant tam audaces ut nullo modo contineri possent. 10.  Spatium erat tam parvum ut milites tela iacere non facile possent. 11.  Hoc proelio facto barbari ita perterriti sunt ut ab ultimis gentibus legati ad Caesarem mitterentur. 12.  Hoc proelium factum est ne legati ad Caesarem mitterentur.

    [Footnote 1:  ita tamen\, _with such a result however_.]

    [Footnote 2:  ne:  ... quidem\, _not even_.  The emphatic word is
    placed between.]

II. 1.  It will happen, they were being made, that it may happen. 2.  It happens, he will be made, to happen. 3.  They are made, we were being made, lest it happen. 4.  The soldiers are so brave that they conquer. 5.  The soldiers are brave in order that they may conquer. 6.  The fortification was made so strong that it could not be taken. 7.  The fortification was made strong in order that it might not be taken. 8.  After the town was taken,[3] the townsmen feared that they would be made slaves. 9.  What state is so weak that it is unwilling to defend itself?

    [Footnote 3:  Ablative absolute.]

LESSON LXIX

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC OR DESCRIPTION
THE PREDICATE ACCUSATIVE

389. Akin to the subjunctive of consequence or result is the use of the subjunctive in clauses of characteristic or description.

This construction is illustrated in the following sentences: 

  1.  Quis est qui suam domum non amet? who is there who does not love
  his own home?

  2.  Erant qui hoc facere nollent, there were (some) who were
  unwilling to do this.

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  3.  Tu non is es qui amicos tradas, you are not such a one as to,
  or you are not the man to, betray your friends.

  4.  Nihil video quod timeam, I see nothing to fear (nothing of such
  as character as to fear it).

a. Each of these examples contains a descriptive relative clause which tells what kind of a person or thing the antecedent is.  To express this thought the subjunctive is used.  A relative clause that merely states a fact and does not describe the antecedent uses the indicative.  Compare the sentences

      Caesar is the man who is leading us,
        Caesar est is qui nos ducit
          (mere statement of fact, no description, with the indicative)
      Caesar is the man to lead us,
        Caesar est is qui nos ducat
          (descriptive relative clause with the subjunctive)

    b. Observe that in this construction a demonstrative pronoun and a
    relative, as is qui\, are translated _such a one as to, the man
    to_.

    c. In which of the following sentences would you use the
    indicative and in which the subjunctive?

       These are not the men who did this
       These are not the men to do this

390. RULE.  Subjunctive of Characteristic. A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent.  This is called the /subjunctive of characteristic or description\.

391. Observe the sentences

  1.  Romani Caesarem consulem\ fecerunt,
       _the Romans made
Caesar consul\_.

  2. Caesar consul\ a Romanis factus est,
       _
Caesar\ was made consul\ by the Romans_.

a. Observe in 1 that the transitive verb fecerunt\, _made_, has two objects:  (1) the direct object, Caesarem\; (2) a second object, consulem\, referring to the same person as the direct object and completing the predicate.  The second accusative is called a Predicate Accusative.
_b._ Observe in 2 that when the verb is changed to the passive both of the accusatives become nominatives, the _direct object_ becoming the _subject_ and the _predicate accusative_ the _predicate nominative_.

_392._ RULE.  Two Accusatives. _Verbs of making\, choosing\, calling\, showing\, and the like, may take a predicate accusative along with the direct object.  With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives._

393. The verbs commonly found with two accusatives are

creo, creare, creavi, creatus, choose appello, appellare, appellavi, appellatus } nomino, nominare, nominavi, nominatus } call voco, vocare, vocavi, vocatus } facio, facere, feci, factus, make

394. EXERCISES

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I. 1.  In Germaniae silvis sunt[1] multa genera ferarum quae reliquis in locis non visa sint. 2.  Erant[1] itinera duo quibus Helvetii domo discedere possent. 3.  Erat[1] manus nulla, nullum oppidum, nullum praesidium quod se armis defenderet. 4.  Toto frumento rapto, domi nihil erat quo mortem prohibere possent. 5.  Romani Galbam ducem creaverunt et summa celeritate profecti sunt. 6.  Neque erat[1] tantae multitudinis quisquam qui morari vellet. 7.  Germani non ii sunt qui adventum Caesaris vereantur. 8.  Consulibus occisis erant qui[2] vellent cum regem creare. 9.  Pace facta erat nemo qui arma tradere nollet. 10.  Inter Helvetios quis erat qui nobilior illo esset?

II. 1.  The Romans called the city Rome. 2.  The city was called Rome by the Romans. 3.  The better citizens wished to choose him king. 4.  The brave soldier was not the man to run. 5.  There was no one [3]to call me friend. 6.  These are not the men to[4] betray their friends. 7.  There were (some) who called him the bravest of all.

    [Footnote 1:  Remember that when the verb sum\ precedes its subject
    it is translated _there is_, _there are_, _there were_, etc.]

    [Footnote 2:  erant qui\, _there were_ (some) _who_.  A wholly
    indefinite antecedent of
qui\ does not need to be expressed.]

    [Footnote 3:  A relative clause of characteristic or description.]

    [Footnote 4:  See Sec. 389.b.]

* * * * *

  Eighth Review, Lessons LXI-LXIX, Secs. 527-528

* * * * *

LESSON LXX

THE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE CONJUNCTION CUM THE ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION

395. The conjunction cum\ has the following meanings and constructions: 

  cum TEMPORAL = when, followed by the indicative or the subjunctive
  cum CAUSAL = since, followed by the subjunctive
  cum CONCESSIVE = although, followed by the subjunctive

As you observe, the mood after cum\ is sometimes indicative and sometimes subjunctive.  The reason for this will be made clear by a study of the following sentences: 

  1.  Caesarem vidi tum cum in Gallia eram,
       I saw Caesar at the time when I was in Gaul.

  2.  Caesar in eos impetum fecit cum pacem peterent,
       Caesar made an attack upon them when they were seeking peace.

  3.  Hoc erat difficile cum pauci sine vulneribus essent,
       this was difficult, since only a few were without wounds.

  4.  Cum primi ordines fugissent, tamen reliqui fortiter consistebant,
       though the front ranks had fled, yet the rest bravely stood
       their ground
.

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a. The underlying principle is one already familiar to you (cf.  Sec. 389.a).  When the cum\ clause states a fact and simply _fixes the time_ at which the main action took place, the indicative mood is used.  So, in the first example, cum in Gallia eram\ fixes the time when I saw Caesar.
b. On the other hand, when the cum\ clause _describes the circumstances_ under which the main act took place, the subjunctive mood is used.  So, in the second example, the principal clause states that Caesar made an attack, and the cum\ clause describes the circumstances under which this act occurred.  The idea of time is also present, but it is subordinate to the idea of description.  Sometimes the descriptive clause is one of cause and we translate cum\ by _since_; sometimes it denotes _concession_ and cum\ is translated although.

396. RULE.  Constructions with Cum. The conjunction /cum\ means /when\, /since\, or /although\.  It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means /when\ and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place.

NOTE. Cum\ in clauses of description with the subjunctive is much more common than its use with the indicative.

397. Note the following sentences: 

  1.  Oppidum erat parvum magnitudine sed magnum multitudine hominum,
    the town was small in size but great in population.

  2.  Homo erat corpore infirmus sed validus animo,
       the man was weak in body but strong in courage.

a. Observe that magnitudine\, multitudine\, corpore\, and animo\ tell in what respect something is true.  The relation is one covered by the ablative case, and the construction is called the ablative of specification.

398. RULE.  Ablative of Specification. The ablative is used to denote /in what respect\ something is true.

399. IDIOMS

  aliquem certiorem facere, to inform some one (lit. to make some
    one more certain
)
  certior fieri, to be informed (lit. to be made more certain)
  iter dare, to give a right of way, allow to pass
  obsides inter se dare, to give hostages to each other

400. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Helvetii cum patrum nostrorum tempore domo prefecti essent, consulis exercitum in fugam dederant. 2.  Cum Caesar in Galliam venit, Helvetii alios agros petebant. 3.  Caesar cum in citeriore Gallia esset, tamen de Helvetiorum consiliis certior fiebat. 4.  Cum Helvetii bello clarissimi essent, Caesar iter per provinciam dare recusavit. 5.  Legatus cum haec audivisset, Caesarem certiorem fecit. 6.  Cum principes inter se obsides darent, Romani bellum paraverunt. 7.  Caesar, cum id nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe proficisci. 8.  Ne virtute quidem Galli erant pares Germanis. 9.  Caesar neque corpore neque animo infirmus erat. 10.  Illud bellum tum incepit cum Caesar fuit consul.

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Observe in each case what mood follows cum\, and try to give the reasons for its use.  In the third sentence the cum\ clause is concessive, in the fourth and sixth causal.

II. 1.  That battle was fought at the time when (tum cum) I was at Rome. 2.  Though the horsemen were few in number, nevertheless they did not retreat. 3.  When the camp had been sufficiently fortified, the enemy returned home. 4.  Since the tribes are giving hostages to each other, we shall inform Caesar. 5.  The Gauls and the Germans are very unlike in language and laws.

LESSON LXXI

VOCABULARY REVIEW :  THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE :  THE PREDICATE GENITIVE

401. Review the word lists in Secs. 510, 511.

402. The Gerund.  Suppose we had to translate the sentence

  By overcoming the Gauls Caesar won great glory

We can see that overcoming here is a verbal noun corresponding to the English infinitive in _-ing_, and that the thought calls for the ablative of means.  To translate this by the Latin infinitive would be impossible, because the infinitive is indeclinable and therefore has no ablative case form.  Latin, however, has another verbal noun of corresponding meaning, called the gerund\, declined as a neuter of the second declension in the _genitive_, _dative_, _accusative_, and _ablative singular_, and thus supplying the cases that the infinitive lacks.[1] Hence, to decline in Latin the verbal noun _overcoming_, we should use the infinitive for the nominative and the gerund for the other cases, as follows: 

Nom.  supera:re, overcoming, to overcome   INFINITIVE
Gen.  superandi:, of overcoming            }
Dat.  superando:,  for overcoming          }
Acc.  superandum, overcoming               } GERUND
Abl.  superando:, by overcoming            }

Like the infinitive, the gerund governs the same case as the verb from which it is derived.  So the sentence given above becomes in Latin

  Superando Gallos Caesar magnam gloriam reportavit

    [Footnote 1:  Sometimes, however, the infinitive is used as an
    accusative.]

403. The gerund[2] is formed by adding /-ndi:, -ndo, -ndum, -ndo\, to the present stem, which is shortened or otherwise changed, as shown below: 

PARADIGM OF THE GERUND

CONJ.  I    CONJ.  II    CONJ.  III                CONJ.  IV
Gen.  amandi:     monendi:     regendi:     capiendi:     audiendi: 
Dat.  amando:     monendo:     regendo:     capiendo:     audiendo: 
Acc.  amandum    monendum    regendum    capiendum    audiendum
Abl.  amando:     monendo:     regendo:     capiendo:     audiendo: 

    a. Give the gerund of curo\, deleo\, sumo\, iacio\, venio\.

    b. Deponent verbs have the gerund of the active voice (see Sec.
    493).  Give the gerund of conor\, vereor\, sequor\, patior\,
    partior\.

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    [Footnote 2:  The gerund is the neuter singular of the future
    passive participle used as a noun, and has the same formation. 
    (Cf.  Sec. 374.d.)]

404. The Gerundive.  The gerundive is the name given to the future passive participle (Sec. 374.d) when the participle approaches the meaning of a verbal noun and is translated like a gerund.  It is the adjective corresponding to the gerund.  For example, to translate the plan of waging war, we may use the gerund with its direct object and say consilium gerendi bellum\; or we may use the gerundive and say consilium belli gerendi\, which means, literally, the plan of the war to be waged, but which came to have the same force as the gerund with its object, and was even preferred to it.

405. Compare the following parallel uses of the gerund and gerundive: 

GERUND GERUNDIVE
Gen. Spes faciendi pacem Spes faciendae pacis
Dat.  Locus idoneus pugnando Locus idoneus castris ponendis
A place suitable for A place suitable for
fighting_ pitching camp_
Acc.  Misit equites ad insequendum Misit equites ad insequendos
hostis
He sent horsemen to pursue He sent horsemen to pursue
the enemy

Abl.  Narrando fabulas magister Narrandis fabulis magister
pueris placuit pueris placuit
The teacher pleased the The teacher pleased the
boys by telling stories_ boys by telling stories_

a. We observe

(1) That the gerund is a noun and the gerundive an adjective. (2) That the gerund, being a noun, may stand alone or with an object. (3) That the gerundive, being an adjective, is used only in agreement with a noun.

406. RULE.  Gerund and Gerundive.

  1. The Gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive,
  dative, accusative, and ablative singular.  The constructions of these
  cases are in general the same as those of other nouns.

2. The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition.  Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual.

407. RULE.  Gerund or Gerundive of Purpose. The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with ad\, _or the genitive with causa\[3] (= for the sake of), is used to express purpose._

GERUND                        GERUNDIVE
Ad audiendum venerunt or    Ad urbem videndam venerunt or
Audiendi causa venerunt     Urbis videndae causa venerunt
They came to hear           They came to see the city

    [Footnote 3:  causa\ always _follows_ the genitive.]

NOTE.  These sentences might, of course, be written with the subjunctive of purpose,—­venerunt ut audirent\; venerunt ut urbem viderent\.  In short expressions, however, the gerund and gerundive of purpose are rather more common.

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408. We have learned that the word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive, as, equus Galbae\, _Galba’s horse._ If, now, we wish to express the idea _the horse is Galba’s_, Galba remains the possessor, and hence in the genitive as before, but now stands in the predicate, as, equus est Galbae\.  Hence this is called the predicate genitive.

409. RULE.  Predicate Genitive. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of /sum\, and is then called the predicate genitive.

410. IDIOMS

  alicui negotium dare, to employ someone
    (lit. to give business to some one)
  novis rebus studere, to be eager for a revolution
    (lit. to be eager for new things)
  rei militaris peritissimus, very skillful in the art of war
  se suaque omnia, themselves and all their possessions

411. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Caesar cum in Gallia bellum gereret, militibus decimae legionis maxime favit quia rei militaris peritissimi erant. 2.  Sociis negotium dedit rei frumentariae curandae. 3.  Legati non solum audiendi causa sed etiam dicendi causa venerunt. 4.  Imperator iussit exploratores locum idoneum munindo reperire. 5.  Nuper hae gentes novis rebus studebant; mox iis persuadebo ut Caesari se suaque omnia dedant. 6.  Iubere est reginae[4] et parere est multitudinis.[4] 7.  Hoc proelio facto quidam ex hostibus ad pacem petendam venerunt. 8.  Erant qui arma tradere nollent. 9.  Hostes tam celeriter progressi sunt ut spatium pila in hostis iaciendi non daretur. 10.  Spatium neque arma capiendi[5] neque auxili petendi[5] datum est.

II. 1.  These ornaments [6]belong to Cornelia. 2.  Men very skillful in the art of war were sent [7]to capture the town. 3.  The scouts found a hill suitable for fortifying very near to the river. 4.  Soon the cavalry will come [8]to seek supplies. 5.  The mind of the Gauls is eager for revolution and for undertaking wars. 6.  To lead the line of battle [9]belongs to the general. 7. [10]Whom shall we employ to look after the grain supply?

    [Footnote 4:  Predicate genitive.]

    [Footnote 5:  Which of these expressions is gerund and which
    gerundive?]

    [Footnote 6:  belong to = are of.]

    [Footnote 7:  Use the gerundive with ad\.]

    [Footnote 8:  Use the genitive with causa\.  Where should causa\
    stand?]

    [Footnote 9:  Compare the first sentence.]

    [Footnote 10:  Compare the second sentence in the Latin above.]

LESSON LXXII

THE IRREGULAR VERB EO: :  INDIRECT STATEMENTS

412. Learn the principal parts and the conjugation of eo:\, _go_ (Sec. 499).

    a. Notice that i:-, the root of eo:\, is changed to e- before
    a vowel, excepting in
iens\, the nominative of the present
    participle.  In the perfect system -v- is regularly dropped.

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[ Conjugation given in Sec. 499: 

PRINCIPAL PARTS eo:, i:re, ii:  (i:vi:), itum (n. perf. part.)
PRES.  STEM i:-
PERF.  STEM i:- or i:v-
PART.  STEM it-

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE
SING.  PLUR. 
Pres. eo:  i:mus eam 2d Pers. i:  i:te
i:s i:tis
it eunt
Impf. i:bam i:rem
Fut. i:bo:  ——­ 2d Pers._ i:to:  i:to:te
3d Pers. i:to:  eunto: 
Perf. ii:  (i:vi:) ierim (i:verim)
Plup. ieram (i:veram) i:ssem (i:vissem)
F. P. iero:  (i:vero:)

INFINITIVE
Pres. i:re
Perf. i:sse (i:visse)
Fut. itu:rus, -a, -um esse

  PARTICIPLES
  Pres. ie:ns, gen. euntis (Sec. 472)
  Fut. itu:rus, -a, -um
  Ger. eundum

  GERUND
  Gen. eundi: 
  Dat. eundo: 
  Acc. eundum
  Abl. eundo: 

  SUPINE
  Acc. [[itum]]
  Abl. [[itu:]] ]

413. Learn the meaning and principal parts of the following compounds of eo:\ with prepositions: 

  ad’eo:, adi:’re, ad’ii:, ad’itus, go to, visit, with the accusative
  ex’eo:, exi:’re, ex’ii:, ex’itus, go forth, with ex\ or de\
    and the ablative of the place from which
  in’eo:, ini:’re, in’ii:, in’itus, begin, enter upon,
    with the accusative
  red’eo:, redi:’re, red’ii:, red’itus, return, with ad\ or in\ and
    the accusative of the place to which
  tra:ns’eo:, tra:nsi:’re, tra:ns’ii:, tra:ns’itus, cross,
    with the accusative

414. Indirect Statements in English.  Direct statements are those which the speaker or writer makes himself or which are quoted in his exact language.  Indirect statements are those reported in a different form of words from that used by the speaker or writer.  Compare the following direct and indirect statements: 

{ 1.  The Gauls are brave
Direct statements { 2.  The Gauls were brave
{ 3.  The Gauls will be brave

Indirect statements { 1. He says that the Gauls are brave
after a verb in { 2. He says that the Gauls were brave
the present tense { 3. He says that the Gauls will be brave

Indirect statements { 1. He said that the Gauls were brave
after a verb in   { 2. He said that the Gauls had been brave
a past tense      { 3. He said that the Gauls would be brave

We see that in English

    a. The indirect statement forms a clause introduced by the
    conjunction that.

    b. The verb is finite (cf.  Sec. 173) and its subject is in the
    nominative.

c. The tenses of the verbs originally used are changed after the
past tense, He said.

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415. Indirect Statements in Latin.  In Latin the direct and indirect statements above would be as follows: 

DIRECT { 1.  Galli sunt fortes
STATEMENTS { 2.  Galli erant fortes
{ 3.  Galli erunt fortes

{ 1. Dicit\ or Dixit Gallos esse fortis\
{ (He says or He said
{ the Gauls to be brave)[1]
INDIRECT { 2. Dicit\ or Dixit Gallos fuisse fortis\
STATEMENTS { (He says or He said
{ the Gauls to have been brave)[1]
{ 3. Dicit\ or Dixit Gallos futuros esse fortis\
{ (He says or He said
{ the Gauls to be about to be brave)[1]

[Footnote 1:  These parenthetical renderings are not inserted as
translations, but merely to show the literal meaning of the Latin.]

Comparing these Latin indirect statements with the English in the preceding section, we observe three marked differences: 

a. There is no conjunction corresponding to that.

b. The verb is in the infinitive and its subject is in the
accusative.

    c. The tenses of the infinitive are not changed after a past tense
    of the principal verb.

416. RULE.  Indirect Statements. When a direct statement becomes indirect, the principal verb is changed to the infinitive and its subject nominative becomes subject accusative of the infinitive.

417. Tenses of the Infinitive.  When the sentences in Sec. 415 were changed from the direct to the indirect form of statement, sunt\ became esse\, erant\ became fuisse\, and erunt\ became futuros esse\.

418. RULE.  Infinitive Tenses in Indirect Statements. A present indicative of a direct statement becomes present infinitive of the indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect infinitive, and a future indicative becomes future infinitive.

NOTE.  When translating into Latin an English indirect statement, first decide what tense of the indicative would have been used in the direct form.  That will show you what tense of the infinitive to use in the indirect.

419. RULE.  Verbs followed by Indirect Statements. The accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect statements is found after verbs of /saying\, /telling\, /knowing\, /thinking\, and /perceiving\.

420. Verbs regularly followed by indirect statements are: 

  a.  Verbs of saying and telling: 
    dico, dicere, dixi, dictus, say
    nego, negare, negavi, negatus, deny, say not
    nuntio, nuntiare, nuntiavi, nuntiatus, announce
    respondeo, respondere, respondi, responsus, reply

  b.  Verbs of knowing: 
    cognosco, cognoscere, cognovi, cognitus, learn,
      (in the perf.) know
    scio, scire, scivi, scitus, know

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  c.  Verbs of thinking: 
    arbitror, arbitrari, arbitratus sum, think, consider
    existimo, existimare, existimavi, existimatus, think, believe
    iudico, iudicare, iudicavi, iudicatus, judge, decide
    puto, putare, putavi, putatus, reckon, think
    spero, sperare, speravi, speratus, hope

  d.  Verbs of perceiving: 
    audio, audire, audivi, auditus, hear
    sentio, sentire, sensi, sensus, feel, perceive
    video, videre, vidi, visus, see
    intellego, intellegere, intellexi, intellectus, understand,
      perceive

Learn such of these verbs as are new to you.

421. IDIOMS
  postridie eius diei, on the next day
    (lit. on the next day of that day)
  inita aestate, at the beginning of summer
  memoria tenere, to remember (lit. to hold by memory)
  per exploratores cognoscere, to learn through scouts

422. EXERCISES

I. 1.  It, imus, ite, ire. 2.  Eunti, iisse or isse, ibunt, eunt. 3.  Eundi, ut eant, ibitis, is. 4.  Ne irent, i, ibant, ierat. 5.  Caesar per exploratores cognovit Gallos flumen transisse. 6.  Romani audiverunt Helvetios inita aestate de finibus suis exituros esse. 7.  Legati responderunt neminem ante Caesarem illam insulam adisse. 8.  Principes Gallorum dicunt se nullum consilium contra Caesaris imperium inituros esse. 9.  Arbitramur potentiam reginae esse maiorem quam civium. 10.  Romani negant se libertatem Gallis erepturos esse. 11.  His rebus cognitis sensimus legatos non venisse ad pacem petendam. 12.  Helvetii sciunt Romanos priores victorias memoria tenere. 13.  Socii cum intellegerent multos vulnerari, statuerunt in suos finis redire. 14.  Aliquis nuntiavit Marcum consulem creatum esse.

II. 1.  The boy is slow.  He says that the boy is, was, (and) will be slow. 2.  The horse is, has been, (and) will be strong.  He judged that the horse was, had been, (and) would be strong. 3.  We think that the army will go forth from the camp at the beginning of summer. 4.  The next day we learned through scouts that the enemy’s town was ten miles off.[2] 5.  The king replied that the ornaments belonged to[3] the queen.

    [Footnote 2:  to be off, to be distant, abesse\.]

    [Footnote 3:  Latin, were of (Sec. 409).]

  [Illustration:  TUBA]

LESSON LXXIII

VOCABULARY REVIEW :  THE IRREGULAR VERB FERO:
THE DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS

423. Review the word lists in Secs. 513, 514.

424. Learn the principal parts and conjugation of the verb fero:\, _bear_ (Sec. 498).

  1.  Learn the principal parts and meanings of the following compounds
  of fero:, bear

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  ad’fero:, adfer’re, at’tuli:, adla:’tus, bring to; report
  co:n’fero:, co:nfer’re, con’tuli:, conla:’tus, bring together,
    collect

  de’fero:, defer’re, de’tuli:, dela:’tus, bring to; report;
    grant, confer

  i:n’fero:, i:nfer’re, in’tuli:, inla:’tus, bring in, bring against
  re’fero:, refer’re, ret’tuli:, rela:’tus, bear back, report

[ Conjugation given in Sec. 498: 

PRINCIPAL PARTS fero:, ferre, tuli:, la:tus
PRES.  STEM fer- PERF.  STEM tul- PART.  STEM la:t-

INDICATIVE
ACTIVE                    PASSIVE
Pres.  fero:      ferimus         feror        ferimur
fers      ferti:s         ferris, -re  ferimimi: 
fert      ferunt          fertur       feruntur
Impf.  fere:bam                  fere:bar
Fut.   feram, fere:s, etc.       ferar, fere:ris, etc. 
Perf.  tuli:                      la:tus, -a, -um sum
Plup.  tuleram                   la:tus, -a, -um eram
F. P.  tulero:                    la:tus, -a, -um ero: 
SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres.  feram, fera:s, etc.       ferar, fera:ris, etc. 
Impf.  ferrem                    ferrer
Perf.  tulerim                   la:tus, -a, -um sim
Plup.  tulissem                  la:tus, -a, -um essem
IMPERATIVE
Pres. 2d Pers.  fer      ferte      ferre    ferimini: 
Fut. 2d Pers.   ferto:    ferto:te   fertor
3d Pers.   ferto:    ferunto    fertor   feruntor
INFINITIVE
Pres.  ferre                     ferri: 
Perf.  tulisse                   la:tus, -a, -um esse
Fut.   la:tu:rus, -a, -um esse     ——­
PARTICIPLES
Pres.  fere:ns, -entis           Pres.  ——­
Fut.   la:tu:rus, -a, -um        Ger.  ferendus, -a, -um
Perf.  ——­                      Perf.  la:tus, -a, -um

  GERUND
  Gen. ferendi: 
  Dat. ferendo: 
  Acc. ferendum
  Abl. ferendo: 

  SUPINE (Active Voice)
  Acc. [[la:tum]]
  Abl. [[la:tu:]] ]

425. The dative is the case of the indirect object.  Many intransitive verbs take an indirect object and are therefore used with the dative (cf.  Sec. 153).  Transitive verbs take a direct object in the accusative; but sometimes they have an indirect object or dative as well. The whole question, then, as to whether or not a verb takes the dative, defends upon its capacity for governing an indirect object. A number of verbs, some transitive and some intransitive, which in their simple form would not take an indirect object, when compounded with certain prepositions, have a meaning which calls for an indirect object.  Observe the following sentences: 

  1.  Haec res exercitui magnam calamitatem attulit, this circumstance
  brought great disaster to the army.

  2.  Germani Gallis bellum inferunt, the Germans make war upon the
  Gauls.

  3.  Hae copiae proelio non intererant, these troops did not take
  part in the battle.

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  4.  Equites fugientibus hostibus occurrunt, the horsemen meet the
  fleeing enemy.

  5.  Galba copiis filium praefecit, Galba put his son in command of
  the troops.

In each sentence there is a dative, and in each a verb combined with a preposition.  In no case would the simple verb take the dative.

426. RULE.  Dative with Compounds. Some verbs compounded with /ad\, /ante\, /con\, /de\, /in\, /inter\, /ob\, /post\, /prae\, /pro\, /sub\, /super\, admit the dative of the indirect object.  Transitive compounds may take both an accusative and a dative.

NOTE 1.  Among such verbs are[1]

  ad’fero, adfer’re, at’tuli, adla’tus, bring to; report
  ad’sum, ades’se, ad’fui, adfutu’rus, assist; be present
  de’fero, defer’re, de’tuli, delatus, report; grant, confer
  de’sum, dees’se, de’fui,——­, be wanting, be lacking
  in’fero, infer’re, in’tuli, inla’tus, bring against, bring upon
  inter’sum, interes’se, inter’fui, interfutu’rus, take part in
  occur’ro, occur’rere, occur’ri, occur’sus, run against, meet
  praefi’cio, praefi’cere, praefe’ci, praefec’tus, appoint over,
    place in command of

  prae’sum, praees’se, prae’fui, ——­, be over, be in command

    [Footnote 1:  But the accusative with ad\ or in\ is used with some
    of these, when the idea of motion to or against is strong.]

427. IDIOMS

  graviter or moleste ferre, to be annoyed at, to be indignant at,
    followed by the accusative and infinitive
  se conferre ad or in, with the accusative,
    to betake one’s self to
  alicui bellum inferre, to make war upon some one
  pedem referre, to retreat (lit. to bear back the foot)

428. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Fer, ferent, ut ferant, ferunt. 2.  Ferte, ut ferrent, tulisse, tulerant. 3.  Tulimus, ferens, latus esse, ferre. 4.  Cum navigia insulae adpropinquarent, barbari terrore commoti pedem referre conati sunt. 5.  Galli moleste ferebant Romanos agros vastare. 6.  Caesar sociis imperavit ne finitimis suis bellum inferrent. 7.  Exploratores, qui Caesari occurrerunt, dixerunt exercitum hostium vulneribus defessum sese in alium locum contulisse. 8.  Hostes sciebant Romanos frumento egere et hanc rem Caesari summum periculum adlaturam esse. 9.  Impedimentis in unum locum conlatis, aliqui militum flumen quod non longe aberat transierunt. 10.  Hos rex hortatus est ut oraculum adirent et res auditas ad se referrent. 11.  Quem imperator illi legioni praefecit?  Publius illi legioni pracerat. 12.  Cum esset Caesar in citeriore Gallia, crebri ad eum[2] rumores adferebantur litterisque quoque certior fiebat Gallos obsides inter se dare.

II. 1.  The Gauls will make war upon Caesar’s allies. 2.  We heard that the Gauls would make war upon Caesar’s allies. 3.  Publius did not take part in that battle. 4.  We have been informed that Publius did not take part in that battle. 5.  The man who was in command of the cavalry was wounded and began to retreat. 6.  Caesar did not place you in command of the cohort to bring[3] disaster upon the army.

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    [Footnote 2:  Observe that when adfero\ denotes _motion to_, it is
    not followed by the dative; cf. footnote, p. 182.]

    [Footnote 3:  Not the infinitive. (Cf.  Sec. 352.)]

LESSON LXXIV

VOCABULARY REVIEW :  THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS

429. Review the word lists in Secs. 517, 518.

430. When we report a statement instead of giving it directly, we have an indirect statement. (Cf.  Sec. 414.) So, if we report a question instead of asking it directly, we have an indirect question.

DIRECT QUESTION                  INDIRECT QUESTION
Who conquered the Gauls?       He asked who conquered the Gauls

    a. An indirect question depends, usually as object, upon a verb of
    asking (as peto, postulo, quaero, rogo) or upon some verb or
    expression of saying or mental action. (Cf.  Sec. 420.)

431. Compare the following direct and indirect questions: 

DIRECT INDIRECT

Quis Gallos vincit? { a. Rogat quis Gallos vincat
Who is conquering the { He asks who is conquering the
Gauls? { Gauls
{ b. Rogavit quis Gallos vinceret
{ He asked who was conquering
{ the Gauls

{  a. Rogat ubi sit Roma
Ubi est Roma?          {       He asks where Rome is
Where is Rome?         {  b. Rogavit ubi esset Roma
{        He asked where Rome was

{ a. Rogat num Caesar Gallos vicerit
{ He asks whether Caesar conquered
Caesarne Gallos vicit? { the Gauls
Did Caesar conquer the { b. Rogavit num Caesar Gallos
_Gauls?_ { vicisset
{ _He asked whether Caesar had_
{ _conquered the Gauls_

a. The verb in a direct question is in the indicative mood, but
the mood is subjunctive in an indirect question.

b. The tense of the subjunctive follows the rules for tense
sequence.

c. Indirect questions are introduced by the same interrogative words as introduce direct questions, excepting that_yes_-or-no direct questions (cf.  Sec. 210) on becoming indirect are usually introduced by num\, _whether_.

_432._ RULE.  Indirect Questions. _In an indirect question the verb is in the subjunctive and its tense is determined by the law for tense sequence._

433. IDIOMS

de tertia vigilia, about the third watch iniurias alicui inferre, to inflict injuries upon some one facere verba pro, with the ablative, to speak in behalf of in reliquum tempus, for the future

434. EXERCISES

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I. 1.  Rex rogavit quid legati postularent et cur ad se venissent. 2.  Quaesivit quoque num nec recentis iniurias nec dubiam Romanorum amicitiam memoria tenerent. 3.  Videtisne quae oppida hostes oppugnaverint? 4.  Nonne scitis cur Galli sub montem sese contulerint? 5.  Audivimus quas iniurias tibi Germani intulissent. 6.  De tertia vigilia imperator misit homines qui cognoscerent quae esset natura montis. 7.  Pro his orator verba fecit et rogavit cur consules navis ad plenem summi periculi locum mittere vellent. 8.  Legatis convocatis demonstravit quid fieri vellet. 9.  Nuntius referebat quid in Gallorum concilio de armis tradendis dictum esset. 10.  Moneo ne in reliquum tempus pedites et equites trans flumen ducas.

II. 1.  What hill did they seize?  I see what hill they seized. 2.  Who has inflicted these injuries upon our dependents? 3.  They asked who had inflicted those injuries upon their dependents. 4.  Whither did you go about the third watch?  You know whither I went. 5.  At what time did the boys return home?  I will ask at what time the boys returned home.

LESSON LXXV

VOCABULARY REVIEW :  THE DATIVE OF PURPOSE, OR END FOR WHICH

435. Review the word lists in Secs. 521, 522.

436. Observe the following sentences: 

  1.  Exploratores locum castris delegerunt, the scouts chose a place
  for a camp.

  2.  Hoc erat magno impedimento Gallis, this was (for) a great
  hindrance to the Gauls.

  3.  Duas legiones praesidio castris reliquit, he left two legions
  as
(lit. for) a guard to the camp.

In each of these sentences we find a dative expressing the purpose or end for which something is intended or for which it serves.  These datives are castris\, impedimento\, and praesidio\.  In the second and third sentences we find a second dative expressing the _person or thing affected_ (Gallis and castris).  As you notice, these are true datives, covering the relations of _for which_ and _to which_. (Cf.  Sec. 43.)

437. RULE.  Dative of Purpose or End. The dative is used to denote the /purpose or end for which\, often with another dative denoting the /person or thing affected\.

438. IDIOMS

  consilium omittere, to give up a plan
  locum castris deligere, to choose a place for a camp
  alicui magno usui esse, to be of great advantage to some one
    (lit. for great advantage to some one)

439. EXERCISES

Page 143

I. 1.  Rogavit cur illae copiae relictae essent.  Responderunt illas copias esse praesidio castris. 2.  Caesar misit exploratores ad locum deligendum castris. 3.  Quisque existimavit ipsum nomen Caesaris magno terrori barbaris futurum esse. 4.  Prima luce idem exercitus proelium acre commisit, sed gravia suorum vulnera magnae curae imperatori erant. 5.  Rex respondit amicitiam populi Romani sibi ornamento et praesidio debere esse. 6.  Quis praeerat equitatui quem auxilio Caesari socii miserant? 7.  Aliquibus res secundae sunt summae calamitati et res adversae sunt miro usui. 8.  Gallis magno ad pugnam erat impedimento quod equitatus a dextro cornu premebat. 9.  Memoria pristinae virtutis non minus quam metus hostium erat nostris magno usui. 10.  Tam densa erat silva ut progredi non possent.

II. 1.  I advise you [1]to give up the plan [2]of making war upon the brave Gauls. 2.  Do you know [3]where the cavalry has chosen a place for a camp? 3.  The fear of the enemy will be of great advantage to you. 4.  Caesar left three cohorts as (for) a guard to the baggage. 5.  In winter the waves of the lake are so great [4]that they are (for) a great hindrance to ships. 6.  Caesar inflicted severe[5] punishment on those who burned the public buildings.

    [Footnote 1:  Subjunctive of purpose. (Cf.  Sec. 366.)]

    [Footnote 2:  Express by the genitive of the gerundive.]

    [Footnote 3:  Indirect question.]

    [Footnote 4:  A clause of result.]

    [Footnote 5:  gravis, -e\.]

LESSON LXXVI

VOCABULARY REVIEW :  THE GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE OF QUALITY OR DESCRIPTION

440. Review the word lists in Secs. 524, 525.

441. Observe the English sentences

  (1) A man /of\ great courage, or (2) A man /with\ great courage

  (3) A forest /of\ tall trees, or (4) A forest /with\ tall trees

Each of these sentences contains a phrase of quality or description.  In the first two a man is described; in the last two a forest.  The descriptive phrases are introduced by the prepositions of and with.

In Latin the expression of quality or description is very similar.

The prepositions of and with suggest the genitive and the ablative respectively, and we translate the sentences above

  (1) Vir magnae virtutis\, or (2) Vir magna virtute\
  (3) Silva altarum arborum\, or (4) Silva altis arboribus\

There is, however, one important difference between the Latin and the English.  In English we may say, for example, a man of courage, using the descriptive phrase without an adjective modifier. In Latin, however, an adjective modifier must always be used, as above.

a. Latin makes a distinction between the use of the two cases in that numerical descriptions of measure are in the genitive and descriptions of physical characteristics are in the ablative. Other descriptive phrases may be in either case.

442. EXAMPLES

Page 144

  1.  Fossa duodecim pedum, a ditch of twelve feet.

  2.  Homo magnis pedibus et parvo capite,
     a man with big feet and a small head.

  3. Rex erat vir summa audacia\ or rex erat vir summae audaciae\,
    the king was a man of the greatest boldness.

443. RULE.  Genitive of Description. Numerical descriptions of measure are expressed by the genitive with a modifying adjective.

444. RULE.  Ablative of Description. Descriptions of physical characteristics are expressed by the ablative with a modifying adjective.

445. RULE.  Genitive or Ablative of Description. Descriptions involving neither numerical statements nor physical characteristics may be expressed by either the genitive or the ablative with a modifying adjective.

446. IDIOMS

  Helvetiis in animo est, the Helvetii intend,
    (lit. it is in mind to the Helvetians)
  in matrimonium dare, to give in marriage
  nihil posse, to have no power
  fossam perducere, to construct a ditch
    (lit. to lead a ditch through)

447. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Milites fossam decem pedum per eorum finis perduxerunt. 2.  Princeps Helvetiorum, vir summae audaciae, principibus gentium finitimarum sorores in matrimonium dedit. 3.  Eorum amicitiam confirmare voluit quo facilius Romanis bellum inferret. 4.  Germani et Galli non erant eiusdem gentis. 5.  Omnes fere Germani erant magnis corporum viribus.[1] 6.  Galli qui oppidum fortiter defendebant saxa ingentis magnitudinis de muro iaciebant. 7.  Cum Caesar ab exploratoribus quaereret qui illud oppidum incolerent, exploratores responderunt eos esse homines summa virtute et magno consilio. 8.  Moenia viginti pedum a sinistra parte, et a dextra parte flumen magnae altitudinis oppidum defendebant. 9.  Cum Caesar in Galliam pervenisset, erat rumor Helvetiis in animo esse iter per provinciam Romanam facere. 10.  Caesar, ut eos ab finibus Romanis prohiberet, munitionem [2]multa milia passuum longam fecit.

II. 1.  Caesar was a general of much wisdom and great boldness, and very skillful in the art of war. 2.  The Germans were of great size, and thought that the Romans had no power. 3.  Men of the highest courage were left in the camp as (for) a guard to the baggage. 4.  The king’s daughter, who was given in marriage to the chief of a neighboring state, was a woman of very beautiful appearance. 5.  The soldiers will construct a ditch of nine feet around the camp. 6.  A river of great width was between us and the enemy.

    [Footnote 1:  From vis\. (Cf.  Sec. 468.)]

Page 145

[Footnote 2:  Genitives and ablatives of description are adjective phrases.  When we use an adverbial phrase to tell how long or how high or how deep anything is, we must use the accusative of extent. (Cf.  Sec. 336.) For example, in the sentence above multa milia passuum\ is an adverbial phrase (accusative of extent) modifying longam\.  If we should omit longam\ and say _a fortification of many miles_, the genitive of description (an adjective phrase) modifying munitionem\ would be used, as munitionem multorum milium passuum\.]

  [Illustration:  GLADII]

LESSON LXXVII

REVIEW OF AGREEMENT, AND OF THE GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSATIVE

448. There are four agreements: 

  1.  That of the predicate noun or of the appositive with the noun to
  which it belongs (Secs. 76, 81).

  2.  That of the adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle with its
  noun (Sec. 65).

  3.  That of a verb with its subject (Sec. 28).

  4.  That of a relative pronoun with its antecedent (Sec. 224).

449. The relation expressed by the genitive\ is, in general, denoted in English by the preposition _of_.  It is used to express

                { a. As attributive (Sec. 38).
  1.  Possession {
                { b. In the predicate (Sec. 409).

  2.  The whole of which a part is taken (partitive genitive) (Sec. 331).

  3.  Quality or description (Secs. 443, 445).

450. The relation expressed by the dative\ is, in general, denoted in English by the prepositions _to_ or _for_ when they do not imply motion through space.  It is used to express

                         { a. With intransitive verbs and with
                         { transitive verbs in connection with a
                         { direct object in the accusative (Sec. 45).
  1.  The indirect object { b.  With special intransitive verbs
                         { (Sec. 154).
                         { c.  With verbs compounded with ad\, ante\,
                         { con\, de\, in\, inter\, ob\, post\,
                         { prae\, pro\, sub\, super\ (Sec. 426).

  2.  The object to which the quality of an adjective is directed
  (Sec. 143).

  3.  The purpose, or end for which, often with a second dative denoting
  the person or thing affected (Sec. 437).

451. The accusative\ case corresponds, in general, to the English objective.  It is used to express

  1.  The direct object of a transitive verb (Sec. 37).

  2.  The predicate accusative together with the direct object after
  verbs of making, choosing, falling, showing, and the like (Sec.
  392).

Page 146

  3.  The subject of the infinitive (Sec. 214).

  4.  The object of prepositions that do not govern the ablative (Sec.
  340).

  5.  The duration of time and the extent of space (Sec. 336).

  6.  The place to which (Secs. 263, 266).

452. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Milites quos vidimus dixerunt imperium belli esse Caesaris imperatoris. 2.  Helvetii statuerunt quam[1] maximum numerum equorum et carrorum cogere. 3.  Totius Galliae Helvetii plurimum valuerunt. 4.  Multas horas acriter pugnatum est neque quisquam poterat videre hostem fugientem. 5.  Viri summae virtutis hostis decem milia passuum insecuti sunt. 6.  Caesar populo Romano persuasit ut se consulem crearet. 7.  Victoria exercitus erat semper imperatori gratissima. 8.  Triduum iter fecerunt et Genavam, in oppidum[2] hostium, pervenerunt. 9.  Caesar audivit Germanos bellum Gallis intulisse. 10.  Magno usui militibus Caesaris erat quod prioribus proeliis sese exercuerant.

II. 1.  One[3] of the king’s sons and many of his men were captured. 2.  There was no one who wished[4] to appoint her queen. 3.  The grain supply was always a care (for a care) to Caesar, the general. 4.  I think that the camp is ten miles distant. 5.  We marched for three hours through a very dense forest. 6.  The plan [5]of making war upon the allies was not pleasing to the king. 7.  When he came to the hill he fortified it [6]by a twelve-foot wall.

    [Footnote 1:  What is the force of quam\ with superlatives?]

    [Footnote 2:  urbs\ or oppidum\, appositive to a name of a town,
    takes a preposition.]

    [Footnote 3:  What construction is used with numerals in preference
    to the partitive genitive?]

    [Footnote 4:  What mood? (Cf.  Sec. 390.)]

    [Footnote 5:  Use the gerund or gerundive.]

    [Footnote 6:  Latin, by a wall of twelve feet.]

LESSON LXXVIII

REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE

453. The relations of the ablative are, in general, expressed in English by the prepositions with (or by), from (or by), and in (or at).  The constructions growing out of these meanings are

  I. Ablative rendered with (or by): 
    1.  Cause (Sec. 102)
    2.  Means (Sec. 103)
    3.  Accompaniment (Sec. 104)
    4.  Manner (Sec. 105)
    5.  Measure of difference (Sec. 317)
    6.  With a participle (ablative absolute) (Sec. 381)
    7.  Description or quality (Secs. 444, 445)
    8.  Specification (Sec. 398)

  II.  Ablative rendered from (or by): 
    1.  Place from which (Secs. 179, 264)
    2.  Ablative of separation (Sec. 180)
    3.  Personal agent with a passive verb (Sec. 181)
    4.  Comparison without quam\ (Sec. 309)

Page 147

  III.  Ablative rendered in (or at): 
    1.  Place at or in which (Secs. 265, 266)
    2.  Time when or within which (Sec. 275)

454. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Galli locis superioribus occupatis itinere exercitum prohibere conantur. 2.  Omnes oppidani ex oppido egressi salutem fuga petere inceperunt. 3.  Caesar docet se militum vitam sua salute habere multo cariorem. 4.  Cum celerius omnium opinione pervenisset, hostes ad eum obsides miserunt 5.  Vicus in valle positus montibus altissimis undique continetur. 6.  Plurimum inter Gallos haec gens et virtute et hominum numero valebat. 7.  Secunda vigilia nullo certo ordine neque imperio e castris egressi sunt. 8.  Duabus legionibus Genavae relictis, proximo die cum reliquis domum profectus est. 9.  Erant itinera duo quibus itineribus Helvetii domo exire possent. 10.  Rex erat summa audacia et magna apud populum potentia. 11.  Galli timore servitutis commoti bellum parabant. 12.  Caesar monet legatos ut contineant milites, ne studio pugnandi aut spe praedae longius[1] progrediantur. 13.  Bellum acerrimum a Caesare in Gallos gestum est.

II. 1.  The lieutenant after having seized the mountain restrained his (men) from battle. 2.  All the Gauls differ from each other in laws. 3.  This tribe is much braver than the rest. 4.  This road is [2]ten miles shorter than that. 5.  In summer Caesar carried on war in Gaul, in winter he returned to Italy. 6.  At midnight the general set out from the camp with three legions. 7.  I fear that you cannot protect[3] yourself from these enemies. 8. [4]After this battle was finished peace was made by all the Gauls.

    [Footnote 1:  longius\, _too far_. (Cf.  Sec. 305.)]

    [Footnote 2:  Latin, by ten thousands of paces.]

    [Footnote 3:  defendere\.]

    [Footnote 4:  Ablative absolute.]

LESSON LXXIX

REVIEW OF THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE, THE INFINITIVE, AND THE SUBJUNCTIVE

455. The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular.  The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns (Secs. 402, 406.1).

456. The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition.  Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual (Sec. 406.2).

457. The infinitive is used: 

  I. As in English.

    a. As subject or predicate nominative (Sec. 216).

    b. To complete the predicate with verbs of incomplete predication
    (complementary infinitive) (Sec. 215).

    c. As object with subject accusative after verbs of wishing,
    commanding, forbidding
, and the like (Sec. 213).

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  II.  In the principal sentence of an indirect statement after verbs
  of saying and mental action.  The subject is in the accusative
  (Secs. 416, 418, 419).

458. The subjunctive is used: 

  1.  To denote purpose (Secs. 349, 366, 372).

  2.  To denote consequence or result (Secs. 385, 386).

  3.  In relative clauses of characteristic or description (Sec. 390).

  4.  In cum\ clauses of time, cause, and concession (Sec. 396).

  5.  In indirect questions (Sec. 432).

459. EXERCISES

I. 1.  Caesar, cum pervenisset, milites hortabatur ne consilium oppidi capiendi omitterent. 2.  Rex, castris prope oppidum positis, misit exploratores qui cognoscerent ubi exercitus Romanus esset. 3.  Nemo relinquebatur qui arma ferre posset. 4.  Nuntii viderunt ingentem armorum multitudinem de muro in fossani iactam esse. 5.  Dux suos transire flumen iussit.  Transire autem hoc flumen erat difficillimum. 6.  Romani cum hanc calamitatem moleste ferrant, tamen terga vertere recusaverunt. 7.  Hoc rumore audito, tantus terror omnium animos occupavit ut ne fortissimi quidem proelium committere vellent. 8.  Erant qui putarent tempus anni idoneum non esse itineri faciendo. 9.  Tam acriter ab utraque parte pugnabatur ut multa milia hominum occiderentur. 10.  Quid times?  Timeo ne Romanis in animo sit totam Galliam superare et nobis iniurias inferre.

II. 1.  Do you not see who is standing on the wall? 2.  We hear that the plan of taking the town has been given up. 3.  Since the Germans thought that the Romans could not cross the Rhine, Caesar ordered a bridge to be made. 4.  When the bridge was finished, the savages were so terrified that they hid themselves. 5.  They feared that Caesar would pursue them. 6.  Caesar [1]asked the traders what the size of the island was. 7.  The traders advised him not [2]to cross the sea. 8.  He sent scouts [3]to choose a place for a camp.

    [Footnote 1:  quaerere ab\.]

    [Footnote 2:  Not infinitive.]

    [Footnote 3:  Use the gerundive with ad\.]

READING MATTER

INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS

How to Translate.\ You have already had considerable practice in translating simple Latin, and have learned that the guide to the meaning lies in the endings of the words.  If these are neglected, no skill can make sense of the Latin.  If they are carefully noted and accurately translated, not many difficulties remain.  Observe the following suggestions: 

  1.  Read the Latin sentence through to the end, noting endings of
  nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.

  2.  Read it again and see if any of the words you know are nominatives
  or accusatives.  This will often give you what may be called the
  backbone of the sentence; that is, subject, verb, and object.

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  3.  Look up the words you do not know, and determine their use in the
  sentence from their endings.

  4.  If you cannot yet translate the sentence, put down the English
  meanings of all the words in the same order as the Latin words.  You
  will then generally see through the meaning of the sentence.

  5.  Be careful to

    a. Translate adjectives with the nouns to which they belong.

    b. Translate together prepositions and the nouns which they
    govern.

    c. Translate adverbs with the words that they modify.

    d. Make sense. If you do not make sense, you have made a
    mistake.  One mistake will spoil a whole sentence.

  6.  When the sentence is correctly translated, read the Latin over
  again, and try to understand it as Latin, without thinking of the
  English translation.

The Parts of a Sentence.\ You will now meet somewhat longer sentences than you have had before.  To assist in translating them, remember, first of all, that every sentence conveys a meaning and either tells us something, asks a question, or gives a command.  Every sentence must have a subject and a verb, and the verb may always have an adverb, and, if transitive, will have a direct object.

However long a sentence is, you will usually be able to recognize its subject, verb, and object or predicate complement without any difficulty.  These will give you the leading thought, and they must never be lost sight of while making out the rest of the sentence.  The chief difficulty in translating arises from the fact that instead of a single adjective, adverb, or noun, we often have a phrase or a clause taking the place of one of these; for Latin, like English, has adjective, adverbial, and substantive clauses and phrases.  For example, in the sentence The idle boy does not study, the word idle is an adjective.  In The boy wasting his time does not study, the words wasting his time form an adjective phrase modifying boy.  In the sentence The boy who wastes his time does not study, the words who wastes his time form an adjective clause modifying boy, and the sentence is complex.  These sentences would show the same structure in Latin.

In translating, it is important to keep the parts of a phrase and the parts of a clause together and not let them become confused with the principal sentence.  To distinguish between the subordinate clauses and the principal sentence is of the first importance, and is not difficult if you remember that a clause regularly contains a word that marks it as a clause and that this word usually stands first.  These words join clauses to the words they depend on, and are called subordinate conjunctions.  They are not very numerous, and you will soon learn to recognize them.  In Latin they are the equivalents for such words as when, while, since, because, if, before, after, though, in order that, that, etc.  Form the habit of memorizing the Latin subordinate conjunctions as you meet them, and of noting carefully the mood of the verb in the clauses which they introduce.

Page 150

  [Illustration:  HERCULES]

THE LABORS OF HERCULES

Hercules, a Greek hero celebrated for his great strength, was pursued throughout his life by the hatred of Juno.  While yet an infant he strangled some serpents sent by the goddess to destroy him.  During his boyhood and youth he performed various marvelous feats of strength, and on reaching manhood he succeeded in delivering the Thebans from the oppression of the Minyae.  In a fit of madness, sent upon him by Juno, he slew his own children; and, on consulting the Delphic oracle as to how he should cleanse himself from this crime, he was ordered to submit himself for twelve years to Eurystheus, king of Tiryns, and to perform whatever tasks were appointed him.  Hercules obeyed the oracle, and during the twelve years of his servitude accomplished twelve extraordinary feats known as the Labors of Hercules.  His death was caused, unintentionally, by his wife Deiani’ra.  Hercules had shot with his poisoned arrows a centaur named Nessus, who had insulted Deianira.  Nessus, before he died, gave some of his blood to Deianira, and told her it would act as a charm to secure her husband’s love.  Some time after, Deianira, wishing to try the charm, soaked one of her husband’s garments in the blood, not knowing that it was poisoned.  Hercules put on the robe, and, after suffering terrible torments, died, or was carried off by his father Jupiter.

  [Illustration:  HERCULES ET SERPENTES]

LIII.[1] THE INFANT HERCULES AND THE SERPENTS

Di[2] grave supplicium summit de malis, sed ii qui legibus[3] deorum parent, etiam post mortem curantur.  Illa vita dis[2] erat gratissima quae hominibus miseris utilissima fuerat.  Omnium autem praemiorum summum erat immortalitas.  Illud praemium Herculi datum est.

Herculis pater fuit Iuppiter, mater Alcmena, et omnium hominum validissimus fuisse dicitur.  Sed Iuno, regina deorum, eum, adhuc infantem, interficere studebat; nam ei[1] et[2] Hercules et Alcmena erant invisi.  Itaque misit duas serpentis, utramque saevissimam, quae media nocte domum[3] Alcmenae venerunt.  Ibi Hercules, cum fratre suo, non in lectulo sed in scuto ingenti dormiebat.  Iam audaces serpentes adpropinquaverant, iam scutum movebant.  Tum frater, terrore commotus, magna voce matrem vocavit, sed Hercules ipse, fortior quam frater, statim ingentis serpentis manibus suis rapuit et interfecit.

    [Footnote 1:  This number refers to the lesson after which the
    selection may be read.]

    [Footnote 2:  Di:\ and di:s\ are from deus\.  Cf.  Sec. 468.]

    [Footnote 3:  legibus\, Sec. 501.14.]

    [Footnote 1:  ei\, _to her_, referring to Juno.]

    [Footnote 2:  et ... et\, _both ... and_.]

    [Footnote 3:  domum\, Sec. 501.20.]

LIV.  HERCULES CONQUERS THE MINYAE

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Hercules a puero[1] corpus suum gravissimis et difficillimis laboribus exercebat et hoc modo vires[2] suas confirmavit.  Iam adulescens Thebis[3] habitabat.  Ibi Creon quidam erat rex.  Minyae, gens validissima, erant finitimi Thebanis, et, quia olim Thebanos vicerant, quotannis legatos mittebant et vectigal postulabant.  Hercules autem constituit civis suos hoc vectigali liberare et dixit regi, “Da mihi exercitum tuum et ego hos superbos hostis superabo.”  Hanc condicionem rex non recusavit, et Hercules nuntios in omnis partis dimisit et copias coegit.[4] Tum tempore opportunissimo proelium cum Minyis commisit.  Diu pugnatum est, sed denique illi impetum Thebanorum sustinere non potuerunt et terga verterunt fugamque ceperunt.

    [Footnote 1:  a puero\, _from boyhood_.]

    [Footnote 2:  vires\, from vis\.  Cf.  Sec. 468.]

    [Footnote 3:  Thebis\, Sec. 501.36.1.]

    [Footnote 4:  coegit\, from cogo\.]

HE COMMITS A CRIME AND GOES TO THE DELPHIAN ORACLE TO SEEK EXPIATION

Post hoc proelium Creon rex, tanta victoria laetus, filiam suam Herculi in matrimonium dedit.  Thebis Hercules cum uxore sua diu vivebat et ab omnibus magnopere amabatur; sed post multos annos subito [1]in furorem incidit et ipse sua manu liberos suos interfecit.  Post breve tempus [2]ad sanitatem reductus tantum scelus expiare cupiebat et constituit ad oraculum Delphicum iter facere.  Hoc autem oraculum erat omnium clarissimum.  Ibi sedebat femina quaedam quae Pythia appellabatur.  Ea consilium dabat iis qui ad oraculum veniebant.

    [Footnote 1:  in furorem incidit\, _went mad_.]

    [Footnote 2:  ad sanitatem reductus\, lit. _led back to sanity_. 
    What in good English?]

  [Illustration:  HERCULES LEONEM SUPERAT]

LV.  HERCULES BECOMES SUBJECT TO EURYSTHEUS[1] : 
      HE STRANGLES THE NEME’AN LION

Itaque Hercules Pythiae totam rem demonstravit nec scelus suum abdidit.  Ubi iam Hercules finem fecit, Pythia iussit eum ad urbem Tiryntha[2] discedere et ibi regi Eurystheo sese committere.  Quae[3] ubi audivit, Hercules ad illam urbem statim contendit et Eurystheo se in servitutem tradidit et dixit, “Quid primum, O rex, me facere iubes?” Eurystheus, qui perterrebatur vi et corpore ingenti Herculis et eum occidi[4] studebat, ita respondit:  “Audi, Hercules!  Multa mira[5] narrantur de leone saevissimo qui hoc tempore in valle Nemaea omnia vastat.  Iubeo te, virorum omnium fortissimum, illo monstro homines liberare.”  Haec verba Herculi maxime placuerunt.  “Properabo,” inquit, “et parebo imperio[6] tuo.”  Tum in silvas in quibus leo habitabat statim iter fecit.  Mox feram vidit et pluris impetus fecit; frustra tamen, quod neque sagittis neque ullo alio telo monstrum vulnerare potuit.  Denique Hercules saevum leonem suis ingentibus bracchiis rapuit et faucis eius omnibus viribus compressit.  Hoc modo brevi tempore eum interfecit.  Tum corpus leonis ad oppidum in umeris reportavit et pellem postea pro[7] veste gerebat.  Omnes autem quo eam regionem incolebant, ubi famam de morte leonis ingentis acceperunt, erant laetissimi et Herculem laudabant verbis amplissimis.

Page 152

    [Footnote 1:  Eu-rys’theus\ (pronounced _U-ris’thus_) was king of
    _Ti’ryns_, a Grecian city, whose foundation goes back to prehistoric
    times.]

    [Footnote 2:  Tiryntha\, the acc. case of Tiryns\, a Greek noun.]

    [Footnote 3:  Quae\, obj. of audivit\.  It is placed first to make a
    close connection with the preceding sentence.  This is called a
    connecting relative.]

    [Footnote 4:  occidi\, pres. pass. infin.]

    [Footnote 5:  mira\, _marvelous things_, the adj. being used as a
    noun.  Cf.
omnia\, in the next line.]

    [Footnote 6:  imperio\, Sec. 501.14.]

    [Footnote 7:  pro\, _for, instead of_.]

LVI.  SLAYING THE LERNE’AN HYDRA

Deinde Hercules ab Eurystheo iussus est Hydram occidere.  Itaque cum amico Iolao[1] contendit ad paludem Lernaeam ubi Hydra incolebat.  Hoc autem monstrum erat serpens ingens quae novem capita habebat.  Mox is monstrum repperit et summo[2] cum periculo collum eius sinistra manu rapuit et tenuit.  Tum dextra manu capita novem abscidere incepit, sed frustra laborabat, quod quotiens hoc fecerat totiens alia nova capita videbat.  Quod[3] ubi vidit, statuit capita igni cremare.  Hoc modo octo capita delevit, sed extremum caput vulnerari non potuit, quod erat immortale.  Itaque illud sub ingenti saxo Hercules posuit et ita victoriam reportavit.

    [Footnote 1:  Iolao\, abl. of _I-o-la’us_, the hero’s best friend.]

    [Footnote 2:  Note the emphatic position of this adjective.]

    [Footnote 3:  Quod ubi\, _when he saw this_, another instance of the
    connecting relative.  Cf. p. 199, l. 3.]

LVII.  THE ARCADIAN STAG AND THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR

Postquam Eurystheo mors Hydrae nuntiata est, summus terror animum eius occupavit.  Itaque iussit Herculem capere et ad se reportare cervum quendam; nam minime cupivit tantum virum in regno suo tenere.  Hie autem cervus dicebatur aurea cornua et pedes multo[1] celeriores vento[2] habere.  Primum Hercules vestigia animalis petivit, deinde, ubi cervum ipsum vidit, omnibus viribus currere incepit.  Per plurimos dies contendit nec noctu cessavit.  Denique postquam per totum annum cucurrerat—­ita dicitur—­cervum iam defessum cepit et ad Eurystheum portavit.

Tum vero iussus est Hercules aprum quendam capere qui illo tempore agros Erymanthios vastabat et homines illius loci magnopere perterrebat.  Hercules laete negotium suscepit et in Arcadiam celeriter se recepit.  Ibi mox aprum repperit.  Ille autem; simul atque Herculem vidit, statim quam[3] celerrime fugit et metu perterritus in fossam altam sese abdidit.  Hercules tamen summa cum difficultate eum extraxit, nec aper ullo modo sese liberare potuit, et vivus ad Eurystheum portatus est.

Page 153

    [Footnote 1:  multo\, Sec. 501.27.]

    [Footnote 2:  vento\, Sec. 501.34.]

    [Footnote 3:  quam\.  What is the force of quam\ with a
    superlative?]

LVIII.  HERCULES CLEANS THE AUGE’AN STABLES AND KILLS THE STYMPHALIAN BIRDS

Deinde Eurystheus Herculi hunc laborem multo graviorem imperavit.  Augeas[1] quidam, qui illo tempore regnum Elidis[2] obtinebat, tria milia boum[3] habebat.  Hi[4] ingenti stabulo continebantur.  Hoc stabulum, quod per triginta annos non purgatum erat, Hercules intra spatium unius diei purgare iussus est. llle negotium alacriter suscepit, et primum labore gravissimo maximam fossam fodit per quam fluminis aquam de montibus ad murum stabuli duxit.  Tum partem parvam muri delevit et aquam in stabulum immisit.  Hoc modo finm operis fecit uno die facillime.

Post paucos dies Hercules ad oppidum Stymphalum iter fecit; nam Eurystheus iusserat eum avis Stymphalides occidere.  Hae aves rostra ferrea habebant et homines miseros devorabant.  Ille, postquam ad locum pervenit, lacum vidit in quo aves incolebant.  Nullo tamen modo Hercules avibus adpropinquare potuit; lacus enim non ex aqua sed e limo constitit.[5] Denique autem aves [6]de aliqua causa perterritae in auras volaverunt et magna pars earum sagittis Herculis occisa est.

    [Footnote 1:  Augeas\, pronounced in English _Aw-je’as_.]

    [Footnote 2:  Elidis\, gen. case of Elis\, a district of Greece.]

    [Footnote 3:  boum\, gen. plur. of bo:s\.  For construction see
    Sec. 501.11.]

    [Footnote 4:  ingenti stabulo\, abl. of means, but in our idiom we
    should say _in a huge stable_.]

    [Footnote 5:  constitit\, from consto\.]

    [Footnote 6:  de aliqua causa perterritae\, _frightened for some
    reason_.]

  [Illustration:  HERCULES ET TAURUS]

LIX.  HERCULES CAPTURES THE CRETAN BULL AND CARRIES HIM LIVING TO EURYSTHEUS

Tum Eurystheus iussit Herculem portare vivum ex insula Creta taurum quendam saevissimum.  Ille igitur navem conscendit—­nam ventus erat idoneus—­atque statim solvit.  Postquam triduum navigavit, incolumis insulae adpropinquavit.  Deinde, postquam omnia parata sunt, contendit ad eam regionem quam taurus vexabat.  Mox taurum vidit ac sine ullo metu cornua eius corripuit.  Tum ingenti labore monstrum ad navem traxit atque cum hac praeda ex insula discessit.

THE FLESH-EATING HORSES OF DIOME’DES

Postquam ex insula Creta domum pervenit, Hercules ab Eurystheo in Thraciam missus est.  Ibi Diomedes quidam, vir saevissimus, regnum obtinebat et omnis a finibus suis prohibebat.  Hercules iussus erat equos Diomedis rapere et ad Eurystheum ducere.  Hi autem equi homines miserrimos devorabant de quibus rex supplicium sumere cupiebat.  Hercules ubi pervenit, primum equos a rege postulavit, sed rex eos dedere recusavit.  Deinde ille ira commotus regem occidit et corpus eius equis tradidit.  Itaque is qui antea multos necaverat, ipse eodem supplicio necatus est.  Et equi, nuper saevissima animalia, postquam domini sui corpus devoraverunt, mansueti erant.

Page 154

LX.  THE BELT OF HIPPOL’YTE, QUEEN OF THE AMAZONS

Gens Amazonum[1] dicitur[2] omnino ex mulieribus fuisse.  Hae cum viris proelium committere non verebantur.  Hippolyte, Amazonum regina, balteum habuit pulcherrimum.  Hunc balteum possidere filia Eurysthei vehementer cupiebat.  Itaque Eurystheus iussit Herculem impetum in Amazones facere.  Ille multis cum copiis navem conscendit et paucis diebus in Amazonum finis pervenit, ac balteum postulavit.  Eum tradere ipsa Hipporyte quidem cupivit; reliquis tamen Amazonibus[3] persuadere non potuit.  Postridie Hercules proelium commisit.  Multas horas utrimque quam fortissime pugnatum est Denique tamen mulieres terga verterunt et fuga salutem petierunt.  Multae autem captae sunt, in quo numero erat ipsa Hippolyte.  Hercules postquam balteum accepit, omnibus captivis libertatem dedit.

    [Footnote 1:  A fabled tribe of warlike women living in Asia Minor.]

    [Footnote 2:  omnino\, etc., _to have consisted entirely of women._]

    [Footnote 3:  Amazonibus\, Sec. 501.14.]

  [Illustration:  HERCULES ET CERBERUS]

THE DESCENT TO HADES AND THE DOG CER’BERUS

Iamque unus modo e duodecim laboribus relinquebatur sed inter omnis hic erat difficillimus.  Iussus est enim canem Cerberum[4] ex Orco in lucem trahere.  Ex Orco autem nemo antea reverterat.  Praeterea Cerberus erat monstrum maxime horribile et tria capita habebat.  Hercules postquam imperia Eurysthei accepit, statim profectus est et in Orcum descendit.  Ibi vero non sine summo periculo Cerberum manibus rapuit et ingenti cum labore ex Orco in lucem et adurbem Eurysthei traxit.

Sic duodecim labores illi[5] intra duodecim annos confecti sunt.  Demum post longam vitam Hercules a deis receptus est et Iuppiter filio suo dedit immortalitatem.

    [Footnote 4:  The dog Cerberus guarded the gate of Orcus, the abode
    of the dead.]

    [Footnote 5:  illi\, _those famous._]

  [Illustration:  PUERI ROMANI]

P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS:  THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY[1]

LXI.  PUBLIUS IS BORN NEAR POMPE’II

P. Cornelius Lentulus,[2] adulescens Romanus, amplissima familia[3] natus est; nam pater eius, Marcus, erat dux peritissimus, cuius virtute[4] et consilio multae victoriae reportatae erant; atque mater eius, lulia, a clarissimis maioribus orta est.  Non vero in urbe sed ruri[5] Publius natus est, et cum matre habitabat in villa quae in maris litore et sub radicibus magni montis sita erat.  Mons autem erat Vesuvius et parva urbs Pompeii octo milia[6] passuum[7] aberat.  In Italia antiqua erant plurimae quidem villae et pulchrae, sed inter has omnis nulla erat pulchrior quam villa Marci Iuliaeque.  Frons villae muro a maris fluctibus muniebatur.  Hinc mare et litora

Page 155

et insulae longe lateque conspici[8] ac saepe naves longae et onerariae poterant.  A tergo et ab utroque latere agri feracissimi patebant.  Undique erat magna variorum florum copia et multa ingentium arborum genera quae aestate[9] umbram defessis agricolis gratissimam adferebant.  Praeterea erant[10] in agris stabulisque multa animalium genera, non solum equi et boves sed etiam rarae aves.  Etiam erat[10] magna piscina plena piscium; nam Romani piscis diligenter colebant.

    [Footnote 1:  This story is fiction with certain historical facts in
    Caesar’s career as a setting.  However, the events chronicled might
    have happened, and no doubt did happen to many a Roman youth.]

    [Footnote 2:  A Roman had three names, as, Publius\ (given name),
    
Cornelius\ (name of the gens or clan), Lentulus\ (family name).]

    [Footnote 3:  Abl. of source, which is akin to the abl. of
    separation (Sec. 501.32).]

    [Footnote 4:  virtute\, Sec. 501.24.]

    [Footnote 5:  ruri\, Sec. 501.36.1.]

    [Footnote 6:  milia\, Sec. 501.21.]

    [Footnote 7:  passuum\, Sec. 501.11.]

    [Footnote 8:  conspici\, infin. with poterant, Sec. 215.  Consult the
    map of Italy for the approximate location of the villa.]

    [Footnote 9:  aestate\, Sec. 501.35.]

    [Footnote 10:  How are the forms of sum\ translated when they
    precede the subject?]

  [Illustration:  CASA ROMANA]

LXII.  HIS LIFE ON THE FARM

Huius villae Davus, servus Marci, est vilicus[1] et cum Lesbia uxore omnia curat.  Vilicus et uxor in casa humili, mediis in agris sita, habitant.  A prima luce usque ad vesperum se[2] gravibus laboribus exercent ut omni res bene gerant.[3] Plurima enim sunt officia Davi et Lesbiae.  Vilicus servos regit ne tardi sint[3]; mittit alios qui agros arent,[3] alios qui hortos inrigent,[3] et opera in[4] totum diem imponit.  Lesbia autem omnibus vestimenta parat, cibum coquit, panem facit.

Non longe ab horum casa et in summo colle situm surgebat domicilium ipsius domini dominaeque amplissimum.  Ibi pluris annos[5] Publius cum matre vitam felicem agebat; nam pater eius, Marcus, in terris longinquis gravia rei publicae bella gerebat nec domum[6] reverti poterat.  Neque puero quidem molestum est ruri[7] vivere.  Eum multae res delectant.  Magnopere amat silvas, agros, equos, boves, gallinas, avis, reliquaque animalia.  Saepe pluris horas[8] ad mare sedet quo[9] melius fluctus et navis spectet.  Nec omnino sine comitibus erat, quod Lydia, Davi filia, quae erat eiusdem aetatis, cum eo adhuc infante ludebat, inter quos cum annis amicitia crescebat.  Lydia nullum alium ducem deligebat et Publius ab puellae latere raro discedebat.  Itaque sub claro Italiae sole Publius et Lydia, amici fidelissimi, per campos collisque cotidie vagabantur.  Modo in silva finitima ludebant ubi Publius sagittis[10] celeribus avis deiciebat et Lydia coronis variorum florum comas suas ornabat; modo aquam et cibum portabant ad Davum servosque defessos qui agros colebant:  modo in casa parva aut horas lactas in ludo consumebant aut auxilium dabant Lesbiae, quae cibum viro et servis parabat vel alias res domesticas agebat.

Page 156

    [Footnote 1:  The vilicus\ was a slave who acted as overseer of a
    farm.  He directed the farming operations and the sale of the
    produce.]

    [Footnote 2:  se\, reflexive pron., object of exercent\.]

    [Footnote 3:  For the construction, see Sec. 501.40.]

    [Footnote 4:  in\, _for_.]

    [Footnote 5:  annos\, Sec. 501.21.]

    [Footnote 6:  domum\, Sec. 501.20.]

    [Footnote 7:  ruri\, Sec. 501.36.1.]

    [Footnote 8:  horas\, cf. annos\, line 17.]

    [Footnote 9:  quo ... spectet\, Secs. 349, 350.]

    [Footnote 10:  sagittis\, Sec. 501.24.]

LXIII.  MARCUS LENTULUS, THE FATHER OF PUBLIUS, IS SHIPWRECKED :  JULIA RECEIVES A LETTER FROM HIM

Iam Publius[1] decem annos habebat cum M. Cornelius Lentulus, pater eius, qui quinque annos[2] grave bellum in Asia gerebat, non sine gloria domum[3] revertebatur.  Namque multa secunda proelia fecerat, maximas hostium copias deleverat, multas urbis populo[4] Romano inimicas ceperat.  Primum nuntius pervenit qui a Lentulo[5] missus erat[6] ut profectionem suam nuntiaret.  Deinde pluris dies[7] reditum viri optimi mater filiusque exspectabant et animis[8] sollicitis deos immortalis frustra colebant.  Tum demum has litteras summo cum gaudio acceperunt: 

[9]"Marcus Iuliae suac salutem dicit.  Si vales, bene est; ego valeo.  Ex Graecia, quo[10] praeter spem et opinionem hodie perveni, has litteras ad te scribo.  Namque navis nostra fracta est; nos autem—­[11]dis est gratia—­incolumes sumus.  Ex Asiae[12] portu navem leni vento solvimus.  Postquam[13] altum mare tenuimus [14]nec iam ullae terrae apparuerunt, caelum undique et undique fluctus, subito magna tempestas coorta est et navem vehementissime adflixit.  Ventis fluctibusque adflictati[15] nec solem discernere nec cursum tenere poteramus et omnia praesentem mortem intentabant.  Tris dies[16] et tris noctis[16] sine remis velisque agimur.  Quarto die[17] primum terra visa est et violenter in saxa, quae non longe a litore aberant, deiecti sumus.  Tum vero maiora pericula timebamus; sed nauta quidam, vir fortissimus, ex nave in fluctus iratos desiluit [18]ut funem ad litus portaret; quam rem summo labore vix effecit.  Ita omnes servati sumus.  Gratias igitur et honorem Neptuno debemus, qui deus nos e periculo eripuit.  Nunc Athenis[19] sum, quo confugi ut mihi paucas horas ad quietem darem.[20] Quam primum autem aliam navem conducam ut iter ad Italiam reliquum conficiam et domum[21] ad meos caros revertar.  Saluta nostrum Publium amicissime et valetudinem tuam cura diligenter. [22]Kalendis Martiis.”

    [Footnote 1:  was ten years old.]

    [Footnote 2:  annos\, Sec. 501.21.]

    [Footnote 3:  domum\, Sec. 501.20.]

    [Footnote 4:  populo\, dat. with inimicas, cf.  Sec. 501.16.]

Page 157

    [Footnote 5:  Lentulo\, Sec. 501.33.]

    [Footnote 6:  ut ... nuntiaret\, Sec. 501.40.]

    [Footnote 7:  dies\, cf. annos, 1. 9.]

    [Footnote 8:  animis\, abl. of manner.  Do you see one in line 15?]

[Footnote 9:  This is the usual form for the beginning of a Latin letter.  First we have the greeting, and then the expression Si vales, etc.  The date of the letter is usually given at the end, and also the place of writing, if not previously mentioned in the letter.]

    [Footnote 10:  quo\, _where_.]

    [Footnote 11:  dis est gratia\, _thank God_, in our idiom.]

    [Footnote 12:  Asia refers to the Roman province of that name in Asia
    Minor.]

    [Footnote 13:  altum mare tenuimus\, _we were well out to sea._]

    [Footnote 14:  nec iam\, _and no longer_.]

    [Footnote 15:  adflictati\, perf. passive part. _tossed about_.]

    [Footnote 16:  What construction?]

    [Footnote 17:  die\, Sec. 501.35.]

    [Footnote 18:  ut ... portaret\, Sec. 501.40.]

    [Footnote 19:  Athenis\, Sec. 501.36.1.]

    [Footnote 20:  darem\, cf. portaret\, l. 6.]

    [Footnote 21:  Why not ad domum\?]

    [Footnote 22:  Kalendis Martiis\, _the Calends_ or _first of March_;
    abl. of time, giving the date of the letter.]

LXIV.  LENTULUS REACHES HOME :  PUBLIUS VISITS POMPEII WITH HIS FATHER

Post paucos dies navis M. Corneli Lentuli portum Miseni[1] petiit, qui portus non longe a Pompeiis situs est; quo in portu classis Romana ponebatur et ad pugnas navalis ornabatur.  Ibi naves omnium generum conspici poterant.  Iamque incredibili celeritate navis longa qua Lentulus vehebatur litori adpropinquavit; nam non solum vento sed etiam remis impellebatur.  In alta puppe stabat gubernator et non procul aliqui milites Romani cum armis splendidis, inter quos clarissimus erat Lentulus.  Deinde servi remis contendere cessaverunt[2]; nautae velum contraxerunt et ancoras iecerunt.  Lentulus statim e navi egressus est et[3] ad villam suam properavit.  Eum Iulia, Publius, totaque familia exceperunt. [4]Qui complexus, quanta gaudia fuerunt!

Postridie eius diei Lentulus filio suo dixit, “Veni, mi Publi, mecum.  Pompeios iter hodie faciam.  Mater tua suadet[5] ut fructus et cibaria emam.  Namque pluris amicos ad cenam vocavimus et multis rebus[6] egemus.  Ea hortatur ut quam primum proficiscamur.”  “Libenter, mi pater,” inquit Publius.  “Tecum esse mihi semper est gratum; nec Pompeios umquam vidi.  Sine mora proficisci paratus sum.”  Tum celeriter currum conscenderunt et ad urbis muros vecti sunt.  Stabiana porta[7] urbem ingressi sunt.  Publius stratas vias miratur et saxa altiora quae in medio disposita erant et altas orbitas quas rotae inter haec saxa fecerant.  Etiam strepitum miratur, multitudinem, carros, fontis, domos, tabernas, forum[8] cum statuis, templis, reliquisque aedificiis publicis.

Page 158

    [Footnote 1:  Misenum had an excellent harbor, and under the emperor
    Augustus became the chief naval station of the Roman fleet.  See map
    of Italy.]

    [Footnote 2:  Why is the infinitive used with cessaverunt\?]

    [Footnote 3:  See Plate I, Frontispiece.]

    [Footnote 4:  Observe that these words are exclamatory.]

    [Footnote 5:  What construction follows suadeo\?  Sec. 501.41.]

    [Footnote 6:  rebus\, Sec. 501.32.]

[Footnote 7:  This is the abl. of the way by which motion takes place, sometimes called the abl. of route.  The construction comes under the general head of the abl. of means.  For the scene here described, see Plate II, p. 53, and notice especially the stepping-stones for crossing the street (saxa quae in medio disposita erant\).]

    [Footnote 8:  The forum of Pompeii was surrounded by temples, public
    halls, and markets of various sorts.  Locate Pompeii on the map.]

LXV.  A DAY AT POMPEII

Apud forum e curru descenderunt et Lentulus dixit, “Hic sunt multa tabernarum genera, mi Publi.  Ecce, trans viam est popina! [1]Hoc genus tabernarum cibaria vendit.  Fructus quoque ante ianuam stant.  Ibi cibaria mea emam.”  “Optime,” respondit Publius.  “At ubi, mi pater, crustula emere possumus?  Namque mater nobis imperavit [2]ut haec quoque pararemus.  Timeo ut[3] ista popina vendat crustula.”  “Bene dicis,” inquit Lentulus.  “At nonne vides illum fontem a dextra ubi aqua per leonis caput fluit?  In illo ipso loco est taberna pistoris qui sine dubio vendit crustula.”

Brevi tempore[4] omnia erant parata, iamque [5]quinta hora erat.  Deinde Lentulus et filius ad cauponam properaverunt, quod fame[6] et siti[7] urgebantur.  Ibi sub arboris umbra sederunt et puero imperaverunt ut sibi[8] cibum et vinum daret.  Huic imperio[9] puer celeriter paruit.  Tum laeti se[10] ex labore refecerunt.

Post prandium prefecti sunt ut alia urbis spectacula viderent.  Illo tempore fuerunt Pompeiis[11] multa templa, duo theatra, thermae magnumque amphitheatrum, quae omnia post paucos annos flammis atque incendiis Vesuvi et terrae motu deleta sunt.  Ante hanc calamitatem autem homines [12]nihil de monte veriti sunt.  In amphitheatro quidem Publius morari cupivit ut spectacula gladiatoria videret, quae in[13] illum ipsum diem proscripta erant et iam [14]re vera inceperant.  Sed Lentulus dixit, “Morari, Publi, [15]vereor ut possimus.  Iam decima hora est et via est longa.  Tempus suadet ut quam primum domum revertamur.”  Itaque servo imperavit ut equos iungeret, et solis occasu[16] ad villam pervenerunt.

    [Footnote 1:  We say, this kind of shop; Latin, this kind of
    shops
.]

    [Footnote 2:  ut ... pararemus\, Sec. 501.41.]

    [Footnote 3:  How is ut\ translated after a verb of fearing?  How
    
ne:\?  Cf.  Sec. 501.42.]

Page 159

    [Footnote 4:  tempore\, Sec. 501.35.]

    [Footnote 5:  quinta hora\.  The Romans numbered the hours of the day
    consecutively from sunrise to sunset, dividing the day, whether long
    or short, into twelve equal parts.]

    [Footnote 6:  fame\ shows a slight irregularity in that the abl.
    ending -e is long.]

    [Footnote 7:  sitis\, _thirst_, has -im in the acc. sing., -i in
    the abl. sing., and no plural.]

[Footnote 8:  Observe that the reflexive pronoun sibi\ does not here refer to the subject of the subordinate clause in which it stands, but to the subject of the main clause.  This so-called _indirect_ use of the reflexive is often found in object clauses of purpose.]

    [Footnote 9:  What case?  Cf.  Sec. 501.14.]

    [Footnote 10:  se\, cf. p. 205, l. 7, and note.]

    [Footnote 11:  Pompeiis\, Sec. 501.36.1.]

    [Footnote 12:  nihil ... veriti sunt\, _had no fears of the
    mountain_.]

    [Footnote 13:  in\, _for_.]

    [Footnote 14:  re vera\, _in fact_.]

    [Footnote 15:  vereor ut\, Sec. 501.42.]

    [Footnote 16:  occasu\, Sec. 501.35.]

LXVI.  LENTULUS ENGAGES A TUTOR FOR HIS SON

A primis annis quidem Iulia ipsa filium suum docuerat, et Publius non solum [1]pure et Latine loqui poterat sed etiam commode legebat et scribebat.  Iam Ennium[2] aliosque poetas legerat.  Nunc vero Publius [3]duodecim annos habebat; itaque ei pater bonum magistrum, [4]virum omni doctrina et virtute ornatissimum, paravit, [5]qui Graeca, musicam, aliasque artis doceret. [6]Namque illis temporibus omnes fere gentes Graece loquebantur.  Cum Publio alii pueri, Lentuli amicorum filii,[7] discebant.  Nam saepe apud Romanos mos erat [8]non in ludum filios mittere sed domi per magistrum docere.  Cotidie discipuli cum magistro in peristylo[9] Marci domus sedebant.  Omnes pueri bullam auream, originis honestae signum, in collo gerebant, et omnes toga praetexta amicti erant, [10]quod nondum sedecim annos[11] nati sunt.

    [Footnote 1:  pure ... poterat\, freely, _could speak Latin well_. 
    What is the literal translation?]

    [Footnote 2:  Ennium\, the father of Latin poetry.]

    [Footnote 3:  duodecim ... habebat\, cf. p. 206, l. 8, and note.]

    [Footnote 4:  virum\, etc., _a very well-educated and worthy man_. 
    Observe the Latin equivalent.]

    [Footnote 5:  qui ... doceret\, a relative clause of purpose.  Cf. 
    Secs. 349, 350.]

    [Footnote 6:  In Caesar’s time Greek was spoken more widely in the
    Roman world than any other language.]

    [Footnote 7:  filii\, in apposition with pueri\.]

Page 160

[Footnote 8:  non ... mittere\.  This infinitive clause is the subject of erat\.  Cf.  Sec. 216.  The same construction is repeated in the next clause, domi ... docere\.  The object of docere\ is filios\ understood.]

    [Footnote 9:  The peristyle was an open court surrounded by a
    colonnade.]

    [Footnote 10:  At the age of sixteen a boy laid aside the bulla
    and the toga praetexta and assumed toga virilis or manly gown.]

[Footnote 11:  annos\, Sec. 501.21.  The expression nondum sedecim annos nati sunt\ means literally, they were born not yet sixteen years.  This is the usual expression for age.  What is the English equivalent?]

  [Illustration:  TABULA ET STILUS]

SCENE IN SCHOOL :  AN EXERCISE IN COMPOSITION

DISCIPULI.  Salve, magister. 
MAGISTER.  Vos quoque omnes, salvete. [1]Tabulasne portavistis et
  stilos? 
D. Portavimus. 
M. Iam fabulam Aesopi[2] discemus.  Ego legam, vos in tabulis scribite. 
  Et tu, Publi, da mihi e capsa[3] Aesopi volumen.[4] Iam audite
  omnes:  Vulpes et Uva
Vulpes olim fame coacta uvam dependentem vidit.  Ad uvam saliebat,
  sumere conans.  Frustra diu conata, tandem irata erat et salire
  cessans dixit:  “Illa uva est acerba; acerbam uvam [5]nihil moror.” 
Omnia’ne scripsistis, pueri? 
D. Omnia, magister.

[Footnote 1:  Tablets were thin boards of wood smeared with wax.  The writing was done with a stylus, a pointed instrument like a pencil, made of bone or metal, with a knob at the other end.  The knob was used to smooth over the wax in making erasures and corrections.]

    [Footnote 2:  Aesopi\, the famous Greek to whom are ascribed most of
    the fables current in the ancient world.]

    [Footnote 3:  A cylindrical box for holding books and papers, shaped
    like a hatbox.]

    [Footnote 4:  Ancient books were written on rolls made of papy’rus.]

    [Footnote 5:  nihil moror\, _I care nothing for_.]

LXVII.  PUBLIUS GOES TO ROME TO FINISH HIS EDUCATION

Iamque Publius, [1]quindecim annos natus, [2]primis litterarum elementis confectis, Romam petere voluit ut scholas grammaticorum et philosophorum frequentaret.  Et facillime patri[3] suo, qui ipse philosophiae studio tenebatur, persuasit.  Itaque [4]omnibus rebus ad profectionem comparatis, pater filiusque equis animosis vecti[5] ad magnam urbem profecti sunt.  Eos proficiscentis Iulia totaque familia votis precibusque prosecutae sunt.  Tum per loca[6] plana et collis silvis vestitos viam ingressi sunt ad Nolam, quod oppidum eos hospitio modico excepit.  Nolae[7] duas horas morati sunt, quod sol meridianus ardebat.  Tum recta via[8] circiter viginti milia[9] passuum[9]

Page 161

Capuam,[9] ad insignem Campaniae urbem, contenderunt.  Eo[10] multa nocte defessi pervenerunt. [11]Postridie eius diei, somno et cibo recreati, Capua discesserunt et [13]viam Appiam ingressi, quae Capuam tangit et usque ad urbem Romam ducit, ante meridiem Sinuessam pervenerunt, quod oppidum tangit mare.  Inde prima luce proficiscentes Formias[13] properaverunt, ubi Cicero, orator clarissimus, qui forte apud villam suam erat, eos benigne excepit.  Hinc [14]itinere viginti quinque milium passuum facto, Tarracinam, oppidum in saxis altissimis situm, viderunt.  Iamque non longe aberant paludes magnae, quae multa milia passuum undique patent.  Per eas pedestris via est gravis et in nave viatores vehuntur.  Itaque [15]equis relictis Lentulus et Publius navem conscenderunt, et, una nocte in transitu consumpta, Forum Appi venerunt.  Tum brevi tempore Aricia eos excepit.  Hoc oppidum, in colle situm, ab urbe Roma sedecim milia passuum abest.  Inde declivis via usque ad latum campum ducit ubi Roma stat.  Quem ad locum ubi Publius venit et Romam adhuc remotam, maximam totius orbis terrarum urbem, conspexit, summa admiratione et gaudio adfectus est.  Sine mora descenderunt, et, medio intervallo quam celerrime superato, urbem porta Capena ingressi sunt.

    [Footnote 1:  quindecim\, etc., cf. p. 210, l. 5, and note.]

    [Footnote 2:  primis ... confectis\, abl. abs.  Cf.  Sec. 501.28.]

    [Footnote 3:  patri\, dat. with persuasit\.]

    [Footnote 4:  omnibus ... comparatis\, cf. note 2.]

    [Footnote 5:  vecti\, perf. pass. part. of veho\.]

    [Footnote 6:  What is there peculiar about the gender of this word?]

    [Footnote 7:  Nolae\, locative case, Sec. 501.36.2.]

    [Footnote 8:  via\, cf. porta\, p. 208, l. 7, and note.]

    [Footnote 9:  What construction?]

    [Footnote 10:  Eo\, adv. _there_.]

    [Footnote 11:  Postridie eius diei\, _on the next day_.]

[Footnote 12:  viam Appiam\, the most famous of all Roman roads, the great highway from Rome to Tarentum and Brundisium, with numerous branches.  Locate on the map the various towns that are mentioned in the lines that follow.]

    [Footnote 13:  Formias\, Formiae, one of the most beautiful spots
    on this coast, and a favorite site for the villas of rich Romans.]

    [Footnote 14:  itinere ... facto\, abl. abs.  The gen. milium\
    modifies itinere\.]

    [Footnote 15:  equis relictis\.  What construction?  Point out a
    similar one in the next line.]

  [Illustration:  BULLA]

LXVIII.  PUBLIUS PUTS ON THE TOGA VIRILIS

Page 162

Publius iam totum annum Romae morabatur[1] multaque urbis spectacula viderat et multos sibi[2] amicos paraverat.  Ei[3] omnes favebant; [4]de eo omnes bene sperare poterant.  Cotidie Publius scholas philosophorum et grammaticorum tanto studio frequentabat [5]ut aliis clarum exemplum praeberet.  Saepe erat cum patre in curia[6]; quae res effecit [7]ut summos rei publicae viros et audiret et videret.  Ubi [8]sedecim annos natus est, bullam[9] auream et togam praetextam more Romano deposuit atque virilem togam sumpsit.  Virilis autem toga erat omnino alba, sed praetexta clavum purpureum in margine habebat. [10]Deponere togam praetextam et sumere togam virilem erat res gratissima puero Romano, quod postea vir et civis Romanus habebatur.

[11]His rebus gestis Lentulus ad uxorem suam has litteras scripsit: 

[12]"Marcus Iuliae suae salutem dicit.  Si vales, bene est; ego valeo.  Accepi tuas litteras.  Has nunc Roma per servum fidelissimum mitto ut de Publio nostro quam celerrime scias.  Nam hodie ei togam virilem dedi.  Ante lucem surrexi[13] et primum bullam auream de collo eius removi.  Hac Laribus[14] consecrata et sacris factis, eum toga virili vestivi.  Interim plures amici cum multitudine optimorum civium et honestorum clientium pervenerant [15]qui Publium domo in forum deducerent.  Ibi in civitatem receptus est et nomen, Publius Cornelius Lentulus, apud civis Romanos ascriptum est.  Omnes ei amicissimi fuerunt et magna[16] de eo praedicunt.  Sapientior enim aequalibus[17] est et magnum ingenium habet. [18]Cura ut valeas.”

    [Footnote 1:  morabatur\, translate as if pluperfect.]

    [Footnote 2:  sibi\, _for himself_.]

    [Footnote 3:  Ei\, why dat.?]

    [Footnote 4:  de ... poterant\, in English, _all regarded him as a
    very promising youth;_ but what does the Latin say?]

    [Footnote 5:  ut ... praeberet\, Sec. 501.43.]

    [Footnote 6:  curia\, a famous building near the Roman Forum.]

    [Footnote 7:  ut ... audiret et videret\, Sec. 501.44.]

    [Footnote 8:  sedecim, etc.\, cf. p. 210, l. 5, and note.]

    [Footnote 9:  bullam\, cf. p. 210, l. 3, and note 4.]

    [Footnote 10:  These infinitive clauses are the subject of erat\. 
    Cf.  Sec. 216.]

    [Footnote 11:  His rebus gestis\, i.e. the assumption of the _toga
    virilis_ and attendant ceremonies.]

    [Footnote 12:  Compare the beginning of this letter with the one on
    page 206.]

    [Footnote 13:  surrexi\, from surgo\.]

    [Footnote 14:  The Lares were the spirits of the ancestors, and were
    worshiped as household gods.  All that the house contained was
    confided to their care, and sacrifices were made to them daily.]

    [Footnote 15:  qui ... deducerent\, Sec. 350.]

Page 163

    [Footnote 16:  magna\, _great things_, a neuter adj. used as a
    noun.]

    [Footnote 17:  aequalibus\, Sec. 501.34.]

    [Footnote 18:  Cura ut valeas\, _take good care of your health_.  How
    does the Latin express this idea?]

LXIX.  PUBLIUS JOINS CAESAR’S ARMY IN GAUL

Publius iam adulescens postquam togam virilem sumpsit, aliis rebus studere incepit et praesertim usu[1] armorum se[2] diligenter exercuit.  Magis magisque amavit illas artis quae militarem animum delectant.  Iamque erant [3]qui ei cursum militarem praedicerent.  Nec sine causa, quod certe patris isigne exemplum [4]ita multum trahebat. [5]Paucis ante annis C. Iulius Caesar, ducum Romanorum maximus, consul creatus erat et hoc tempore in Gallia bellum grave gerebat.  Atque in exercitu eius plures adulescentes militabant, apud quos erat amicus quidam Publi.  Ille Publium crebris litteris vehementer hortabatur [6]ut iter in Galliam faceret.  Neque Publius recusavit, et, multis amicis ad portam urbis prosequentibus, ad Caesaris castra profectus est.  Quarto die postquam iter ingressus est, ad Alpis, montis altissimos, pervenit.  His summa difficultate superatis, tandem Gallorum in finibus erat.  Primo autem veritus est ut[7] castris Romanis adpropinquare posset, quod Galli, maximis copiis coactis, Romanos obsidebant et vias omnis iam clauserant.  His rebus commotus Publius vestem Gallicam induit ne a Gallis caperetur, et ita per hostium copias incolumis ad castra pervenire potuit.  Intra munitiones acceptus, a Caesare benigne exceptus est.  Imperator fortem adulescentem amplissimis verbis laudavit et eum [8]tribunum militum creavit.

    [Footnote 1:  Abl. of means.]

    [Footnote 2:  se\, reflexive object of exercuit\.]

    [Footnote 3:  qui ... praedicerent\, Sec. 501.45.]

    [Footnote 4:  ita multum trahebat\, _had a great influence in that
    direction_.]

    [Footnote 5:  Paucis ante annis\, _a few years before_; in Latin,
    _before by a few years_,
ante\ being an adverb and annis\ abl. of
    degree of difference.]

    [Footnote 6:  ut ... faceret\, Sec. 501.41.]

    [Footnote 7:  ut\, how translated here?  See Sec. 501.42.]

    [Footnote 8:  The military tribune was a commissioned officer
    nearly corresponding to our rank of colonel.  The tribunes were often
    inexperienced men, so Caesar did not allow them much responsibility.]

  [Illustration:  IMPEDIMENTA]

HOW THE ROMANS MARCHED AND CAMPED

Page 164

Exercitus qui in hostium finibus bellum genit multis pericuis circumdatus est. [1]Quae pericula ut vitaret, Romani summam curam adhibere solebant.  Adpropinquantees copiis hostium agmen ita disponebant [2]ut imperator ipse cum plaribus legionibus expeditis[3] primum agmen duceret.  Post eas copias impedimenta[4] totius exercitus conlocabant. [5]Tum legiones quae proxime conscriptae erant totum agmen claudebant.  Equites quoque in omnis partis dimittebantur qui loca explorarent; et centuriones praemittebantur ut locum castris idoneum deligerent.  Locus habebatur idoneus castris [6]qui facile defendi posset et prope aquam esset.  Qua de causa castra[7] in colle ab utraque parte arduo, a fronte leniter declivi saepe ponebantur; vel locus paludibus cinctus vel in fluminis ripis situs deligebatur.  Ad locum postquam exercitus pervenit, alii militum [8]in armis erant, alii castra munire incipiebant.  Nam [9]quo tutiores ab hostibus milites essent, neve incauti et imparati opprimerentur, castra fossa lata et vallo alto muniebant.  In castris portae quattuor erant ut eruptio militum omnis in partis fieri posset.  In angulis castrorum erant turres de quibus tela in hostis coniciebantur. [10]Talibus in castris qualia descripsimus Publius a Caesare exceptus est.

    [Footnote 1:  Quae pericula\, object of vitarent\.  It is placed
    first to make a proper connection with the preceding sentence.]

    [Footnote 2:  ut ... duceret\, Sec. 501.43.]

    [Footnote 3:  expeditis\, i.e. without baggage and ready for
    action.]

[Footnote 4:  impedimenta\.  Much of the baggage was carried in carts and on beasts of burden, as is shown above; but, besides this, each soldier (unless expeditus\) carried a heavy pack.  See also picture, p. 159.]

    [Footnote 5:  The newest legions were placed in the rear, because
    they were the least reliable.]

    [Footnote 6:  qui ... posset ... esset\, Sec. 501.45.]

    [Footnote 7:  castra\, subject of ponebantur\.]

    [Footnote 8:  in armis erant\, _stood under arms_.]

    [Footnote 9:  quo ... essent\.  When is quo\ used to introduce a
    purpose clause?  See Sec. 350.I.]

    [Footnote 10:  Talibus in castris qualia\, _in such a camp as_. 
    It is important to remember the correlatives
talis ... qualis\,
    such ... as.]

  [Illustration:  CENTURIO]

LXX.  THE RIVAL CENTURIONS

Page 165

Illis in castris erant duo centuriones,[1] fortissimi viri, T. Pullo et L. Vorenus, quorum neuter alteri virtute[2] cedere volebat.  Inter eos iam multos annos infensum certamen gerebatur.  Tum demum finis controversiae hoc modo[3] factus est.  Die tertio postquam Publius pervenit, hostes, maioribus copiis coactis, acerrimum impetum in castra fecerunt.  Tum Pullo, [4]cum Romani tardiores[5] viderentur, “Cur dubitas,” inquit, “Vorene?  Quam commodiorem occasionem exspectas?  Hic dies de virtute nostra iudicabit.”  Haec[6] cum dixisset, extra munitiones processit et in eam hostium partem quae cofertissima [7]videbatur inrupit.  Neque Vorenus quidem tum vallo[8] sese continet, sed Pullonem subsequitur.  Tum Pullo pilum in hostis immittit atque unum ex multitudine procurrentem traicit.  Hunc percussum et exanimatum hostes scutis protegunt et in Pullonem omnes tela coniciunt.  Eius scutum transfigitur et telum in balteo defigitur.  Hic casus vaginam avertit et dextram manum eius gladium educere conantis[9] moratur.  Eum ita impeditum hostes circumsistunt.

Tum vero [10]ei laboranti Vorenus, cum sit inimicus, tamen auxilium dat.  Ad hunc confestim [11]a Pullone omnis multitudo se convertit.  Gladio comminus pugnat Vorenus, atque, uno interfecto, reliquos paulum propellit.  Sed instans cupidius[12] infelix, [13]pede se fallente, concidit.

Huic rursus circumvento auxilium dat Pullo, atque ambo incolumes, pluribus interfectis, summa cum laude intra munitiones se recipiunt.  Sic inimicorum alter alteri auxilium dedit nec de eorum virtute quisquam iudicare potuit.

[Footnote 1:  A centurion commanded a company of about sixty men.  He was a common soldier who had been promoted from the ranks for his courage and fighting qualities.  The centurions were the real leaders of the men in battle.  There were sixty of them in a legion.  The centurion in the picture (p. 216) has in his hand a staff with a crook at one end, the symbol of his authority.]

    [Footnote 2:  virtute\, Sec. 501.30.]

    [Footnote 3:  Abl. of manner.]

    [Footnote 4:  cum ... viderentur\, Sec. 501.46.]

    [Footnote 5:  tardiores\, _too slow_, a not infrequent translation
    of the comparative degree.]

    [Footnote 6:  Haec\, obj. of dixisset\.  It is placed before cum\
    to make a close connection with the preceding sentence.  What is the
    construction of
dixisset\?]

    [Footnote 7:  videbatur, inrupit\.  Why is the imperfect used in one
    case and the perfect in the other?  Cf.  Sec. 190.]

    [Footnote 8:  vallo\, abl. of means, but in English we should say
    _within the rampart_.  Cf.
ingenti stabulo\, p. 201, l. 13, and
    note.]

    [Footnote 9:  conantis\, pres. part. agreeing with eius\.]

    [Footnote 10:  ei laboranti\, indir. obj. of dat.]

Page 166

    [Footnote 11:  a Pullone\, _from Pullo_, abl. of separation.]

    [Footnote 12:  cupidius\, _too eagerly_.]

    [Footnote 13:  pede se fallente\, lit. _the foot deceiving itself_;
    in our idiom, _his foot slipping_.]

LXXI.  THE ENEMY BESIEGING THE CAMP ARE REPULSED

Cum iam sex horas pugnatum esset[1] ac non solum vires sed etiam tela Romanos deficerent[1], atque hostes acrius instarent,[1] et vallum scindere fossamque complere incepissent,[1] Caesar, vir rei militaris peritissimus, suis imperavit ut proelium paulisper intermitterent,[2] et, signo dato, ex castris erumperent.[2] [3]Quod iussi sunt faciunt, et subito ex omnibus portis erumpunt.  Atque tam celeriter milites concurrerunt et tam propinqui erant hostes[4] ut spatium pila coniciendi[5] non daretur.  Itaque reiectis pilis [6]comminus gladiis pugnatum est.  Diu et audacter hostes restiterunt et in extrema spe salutis tantam virtutem praestiterunt ut a dextro cornu vehementer [7]multitudine suorum aciem Romanam premerent. [8]Id imperator cum animadvertisset, Publium adulescentem cum equitatu misit qui laborantibus[9] auxilium daret.  Eius impetum sustinere non potuerunt hostes[10] et omnes terga verterunt.  Eos in fugam datos Publius subsecutus est usque ad flumen Rhenum, quod ab eo loco quinque milia passuum aberat.  Ibi pauci salutem sibi reppererunt.  Omnibus reliquis interfectis, Publius et equites in castra sese receperunt.  De hac calamitate finitimae gentes cum certiores factae essent, ad Caesarem legatos miserunt et se suaque omnia dediderunt.

    [Footnote 1:  pugnatum esset, deficerent, instarent, incepissent\. 
    These are all subjunctives with
cum\.  Cf.  Sec. 501.46.]

    [Footnote 2:  intermitterent, erumperent\.  What use of the
    subjunctive?]

    [Footnote 3:  Quod\, etc., _they do as ordered_.  The antecedent of
    
quod\ is id\ understood, which would be the object of faciunt\.]

    [Footnote 4:  ut ... daretur\.  Is this a clause of purpose or of
    result?]

    [Footnote 5:  coniciendi\, Sec. 402.]

    [Footnote 6:  comminus gladiis pugnatum est\, _a hand-to-hand
    conflict was waged with swords_.]

    [Footnote 7:  multitudine suorum\, _by their numbers_. suorum\ is
    used as a noun.  What is the literal translation of this expression?]

    [Footnote 8:  Id imperator.  Id\ is the obj. and imperator\ the
    subj. of animadvertisset\.]

    [Footnote 9:  laborantibus\.  This participle agrees with iis\
    understood, the indir. obj. of daret; qui ... daret\ is a purpose
    clause, Sec. 501.40.]

    [Footnote 10:  hostes\, subj. of potuerunt\.]

LXXII.  PUBLIUS GOES TO GERMANY :  ITS GREAT FORESTS AND STRANGE ANIMALS

Page 167

Inita aestate Caesar litteris certior fiebat et per exploratores cognoscebat pluris civitates Galliae novis rebus studere,[1] et contra populum Romanum coniurare[1] obsidesque [2]inter se dare,[1] atque cum his Germanos quosdam quoque sese coniuncturos esse.[1] His litteris nuntiisque commotus Caesar constituit quam celerrime in Gallos proficisci,[3] ut eos inopinantis opprimeret, et Labienum legatum cum duabus legionibus peditum et duobus milibus equitum in Germanos mittere.[3] [4]Itaque re frumentaria comparata castra movit.  Ab utroque[5] res bene gesta est; nam Caesar tam celeriter in hostium finis pervenit ut spatium [6]copias cogendi non daretur[4]; et Labienus de Germanis tam grave supplicium sumpsit ut nemo ex ea gente in reliquum tempus Gallis auxilium dare auderet.[7]

Hoc iter in Germaniam Publius quoque fecit et, [8]cum ibi moraretur, multa mirabilia vidit.  Praesertim vero ingentem silvam mirabatur, quae tantae magnitudinis esse dicebatur [9]ut nemo eam transire posset, nec quisquam sciret aut initium aut finem.  Qua de re plura cognoverat a milite quodam qui olim captus a Germanis multos annos ibi incoluit.  Ille[10] de silva dicens, “Infinitae magnitudinis est haec silva,” inquit; “nee quisquam est [11]huius Germaniae [12]qui initium eius sciat aut ad finem adierit.  Nascuntur illic multa talia animalium genera qualia reliquis in locis non inveniuntur.  Sunt boves qui unum[13] cornu habent; sunt etiam animalia quae appellantur alces.  Hae nullos crurum[14] articulos habent.  Itaque, si forte conciderunt, sese erigere nullo modo possunt.  Arbores habent pro[15] cubilibus; ad eas se applicant atque ita reclinatae quietem capiunt.  Tertium est genus eorum qui uri appellantur.  Hi sunt paulo minores elephantis.[16] Magna vis eorum est et magna velocitas.  Neque homini neque ferae parcunt.[17]”

    [Footnote 1:  Observe that all these infinitives are in indirect
    statements after certior fiebat\, _he was informed_, and
    
cognoscebat\, he learned.  Cf.  Sec. 501.48, 49.]

    [Footnote 2:  inter se\, _to each other_.]

    [Footnote 3:  proficisci, mittere\.  These infinitives depend upon
    
constituit\.]

[Footnote 4:  Before beginning a campaign, food had to be provided.  Every fifteen days grain was distributed.  Each soldier received about two pecks.  This he carried in his pack, and this constituted his food, varied occasionally by what he could find by foraging.]

    [Footnote 5:  Abl. of personal agent, Sec. 501.33.]

    [Footnote 6:  copias cogendi\, Sec. 501.37.1.]

    [Footnote 7:  daretur, auderet\, Sec. 501.43. auderet\ is not from
    audio\.]

    [Footnote 8:  cum ... moraretur\, Sec. 501.46.]

    [Footnote 9:  ut ... posset, ... sciret\, Sec. 501.43.]

    [Footnote 10:  Ille\, subj. of inquit\.]

Page 168

    [Footnote 11:  huius Germaniae\, _of this part of Germany_.]

    [Footnote 12:  qui ... sciat ... adierit\, Sec. 501.45.]

    [Footnote 13:  unum\, _only one_.]

    [Footnote 14:  crurum\, from crus\.]

    [Footnote 15:  pro\, _for, in place of_.]

    [Footnote 16:  elephantis\, Sec. 501.34.]

    [Footnote 17:  parcunt\.  What case is used with this verb?]

  [Illustration:  VINEA]

LXXIII.  THE STORMING OF A CITY

Publius pluris dies in Germania moratus[1] in Galliam rediit, et ad Caesaris castra se contulit.  Ille quia moleste ferebat Gallos[2] eius regionis obsides dare recusavisse et exercitui frumentum praebere noluisse, constituit eis[3] bellum inferre.  Agris vastatis, vicis incensis, pervenit ad oppidum validissimum quod et natura et arte munitum erat.  Cingebatur muro viginti quinque pedes[4] alto.  A lateribus duositum, praerupto fastigio ad planitiem vergegat; a quarto tantum[5] latere aditus erat facilis.  Hoc oppidum oppugnare, [6]cum opus esset difficillimum, tamen constituit Caesar.  Et castris munitis Publio negotium dedit ut res [7]ad oppugnandum necessarias pararet.

Romanorum autem oppugnatio est haec.[8] Primum turres aedificantur quibus milites in summum murum evadere possint[9]; vineae[10] fiunt quibus tecti milites ad murum succedant; plutei[11] parantur post quos milites tormenta[12] administrent; sunt quoque arietes qui murum et portas discutiant.  His omnibus rebus comparatis, deinde [13]agger ab ea parte ubi aditus est facillimus exstruitur et cum vineis ad ipsum oppidum agitur.  Tum turris in aggere promovetur; arietibus qui sub vineis conlocati erant murus et portae discutiuntur; ballistis, catapultis, reliquisque tormentis lapides et tela in oppidum coniciuntur.  Postremo cum iam turris et agger altitudinem muri adaequant et arietes moenia perfregerunt,[14] signo dato milites inruunt et oppidum expugnant.

    [Footnote 1:  moratus\.  Is this part. active or passive in meaning?]

    [Footnote 2:  Gallos\, subj. acc. of the infins. recusavisse\ and
    noluisse\.  The indirect statement depends upon moleste ferebat\.]

    [Footnote 3:  eis\, Sec. 501.15.]

    [Footnote 4:  pedes\, Sec. 501.21.]

    [Footnote 5:  tantum\, adv. _only_.]

    [Footnote 6:  cum ... esset\, a clause of concession, Sec. 501.46.]

    [Footnote 7:  ad oppugnandum\, a gerund expressing purpose.]

    [Footnote 8:  haec\, _as follows_.]

    [Footnote 9:  possint\, subjv. of purpose.  Three similar
    constructions follow.]

Page 169

[Footnote 10:  vineae\.  These vineae\ were wooden sheds, open in front and rear, used to protect men who were working to take a fortification.  They were about eight feet high, of like width, and double that length, covered with raw hides to protect them from being set on fire, and moved on wheels or rollers.]

    [Footnote 11:  plutei\, large screens or shields with small wheels
    attached to them.  These were used to protect besiegers while moving
    up to a city or while serving the engines of war.]

[Footnote 12:  tormenta\.  The engines of war were chiefly the catapult for shooting great arrows, and the ballista, for hurling large stones.  They had a range of about two thousand feet and were very effective.]
[Footnote 13:  The agger\, or mound, was of chief importance in a siege.  It was begun just out of reach of the missiles of the enemy, and then gradually extended towards the point to be attacked.  At the same time its height gradually increased until on a level with the top of the wall, or even higher.  It was made of earth and timber, and had covered galleries running through it for the use of the besiegers.  Over or beside the agger a tower was moved up to the wall, often with a battering-ram (aries) in the lowest story. (See picture, p. 221.)]

    [Footnote 14:  perfregerunt\, from perfringo\.]

  [Illustration:  BALLISTA]

  [Illustration:  TURRES, ARIETES, VINEA]

LXXIV.  THE CITY IS TAKEN :  THE CAPTIVES ARE QUESTIONED

Omnibus rebus necessariis ad oppugnandum a Publio comparatis, deliberatur in concilio quod consilium [1]oppidi expugnandi ineant.[2] Tum unus[3] ex centurionibus, vir rei militaris peritissimus, “Ego suadeo,” inquit, “ut ab ea parte, ubi aditus sit[5] facillimus, aggerem exstruamus[4] et turrim promoveamus[6] atque ariete admoto simul murum discutere conemur.[5]” [6]Hoc consilium cum omnibus placeret, Caesar concilium dimisit.  Deinde milites hortatus ut priores victorias memoria[7] tenerent, iussit aggerem exstrui, turrim et arietem admoveri.  Neque oppidanis[8] consilium defuit.  Alii ignem et omne genus telorum de muro in turrim coniecerunt, alii ingentia saxa in vineas et arietem devolverunt.  Diu utrimque acerrime pugnatum est.  Ne vulnerati quidem pedem rettulerunt.  Tandem, [9]de tertia vigilia, Publius, quem Caesar illi operi[10] praefecerat, nuntiavit partem[11] muri ictibus arietis labefactam concidisse.  Qua re audita Caesar signum dat; milites inruunt et magna cum caede hostium oppidum capiunt.

Postridie eius diei, hoc oppido expugnato, [12]captivorum qui nobilissimi sunt ad imperatorem ante praetorium[13] adducuntur.  Ipse, lorica aurata et paludamento purpureo insignis, captivos per interpretem in hunc modum interrogat:[14] Vos qui estis[15]?

INTERPRES.  Rogat imperator qui sitis.

Page 170

CAPTIVI.  Filii regis sumus.

INTERPRES.  Dicunt se filios esse regis.

IMPERATOR.  Cur mihi tantas iniurias intulistis?

INTERPRES.  Rogat cur sibi tantas iniurias intuleritis.

CAPTIVI.  Iniurias ei non intulimus sed pro patria bellum gessimus.  Semper voluimus Romanis esse amici, sed Romani sine causa nos domo patriaque expellere conati sunt.

INTERPRES. [16]Negant se iniurias tibi intulisse, sed pro patria bellum gessisse. [17]Semper se voluisse amicos Romanis esse, sed Romanos sine causa se domo patriaque expellere conatos esse.

IMPERATOR. [18]Manebitisne in reliquum tempus in fide, hac rebellione condonata?

Tum vero captivi multis cum lacrimis iuraverunt se in fide mansuros esse, et Caesar eos incolumis domum dimisit.

    [Footnote 1:  oppidi expugnandi\.  Is this a gerund or a gerundive
    construction?  Cf.  Sec. 501.37.]

    [Footnote 2:  ineant\.  Sec. 501.50.]

    [Footnote 3:  unus\. subj. of inquit\.]

[Footnote 4:  sit\.  This is a so-called subjunctive by attraction, which means that the clause beginning with ubi\ stands in such close connection with the subjv. clause beginning with ut\, that its verb is attracted into the same mood.]

    [Footnote 5:  All these verbs are in the same construction.]

    [Footnote 6:  Hoc consilium\, subj. of placeret\.  For the order
    cf. Haec cum\, etc., p. 215, l. 22, and note; Id imperator cum\,
    p. 217, l. 8.]

    [Footnote 7:  memoria\, abl. of means.]

    [Footnote 8:  oppidanis\, Sec. 501.15.]

    [Footnote 9:  Between twelve and three o’clock in the morning.  The
    night was divided into four watches.]

    [Footnote 10:  operi\, Sec. 501.15.]

    [Footnote 11:  partem\, subj. acc. of concidisse\.]

    [Footnote 12:  captivorum ... sunt\, _the noblest of the captives_.]

    [Footnote 13:  The general’s headquarters.]

    [Footnote 14:  Study carefully these direct questions, indirect
    questions, and indirect statements.]

    [Footnote 15:  See Plate III, p. 148.]

    [Footnote 16:  Negant\, etc., _they say that they have not_, etc.
    
Negant\ is equivalent to dicunt non\, and the negative modifies
    
intulisse\, but not the remainder of the indirect statement.]

    [Footnote 17:  Semper\, etc., _that they have always_, etc.]

    [Footnote 18:  Manebitisne in fide\, _will you remain loyal?_]

LXXV.  CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT BETWEEN CAESAR AND POMPEY THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA

Ne confecto[1] quidem bello Gallico, [2]bellum civile inter Caesarem et Pompeium exortum est.  Nam Pompeius, qui summum imperium petebat, senatui persuaserat ut Caesarem rei publicae hostem[3] iudicaret et exercitum eius dimitti iuberet.  Quibus cognitis rebus Caesar exercitum suum dimittere recusavit, atque, hortatus milites ut ducem totiens victorem ab inimicorum iniuriis defenderent, imperavit ut se Romam sequerentur.  Summa cum alacritate milites paruerunt, et transito Rubicone[4] initium belli civilis factum est.

Page 171

Italiae urbes quidem omnes fere [5]rebus Caesaris favebant et eum benigne exceperunt.  Qua re commotus Pompeius ante Caesaris adventum Roma excessit et Brundisium[6] pervenit, inde [7]paucis post diebus cum omnibus copiis ad Epirum mare transiit.  Eum Caesar cum septem legionibus et quingentis equitibus secutus est, et insignis inter Caesaris comitatum erat Publius.

Pluribus levioribus proeliis factis, tandem copiae adversae ad Pharsalum[8] in Thessalia sitam castra posuerunt.  Cum Pompei exercitus esset bis tantus quantus Caesaris, tamen erant multi qui veteranas legiones quae Gallos et Germanos superaverant vehementer timebant.  Quos[9] [10]ante proelium commissum Labienus[11] legatus, qui ab Caesare nuper defecerat, ita adlocutus est:  “[12]Nolite existimare hunc esse exercitum veteranorum militum.  Omnibus interfui proeliis[13] neque temere incognitam rem pronuntio.  Perexigua pars illius exercitus qui Gallos superavit adhuc superest.  Magna pars occisa est, multi domum discesserunt, multi sunt relicti in Italia.  Hae copiae quas videtis in [14]citeriore Gallia nuper conscriptae sunt.”  Haec[15] cum dixisset, iuravit se nisi victorem in castra non reversurum esse. [16]Hoc idem Pompeius et omnes reliqui iuraverunt, et magna spe et laetitia, sicut certam ad victoriam, copiae e castris exierunt.

Item Caesar, animo[17] ad dimicandum paratus, exercitum suum eduxit et septem cohortibus [18]praesidio castris relictis copias triplici acie instruxit.  Tum, militibus studio pugnae ardentibus, tuba signum dedit.  Milites procurrerunt et pilis missis gladios strinxerunt.  Neque vero virtus hostibus defuit.  Nam et tela missa sustinuerunt et impetum gladiorum exceperunt et ordines conservaverunt.  Utrimque diu et acriter pugnatum est nec quisquam pedem rettulit.  Tum equites Pompei aciem Caesaris circumire conati sunt.  Quod[19] ubi Caesar animadvertit, tertiam aciem,[20] quae ad id tempus quieta fuerat, procurrere iussit.  Tum vero integrorum impetum[21] defessi hostes sustinere non potuerunt et omnes terga verterunt.  Sed Pompeius de fortunis suis desperans se in castra equo contulit, inde mox cum paucis equitibus effugit.

    [Footnote 1:  With ne:  ... quidem\ the emphatic word stands between
    the two.]

[Footnote 2:  The Civil War was caused by the jealousy and rivalry between Caesar and Pompey.  It resulted in the defeat and subsequent death of Pompey and the elevation of Caesar to the lordship of the Roman world.]

    [Footnote 3:  hostem\, predicate accusative, Sec. 501.22.]

[Footnote 4:  The Rubicon was a small stream in northern Italy that marked the boundary of Caesar’s province.  By crossing it with an armed force Caesar declared war upon Pompey and the existing government.  Caesar crossed the Rubicon early in the year 49 B.C.]

    [Footnote 5:  rebus Caesaris favebant\, _favored Caesar’s side_.  In
    what case is
rebus\?]

Page 172

    [Footnote 6:  Brundisium\, a famous port in southern Italy whence
    ships sailed for Greece and the East.  See map.]

    [Footnote 7:  paucis post diebus\, _a few days later_; literally,
    _afterguards by a few days_.  Cf.
paucis ante annis\, p. 213, l. 12,
    and note.]

    [Footnote 8:  The battle of Pharsalia was fought on August 9, 48 B.C. 
    In importance it ranks as one of the great battles of the world.]

    [Footnote 9:  Quos\, obj. of adlocutus est\.]

    [Footnote 10:  ante proelium commissum\, _before the beginning of
    the battle_.]

[Footnote 11:  Labienus\, Caesar’s most faithful and skillful lieutenant in the Gallic War.  On the outbreak of the Civil War, in 49 B.C., he deserted Caesar and joined Pompey.  His defection caused the greatest joy among the Pompeian party; but he disappointed the expectations of his new friends, and never accomplished anything of importance.  He fought against his old commander in several battles and was slain at the battle of Munda in Spain, 45 B.C.]

    [Footnote 12:  Nolite existimare\, don’t think.]

    [Footnote 13:  proeliis\, Sec. 501.15.]

    [Footnote 14:  citeriore Gallia\.  This name is applied to Cisalpine
    Gaul, or Gaul south of the Alps.]

    [Footnote 15:  Haec\, obj. of dixisset\.]

    [Footnote 16:  Hoc idem\, obj. of iuraverunt\.]

    [Footnote 17:  animo\, Sec. 501.30.]

    [Footnote 18:  praesidio castris\, Sec. 501.17.]

    [Footnote 19:  Quod\, obj. of animadvertit\.]

    [Footnote 20:  aciem\, subj. of procurrere\.]

    [Footnote 21:  impetum\, obj. of sustinere\.]

  [Illustration:  SIGNIFER]

LXXVI.  THE TRIUMPH OF CAESAR

Pompeio amicisque eius superatis atque omnibus hostibus ubique victis, Caesar imperator Romam rediit et [1]extra moenia urbis in campo Martio castra posuit.  Tum vero amplissimis honoribus adfectus est.  Dictator creatus est, et ei triumphus a senatu est decretus. [2]Quo die de Gallis triumphum egit, tanta multitudo hominum in urbem undique confluxit [3]ut omnia loca essent conferta.  Templa patebant, arae fumabant, columnae sertis ornatae erant. [4]Cum vero pompa urbem intraret, quantus hominum fremitus ortus est!  Primum per portam ingressi sunt senatus et magistratus.  Secuti sunt tibicines, signiferi, pedites laurea coronati canentes:  “Ecce Caesar nunc triumphat, qui subegit Galliam,” et “Mille, mille, mille, mille Gallos trucidavimus.”  Multi praedam captarum urbium portabant, arma, omnia belli instrumenta.  Secuti sunt equites, animosis atque splendidissime ornatis equis vecti, inter quos Publius adulescens fortissimus habebatur.  Adducebantur tauri, arietes, [5]qui dis immortalibus immolarentur.  Ita longo agmine progrediens exercitus [6]sacra via per forum in Capitolium perrexit.

Page 173

Imperator ipse cum urbem intraret, undique laeto clamore multitudinis salutatus est.  Stabat in curru aureo quem quattuor albi equi vehebant.  Indutus [7]toga picta, altera manu habenas et lauream tenebat, altera eburneum sceptrum.  Post eum servus in curru stans auream coronam super caput eius tenebat.  Ante currum miserrimi captivi, reges principesque superatarum gentium, catenis vincti, progrediebantur; et viginti quattuor lictores[8] laureatas fascis ferentes et signiferi currum Caesaris comitabantur.  Concludit agmen multitudo captivorum, qui, in servitutem redacti,[9] demisso vultu, vinctis[10] bracchiis, sequuntur; quibuscum veniunt longissimo ordine milites, etiam hi praedam vel insignia militaria ferentes.

  [Illustration:  LICTORES CUM FASCIBUS]

Caesar cum Capitolium ascendisset, in templo Iovi Capitolino sacra fecit.  Simul[11] captivorum qui nobilissimi erant, abducti in carcerem,[12] interfecti sunt.  Sacris factis Caesar de Capitolio descendit et in foro miitibus suis honores militaris dedit eisque pecuniam ex belli praeda distribuit.

His omnibus rebus confectis, Publius Caesarem valere[13] iussit et quam celerrime ad villam contendit ut patrem matremque salutaret.

[14]De rebus gestis P. Corneli Lentuli hactenus.

    [Footnote 1:  A victorious general with his army was not allowed to
    enter the city until the day of his triumph.  A triumph was the
    greatest of all military honors.]

    [Footnote 2:  Quo die\, _on the day that_, abl. of time.]

    [Footnote 3:  ut ... essent\, Sec. 501.43.]

    [Footnote 4:  Cum ... intraret\, Sec. 501.46.]

    [Footnote 5:  qui ... immolarentur\, Sec. 501.40.]

[Footnote 6:  The Sacred Way was a noted street running along one side of the Forum to the base of the Capitoline Hill, on whose summit stood the magnificent temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.  This route was always followed by triumphal processions.]

    [Footnote 7:  The toga picta\ worn by a general in his triumph was a
    splendid robe of Tyrian purple covered with golden stars.  See Plate
    IV, p. 213.]

[Footnote 8:  The lictors were a guard of honor that attended the higher magistrates and made a way for them through the streets.  On their shoulders they carried the fasces, a bundle of rods with an ax in the middle, symbolizing the power of the law.]

    [Footnote 9:  demisso vultu\, _with downcast countenance_.]

    [Footnote 10:  vinctis\, from vincio\.]

    [Footnote 11:  Simul\, etc., _At the same time those of the captives
    who were the noblest._]

    [Footnote 12:  The prison was a gloomy dungeon on the lower slopes of
    the Capitoline Hill.]

    [Footnote 13:  valere iussit\, _bade farewell to_.]

Page 174

    [Footnote 14:  This sentence marks the end of the story.]

APPENDIX I

DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS, ETC.

NOUNS

460. Nouns are inflected in five declensions, distinguished by the final letter of the stem and by the termination of the genitive singular.

FIRST DECLENSION—­A-stems, Gen. Sing. -ae

SECOND DECLENSION—­O-stems, Gen. Sing. -i

THIRD DECLENSION—­Consonant stems and I-stems, Gen. Sing. -is

FOURTH DECLENSION—­U-stems, Gen. Sing. -u:s

FIFTH DECLENSION—­E-stems, Gen. Sing. -e:i or -ei

461. FIRST DECLENSION. A-STEMS

  domina, lady STEM domina- BASE domin-

SINGULAR            PLURAL
TERMINATIONS          TERMINATIONS
Nom.  domina   -a         dominae     -ae
Gen.  dominae  -ae        domina:rum  -a:rum
Dat.  dominae  -ae        domini:s    -i:s
Acc.  dominam  -am        domina:s    -a:s
Abl.  domina:   -a:         domini:s    -i:s

    a. Dea\ and filia\ have the termination -a:bus in the dative
    and ablative plural.

462. SECOND DECLENSION. O-STEMS

    a. MASCULINES IN -us

  dominus, master STEM domino- BASE domin-

SINGULAR             PLURAL
TERMINATIONS            TERMINATIONS
Nom.  dominus   -us        domini:      -i: 
Gen.  domini:    -i:         domino:rum  -o:rum
Dat.  domino:    -o:         domini:s    -i:s
Acc.  dominum   -um        domino:s    -o:s
Abl.  domino:    -o:         domini:s    -i:s

  1.  Nouns in -us of the second declension have the termination -e in
  the vocative singular, as domine\.

  2.  Proper names in -ius, and filius\, end in -i:  in the vocative
  singular, and the accent rests on the penult, as
Vergi’li:, fi:li:\.

    b. NEUTERS IN -um

    pi:lum, spear STEM pi:lo- BASE pi:l-

SINGULAR          PLURAL
TERMINATIONS        TERMINATIONS
Nom.  pi:lum   -um       pi:la      -a
Gen.  pi:li:    -i:        pi:lo:rum  -o:rum
Dat.  pi:lo:    -o:        pi:li:s    -i:s
Acc.  pi:lum   -um       pi:la      -a
Abl.  pi:lo:    -o:        pi:li:s    -i:s

1.  Masculines in -ius and neuters in -ium end in -i:  in the
genitive singular, not in -ii:, and the accent rests on the penult.

c. MASCULINES IN -er AND -ir

puer, boy  ager, field  vir, man
STEMS  puero-       agro-          viro-
BASES  puer-        agr-           vir-
SINGULAR                          TERMINATIONS
Nom.   puer         ager           vir       —­
Gen.   pueri:        agri:           viri:      -i: 
Dat.   puero:        agro:           viro:      -o: 
Acc.   puerum       agrum          virum     -um

Page 175

Abl. puero:  agro:  viro:  -o: 
PLURAL
Nom.   pueri:        agri:           viri:      -i: 
Gen.   puero:rum    agro:rum       viro:rum  -o:rum
Dat.   pueri:s      agri:s         viri:s    -i:s
Acc.   puero:s      agro:s         viro:s    -o:s
Abl.   pueri:s      agri:s         viri:s    -i:s

463. THIRD DECLENSION.

CLASSIFICATION

I. Consonant Stems

  1.  Stems that add -s to the base to form the nominative
     singular:  masculines and feminines only.

  2.  Stems that add no termination in the nominitive singular: 
     a. masculines and feminines; b. neuters.

II. I-Stems.

  Masculines, feminines, and neuters.

464. I. CONSONANT STEMS

1. Nouns that add -s to the base to form the nominative singular:  masculines and feminines only

          pri:nceps, mi:les, m., lapis, m.,
          m., chief soldier stone
  BASES |
  OR | pri:ncip- mi:lit- lapid-
  STEMS |

SINGULAR                               TERMINATIONS
Nom.    pri:nceps      mi:les         lapis        -s
Gen.    pri:ncipis     mi:litis       lapidis      -is
Dat.    pri:ncipi:      mi:liti:        lapidi:       -i: 
Acc.    pri:ncipem     mi:litem       lapidem      -em
Abl.    pri:ncipe      mi:lite        lapide       -e
PLURAL
Nom.    pri:ncipe:s    mi:lite:s      lapide:s     -e:s
Gen.    pri:ncipum     mi:litum       lapidum      -um
Dat.    pri:ncipibus   mi:litibus     lapidibus    -ibus
Acc.    pri:ncipe:s    mi:lite:s      lapide:s     -e:s
Abl.    pri:ncipibus   mi:litibus     lapidibus    -ibus

          re:x, m., iu:dex, m., virtu:s, f.,
          king judge virtue
  BASES |
  OR | re:g- iu:dic- virtu:t-
  STEMS |

SINGULAR                                TERMINATIONS
Nom.    re:x           iu:dex         virtu:s      -s
Gen.    re:gis         iu:dicis       virtu:tis    -is
Dat.    re:gi:          iu:dici:        virtu:ti:     -i: 
Acc.    re:gem         iu:dicem       virtu:tem    -em
Abl.    re:ge          iu:dice        virtu:te     -e
PLURAL
Nom.    re:ge:s        iu:dice:s      virtu:te:s   -e:s
Gen.    re:gum         iu:dicum       virtu:tum    -um
Dat.    re:gibus       iu:dicibus     virtu:tibus  -ibus
Acc.    re:ge:s        iu:dice:s      virtu:te:s   -es
Abl.    re:gibus       iu:dicibus     virtu:tibus  -ibus

NOTE.  For consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf.  Sec. 233.3.

  2. Nouns that have no termination in the nominative singular

    a. MASCULINES AND FEMININES

          co:nsul, m., legio:, f., o:rdo:, pater, m.,
          consul legion m., row father
  BASES |
  OR | consul- legio:n- o:rdin- patr-
  STEMS |

Page 176

SINGULAR                                         TERMINATIONS
Nom.    co:nsul        legio:          o:rdo:         pater      —­
Gen.    co:nsulis      legio:nis      o:rdinis      patris     -is
Dat.    co:nsuli:       legio:ni:       o:rdini:       patri:      -i: 
Acc.    co:nsulem      legio:nem      o:rdinem      patrem     -em
Abl.    co:nsule       legio:ne       o:rdine       patre      -e
PLURAL
Nom.    co:nsule:s     legio:ne:s     o:rdine:s     patre:s    -e:s
Gen.    co:nsulum      legio:num      o:rdinum      patrum     -um
Dat.    co:nsulibus    legio:nibus    o:rdinibus    patribus   -ibus
Acc.    co:nsule:s     legio:ne:s     o:rdine:s     patre:s    -e:s
Abl.    co:nsulibus    legio:nibus    o:rdinibus    patribus   -ibus

NOTE.  For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf.  Sec. 236.1-3.

    b. NEUTERS
          flu:men, tempus, opus, caput,
          n., river n., time n., work n., head
  BASES |
  OR | flu:min- tempor- oper- capit-
  STEMS |

SINGULAR                                         TERMINATIONS
Nom.    flu:men        tempus         opus          caput      —­
Gen.    flu:minis      temporis       operis        capitis     -is
Dat.    flu:mini:       tempori:        operi:         capiti:     -i: 
Acc.    flu:men        tempus         opus          caput      —­
Abl.    flu:mine       tempore        opere         capite     -e
PLURAL
Nom.    flu:mina       tempora        opera         capita     -a
Gen.    flu:minum      temporum       operum        capitum    -um
Dat.    flu:minibus    temporibus     operibus      capitibus  -ibus
Acc.    flu:mina       tempora        opera         capita     -a
Abl.    flu:minibus    temporibus     operibus      capitibus  -ibus

NOTE.  For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf.  Sec. 238.2, 3.

465. II. I-STEMS

a. MASCULINES AND FEMININES

caede:s, f.,  hostis,      urbs, f.,  clie:ns, m.,
slaughter   m., enemy  city     retainer
STEMS  caedi-        hosti-       urbi-      clienti-
BASES  caed-         host-        urb-       client-

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
Nom. caede:s hostis urbs clie:ns -s, -is,
or -e:s
Gen. caedis hostis urbis clientis -is
Dat. caedi:  hosti:  urbi:  clienti:  -i: 
Acc. caedem hostem urbem clientem -em (-im)
Abl. caede hoste urbe cliente -e (-i:)

PLURAL
Nom.   caede:s       hoste:s      urbe:s     cliente:s    -e:s
Gen.   caedium       hostium      urbium     clientium    -ium
Dat.   caedibus      hostibus     urbibus    clientibus   -ibus
Acc.   caedi:s,      hosti:s,     urbi:s,    clienti:s,   -i:s, -e:s
-e:s          -e:s         -e:s       -e:s
Abl.   caedibus      hostibus     urbibus    clientibus   -ibus

1. Avis\, civis\, finis\, ignis\, navis\, have the abl. sing.
in -i:  or -e.

Page 177

2. Turris\ has accusative turrim\ and ablative turri:\ or turre\.

b. NEUTERS

i:nsigne, n.,   animal, n.,     calcar,
decoration    animal        n., spur
STEMS  i:nsigni-       anima:li-       calca:ri-
BASES  i:nsign-        anima:l-        calca:r-
SINGULAR                                    TERMINATIONS
Nom.   i:nsigne        animal          calcar        -e or —­
Gen.   i:nsignis       anima:lis       calca:ris     -is
Dat.   i:nsigni:        anima:li:        calca:ri:      -i: 
Acc.   i:nsigne        animal          calcar        -e or —­
Abl.   i:nsigni:        anima:li:        calca:ri:      -i: 
PLURAL
Nom.   i:nsignia       anima:lia       calca:ria     -ia
Gen.   i:nsignium      anima:lium      calca:rium    -ium
Dat.   i:nsignibus     anima:libus     calca:ribus   -ibus
Acc.   i:nsignia       anima:lia       calca:ria     -ia
Abl.   i:nsignibus     anima:libus     calca:ribus   -ibus

466. THE FOURTH DECLENSION. U-STEMS

adventus, m.,    cornu:, n.,
arrival        horn
STEMS  adventu-         cornu-
BASES  advent-          corn-
TERMINATIONS
SINGULAR                     MASC.      NEUT. 
Nom.   adventus          cornu:       -us        -u: 
Gen.   adventu:s         cornu:s     -u:s       -u:s
Dat.   adventui:  (u:)    cornu:       -ui:  (u:)  -u: 
Acc.   adventum          cornu:       -um        -u: 
Abl.   adventu:           cornu:       -u:         -u: 
PLURAL
Nom.   adventu:s         cornua      -u:s       -ua
Gen.   adventuum         cornuum     -uum       -uum
Dat.   adventibus        cornibus    -ibus      -ibus
Acc.   adventu:s         cornua      -u:s       -ua
Abl.   adventibus        cornibus    -ibus      -ibus

467. THE FIFTH DECLENSION. E-STEMS

die:s, m., day   re:s, f., thing
STEMS  die:-              re:-
BASES  di-                r-
SINGULAR                   TERMINATIONS
Nom.   die:s              re:s      -e:s
Gen.   die:i:              rei:       -e:i:  or -ei: 
Dat.   die:i:              rei:       -e:i:  or -ei: 
Acc.   diem               rem       -em
Abl.   die:                re:        -e: 
PLURAL
Nom.   die:s              re:s      -e:s
Gen.   die:rum            re:rum    -e:rum
Dat.   die:bus            re:bus    -e:bus
Acc.   die:s              re:s      -e:s
Abl.   die:bus            re:bus    -e:bus

468. SPECIAL PARADIGMS

deus,          domus, f.,      vi:s, f.,      iter,
m., god      house         strength     n., way
STEMS  deo-           domu-           vi:- and       iter- and
vi:ri-         itiner-
BASES  de-            dom-            v- and         iter- and
vi:r-          itiner-
SINGULAR
Nom.   deus           domus           vi:s           iter
Gen.   dei:            domu:s          vi:s (rare)    itineris

Page 178

Dat. deo:  domui:, -o:  vi:  (rare) itineri:  Acc. deum domum vim iter Abl. deo:  domo:, -u:  vi:  itinere
PLURAL
Nom.   dei:, di:       domu:s          vi:re:s        itinera
Gen.   deo:rum, deum  domuum, -o:rum  vi:rium        itinerum
Dat.   dei:s, di:s    domibus         vi:ribus       itineribus
Acc.   deo:s          domo:s, -u:s    vi:ri:s, -e:s  itinera
Abl.   dei:s, di:s    domibus         vi:ribus       itineribus

    a. The vocative singular of deus\ is like the nominative.

b. The locative of domus\ is domi:\.

ADJECTIVES

469. FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. O- AND A-STEMS

a. ADJECTIVES IN -us

bonus, good
STEMS bono- m. and n., bona- f. 
BASE bon-

SINGULAR
MASC.       FEM.        NEUT. 
Nom.   bonus      bona       bonum
Gen.   boni:       bonae      boni: 
Dat.   bono:       bonae      bono: 
Acc.   bonum      bonam      bonum
Abl.   bono:       bona:       bono: 
PLURAL
Nom.   boni:       bonae      bona
Gen.   bono:rum   bona:rum   bono:rum
Dat.   boni:s     boni:s     boni:s
Acc.   bono:s     bona:s     bona
Abl.   boni:s     boni:s     boni:s

b. ADJECTIVES IN -er

li:ber, free
STEMS li:bero- m. and n., li:bera:- f. 
BASE li:ber-

SINGULAR
MASC.        FEM.         NEUT. 
Nom.   li:ber       li:bera      li:berum
Gen.   li:beri:       li:berae     li:beri: 
Dat.   li:bero:       li:berae     li:bero: 
Acc.   li:berum     li:beram     li:berum
Abl.   li:bero:       li:bera:       li:bero: 
PLURAL
Nom.   li:beri:       li:berae     li:bera
Gen.   li:bero:rum   li:bera:rum   li:bero:rum
Dat.   li:beri:s     li:beri:s     li:beri:s
Acc.   li:bero:s     li:bera:s     li:bera
Abl.   li:beri:s     li:beri:s     li:beri:s

pulcher, pretty
STEMS pulchro- m. and n., pulchra:- f. 
BASE pulchr-

SINGULAR
MASC.         FEM.          NEUT. 
Nom.   pulcher      pulchra      pulchrum
Gen.   pulchri:       pulchrae     pulchri: 
Dat.   pulchro:       pulchrae     pulchro: 
Acc.   pulchrum     pulchram     pulchrum
Abl.   pulchro:       pulchra:       pulchro: 
PLURAL
Nom.   pulchri:       pulchrae     pulchra
Gen.   pulchro:rum   pulchra:rum   pulchro:rum
Dat.   pulchri:s     pulchri:s     pulchri:s
Acc.   pulchro:s     pulchra:s     pulchra
Abl.   pulchri:s     pulchri:s     pulchri:s

470. THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

alius, another
STEMS alio- m. and n., alia:- f. 
BASE ali-

SINGULAR                    PLURAL
MASC.     FEM.      NEUT.      MASC.       FEM.        NEUT. 
Nom.   alius    alia     aliud     alii:       aliae      alia
Gen.   ali:us   ali:us   ali:us    alio:rum   alia:rum   alio:rum
Dat.   alii:     alii:     alii:      alii:s     alii:s     alii:s
Acc.   alium    aliam    aliud     alio:s     alia:s     alia
Abl.   alio:     alia:     alio:      alii:s     alii:s     alii:s

u:nus, one, only
STEMS u:no- m. and n., u:na:- f. 
BASE u:n-

Page 179

MASC.      FEM.       NEUT.       MASC.       FEM.        NEUT. 
Nom.   u:nus     u:na      u:num      u:ni:       u:nae      u:na
Gen.   u:ni:us   u:ni:us   u:ni:us    u:no:rum   u:na:rum   u:no:rum
Dat.   u:ni:      u:ni:      u:ni:       u:ni:s     u:ni:s     u:ni:s
Acc.   u:num     u:nam     u:num      u:no:s     u:na:s     u:na
Abl.   u:no:      u:na:      u:no:       u:ni:s     u:ni:s     u:ni:s

a. For the complete list see Sec. 108.

471. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. I-STEMS

  I. THREE ENDINGS

a:cer, a:cris, a:cre, keen, eager
STEM a:cri- BASE a:cr-

SINGULAR                     PLURAL
MASC.     FEM.      NEUT.       MASC.       FEM.        NEUT. 
Nom.  a:cer    a:cris   a:cre      a:cre:s    a:cre:s    a:cria
Gen.  a:cris   a:cris   a:cris     a:crium    a:crium    a:crium
Dat.  a:cri:    a:cri:    a:cri:      a:cribus   a:cribus   a:cribus
Acc.  a:crem   a:crem   a:cre      a:cri:s,   a:cri:s,   a:cria
-e:s       -e:s
Abl.  a:cri:    a:cri:    a:cri:      a:cribus   a:cribus   a:cribus

II.  TWO ENDINGS

omnis, omne, every, all
STEM omni- BASE omn-

SINGULAR                  PLURAL
MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT.      MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT. 
Nom.  omnis           omne      omne:s          omnia
Gen.  omnis           omnis     omnium          omnium
Dat.  omni:            omni:      omnibus         omnibus
Acc.  omnem           omne      omni:s, -e:s    omnia
Abl.  omni:            omni:      omnibus         omnibus

  III.  ONE ENDING

        pa:r, equal
        STEM pari- BASE par-

SINGULAR                   PLURAL
MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT.       MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT. 
Nom.  pa:r            pa:r       pare:s          paria
Gen.  paris           paris      parium          parium
Dat.  pari:            pari:       paribus         paribus
Acc.  parem           pa:r       pari:s, -e:s    paria
Abl.  pari:            pari:       paribus         paribus

  1.  Observe that all i-stem adjectives have -i:  in the ablative
  singular.

  [Transcriber’s Note: 
  This sentence appears to be a footnote, but there is no footnote tag
  on the page.]

472. PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLES

        ama:ns, loving
        STEM amanti- BASE amant-

SINGULAR                       PLURAL
MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT.           MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT. 
Nom.  ama:ns          ama:ns         amante:s        amantia
Gen.  amantis         amantis        amantium        amantium
Dat.  amanti:          amanti:         amantibus       amantibus
Acc.  amantem         ama:ns         amanti:s, -e:s  amantia
Abl.  amante, -i:      amante, -i:     amantibus       amantibus

        ie:ns, going
        STEM ienti-, eunti- BASE ient-, eunt-

Nom.  ie:ns           ie:ns          eunte:s          euntia
Gen.  euntis          euntis         euntium          euntium
Dat.  eunti:           eunti:          euntibus         euntibus
Acc.  euntem          ie:ns          eunti:s, -e:s    euntia
Abl.  eunte, -i:       eunte, -i:      euntibus         euntibus

473. REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Page 180

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE MASC.  MASC.  AND FEM.  NEUT.  MASC.  FEM.  NEUT. altus (alto-) altior altius altissimus -a -um li:ber (li:bero-) li:berior li:berius li:berrimus -a -um pulcher (pulchro-) pulchrior pulchrius pulcherrimus -a -um auda:x (auda:ci-) auda:cior auda:cius auda:cissimus -a -um brevis (brevi-) brevior brevius brevissimus -a -um a:cer (a:cri-) a:crior a:crius a:cerrimus -a -um

474. DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES

          altior, higher

SINGULAR                    PLURAL
MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT.        MASC.  AND FEM.    NEUT.
Nom.  altior          altius      altio:re:s       altio:ra
Gen.  altio:ris       altio:ris   altio:rum        altio:rum
Dat.  altio:ri:        altio:ri:    altio:ribus      altio:ribus
Acc.  altio:rem       altius      altio:re:s       altio:ra
Abl.  altio:re        altio:re    altio:ribus      altio:ribus

          plu:s, more

Nom. ——­ plu:s plu:re:s plu:ra Gen. ——­ plu:ris plu:rium plu:rium Dat. ——­ ——­ plu:ribus plu:ribus Acc. ——­ plu:s plu:ri:s (-e:s) plu:ra Abl. ——­ plu:re plu:ribus plu:ribus

475. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

POSITIVE              COMPARATIVE            SUPERLATIVE
bonus, -a, -um,       melior, melius,        optimus, -a, -um,
good                better               best
malus, -a, -um,       peior, peius,          pessimus, -a, -um,
bad                 worse                worst
magnus, -a, -um,      maior, maius,          maximus, -a, -um,
great               greater              greatest
multus, -a, -um,      ——­, plu:s, more    plu:rimus, -a, -um,
much                                        most
parvus, -a, -um,      minor, minus,          minimus, -a, -um,_
small               smaller              smallest
senex, senis,         senior                 maximus na:tu: 
old_
iuvenis, -e,          iu:nior                minimus na:tu: 
young
vetus, veteris,       vetustior, -ius        veterrimus, -a, -um
old
facilis, -e,          facilior, -ius         facillimus, -a, -um
easy
difficilis, -e,       difficilior, -ius      difficillimus, -a, -um
difficult
similis, -e,          similior, -ius         simillimus, -a, -um
similar
dissimilis, -e,       dissimilior, -ius      dissimillimus, -a, -um
dissimilar
humilis, -e, low    humilior, -ius         humillimus, -a, -um
gracilis, -e,         gracilior, -ius        gracillimus, -a, -um
slender
exterus, outward    exterior,              extre:mus, extimus,

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outer, exterior outermost, last i:nferus, below i:nferior, lower i:nfimus, i:mus, lowest posterus, posterior, later postre:mus, postumus, following last superus, above superior, supre:mus, summus, higher highest [[cis, citra:,]] citerior, hither citimus, hithermost [[on this side]] [[in, intra:,]] interior, inner intimus, inmost [[in, within]] [[prae, pro:,]] prior, former pri:mus, first [[before]] [[prope, near]] propior, nearer proximus, next [[ultra:, beyond]] ulterior, further ultimus, furthest

476. REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE ca:re:  (ca:rus), dearly ca:rius ca:rissime:  misere:  (miser), wretchedly miserius miserrime:  a:criter (a:cer), sharply a:crius a:cerrime:  facile (facilis), easily facilius facillime: 

477. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE diu:, long, a long time diu:tius diu:tissime:  bene (bonus), well melius, better optime:, best male (malus), ill peius, worse pessime:, worst magnopere, greatly magis, more maxime:, most multum (multus), much plu:s, more plu:rimum, most parum, little minus, less minime:, least saepe, often saepi:us saepissime: 

478. NUMERALS

The cardinal numerals are indeclinable excepting u:nus\, duo\, tre:s\, the hundreds above one hundred, and mi:lle\ used as a noun.  The ordinals are declined like bonus, -a, -um\.

CARDINALS                     ORDINALS
(How many)                  (In what order)
1,  u:nus, -a, -um,  one        pri:mus, -a, -um       first
2,  duo, duae, duo   two        secundus (or alter)  second
3,  tre:s, tria      three,     tertius                third,
4,  quattuor           etc.       qua:rtus                 etc.
5,  qui:nque                      qui:ntus
6,  sex                           sextus
7,  septem                        septimus
8,  octo:                          octa:vus
9,  novem                         no:nus
10,  decem                         decimus
11,  u:ndecim                      u:ndecimus
12,  duodecim                      duodecimus
13,  tredecim (decem (et) tre:s)   tertius decimus
14,  quattuordecim                 qua:rtus decimus
15,  qui:ndecim                    qui:ntus decimus

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16, se:decim sextus decimus 17, septendecim septimus decimus 18, duode:vi:ginti:  (octo:decim) duode:vi:ce:nsimus 19, u:nde:vi:ginti:  (novendecim) u:nde:vi:ce:nsimus 20, vi:ginti:  vi:ce:nsimus 21, {vi:ginti:  u:nus or {vi:ce:nsimus pri:mus or {u:nus et vi:ginti:, etc. {u:nus et vi:ce:nsimus, etc. 30, tri:ginta:  tri:ce:nsimus 40, quadra:ginta:  quadra:ge:nsimus 50, qui:nqua:ginta:  qui:nqua:ge:nsimus 60, sexa:ginta:  sexa:ge:nsimus 70, septua:ginta:  septua:ge:nsimus 80, octo:ginta:  octo:ge:nsimus 90, no:na:ginta:  no:na:ge:nsimus 100, centum cente:nsimus 101, centum (et) u:nus, etc. cente:nsimus (et) pri:mus, etc. 120, centum (et) vi:ginti:  cente:nsimus vi:ce:nsimus 121, centum (et) vi:ginti:  u:nus, cente:nsimus (et) vi:ce:nsimus etc. pri:mus, etc. 200, ducenti:, -ae, -a ducente:nsimus 300, trecenti:  trecente:nsimus 400, quadringenti:  quadringente:nsimus 500, qui:ngenti:  qui:ngente:nsimus 600, sescenti:  sescente:nsimus 700, septingenti:  septingente:nsimus 800, octingenti:  octingente:nsimus 900, no:ngenti:  no:ngente:nsimus 1000, mi:lle mi:lle:nsimus

479. Declension of duo\, _two_, tre:s\, three, and mi:lle\, _a thousand_.

MASC.      FEM.      NEUT.      M. AND F.   NEUT.      SING.    PLUR. 
N.  duo       duae     duo       tre:s       tri:a     mi:lle  mi:lia
G.  duo:rum   dua:rum  duo:rum   trium       trium     mi:lle  mi:lium
D.  duo:bus   dua:bus  duo:bus   tribus      tribus    mi:lle  mi:libus
A.  duo:s     dua:s    duo       tri:s       tria      mi:lle  mi:lia
or duo  dua:s    duo       or tre:s  tria
A.  duo:bus   dua:bus  duo:bus   tribus      tribus    mi:lle  mi:libus

NOTE. Mi:lle\ is used in the plural as a noun with a modifying genitive, and is occasionally so used in the nominative and accusative singular.  For the declension of u:nus\ cf.  Sec. 470.

PRONOUNS

480. PERSONAL

ego, I tu:, you sui:, of himself,
etc.
SING.  PLUR.  SING.  PLUR.  SING.  PLUR. 
Nom. ego no:s tu:  vo:s ——­ ——­
Gen. mei:  nostrum, -tri:  tui:  vestrum, -tri:  sui:  sui: 
Dat. mihi no:bi:s tibi vo:bi:s sibi sibi
Acc. me:  no:s te:  vo:s se:, se:,
se:se:  se:se: 
Abl. me:  no:bi:s te:  vo:bi:s se:, se:,
se:se:  se:se: 

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Note that sui:\ is always reflexive.

481. DEMONSTRATIVE

Demonstratives belong to the first and second declensions, but have the pronominal endings -i:us or -ius and -i:  in the gen. and dat. sing.

ipse, self

SINGULAR                       PLURAL
MASC.      FEM.       NEUT.       MASC.       FEM.        NEUT. 
Nom. ipse      ipsa      ipsum      ipsi:       ipsae      ipsa
Gen. ipsi:’us  ipsi:’us  ipsi:’us   ipso:rum   ipsa:rum   ipso:rum
Dat. ipsi:      ipsi:      ipsi:       ipsi:s     ipsi:s     ipsi:s
Acc. ipsum     ipsam     ipsum      ipso:s     ipsa:s     ipsa
Abl. ipso:      ipsa:      ipso:       ipsi:s     ipsi:s     ipsi:s

       hic, this (here), he

Nom. hic       haec      hoc        hi:         hae        haec
Gen. huius     huius     huius      ho:rum     ha:rum     ho:rum
Dat. huic      huic      huic       hi:s       hi:s       hi:s
Acc. hunc      hanc      hoc        ho:s       ha:s       haec
Abl. ho:c      ha:c      ho:c       hi:s       hi:s       hi:s

       iste, this, that (of yours), he

Nom. iste      ista      istud      isti:       istae      ista
Gen. isti:’us  isti:’us  isti:’us   isto:rum   ista:rum   isto:rum
Dat. isti:      isti:      isti:       isti:s     isti:s     isti:s
Acc. istum     istam     istud      isto:s     ista:s     ista
Abl. isto:      ista:      isto:       isti:s     isti:s     isti:s

       ille, that (yonder), he

Nom. ille      illa      illud      illi:       illae      illa
Gen. illi:’us  illi:’us  illi:’us   illo:rum   illa:rum   illo:rum
Dat. illi:      illi:      illi:       illi:s     illi:s     illi:s
Acc. illum     illam     illud      illo:s     illa:s     illa
Abl. illo:      illa:      illo:       illi:s     illi:s     illi:s

       is, this, that, he

Nom. is        ea        id         ii:, ei:     eae         ea
Gen. eius      eius      eius       eo:rum      ea:rum      eo:rum
Dat. ei:        ei:        ei:         ii:s, ei:s  ii:s, ei:s  ii:s, ei:s
Acc. eum       eam       id         eo:s        ea:s        ea
Abl. eo:        ea:        eo:         ii:s, ei:s  ii:s, ei:s  ii:s, ei:s

i:dem, the same

Nom. i:dem e’adem idem ii:’dem eae’dem e’adem
ei:’dem
Gen. eius’dem eius’dem eius’dem eo:run’dem ea:run’dem eo:run’dem
Dat. ei:’dem ei:’dem ei:’dem ii:s’dem ii:s’dem ii:s’dem
ei:s’dem ei:s’dem ei:s’dem
Acc. eun’dem ean’dem idem eo:s’dem ea:s’dem e’adem
Abl. eo:’dem ea:’dem eo:’dem ii:s’dem ii:s’dem ii:s’dem
ei:s’dem ei:s’dem ei:s’dem

NOTE.  In the plural of is\ and i:dem\ the forms with two i’s are preferred, the two i’s being pronounced as one.

482. RELATIVE

        qui:, who, which, that

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SINGULAR                  PLURAL
MASC.    FEM.     NEUT.      MASC.      FEM.       NEUT. 
Nom.  qui:     quae    quod      qui:       quae      quae
Gen.  cuius   cuius   cuius     quo:rum   qua:rum   quo:rum
Dat.  cui     cui     cui       quibus    quibus    quibus
Acc.  quem    quam    quod      quo:s     qua:s     quae
Abl.  quo:     qua:     quo:       quibus    quibus    quibus

483. INTERROGATIVE

        quis, substantive, who, what

SINGULAR                 PLURAL
MASC. & FEM.   NEUT.       MASC.      FEM.       NEUT. 
Nom.  quis          quid       qui       quae      quae
Gen.  cuius         cuius      quo:rum   qua:rum   quo:rum
Dat.  cui           cui        quibus    quibus    quibus
Acc.  quem          quid       quo:s     qua:s     quae
Abl.  quo:           quo:        quibus    quibus    quibus

The interrogative adjective qui:, quae, quod\, is declined like the relative.

484. INDEFINITES

quis\ and qui:\, as declined above,[1] are used also as indefinites (some, any).  The other indefinites are compounds of quis\ and qui:\.

        quisque, each

SUBSTANTIVE                ADJECTIVE
MASC. & FEM.   NEUT.         MASC.        FEM.         NEUT. 
Nom.  quisque       quidque      quisque     quaeque     quodque
Gen.  cuius’que     cuius’que    cuius’que   cuius’que   cuius’que
Dat.  cuique        cuique       cuique      cuique      cuique
Acc.  quemque       quidque      quemque     quamque     quodque
Abl.  quo:que       quo:que      quo:que     qua:que     quo:que

    [Footnote 1:  qua\ is generally used instead of quae\ in the
    feminine nominative singular and in the neuter nominative and
    accusative plural.]

485. qui:dam, a certain one, a certain

Observe that in the neuter singular the adjective has quoddam\ and the substantive quiddam\.

SINGULAR
MASC.         FEM.          NEUT. 
Nom.  qui:dam      quaedam      quoddam, quiddam (subst.)
Gen.  cuius’dam    cuius’dam    cuius’dam
Dat.  cuidam       cuidam       cuidam
Acc.  quendam      quandam      quoddam, quiddam (subst.)
Abl.  quo:dam      qua:dam      quo:dam

        PLURAL
  Nom. qui:dam quaedam quaedam
  Gen. quo:run’dam qua:run’dam quo:run’dam
  Dat. quibus’dam quibus’dam quibus’dam
  Acc. quo:sdam qua:sdam quaedam
  Abl. quibus’dam quibus’dam quibus’dam

486. quisquam\, substantive, _any one_ (at all)

MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT. 
Nom.  quisquam        quicquam (quidquam)
Gen.  cuius’quam      cuius’quam
Dat.  cuiquam         cuiquam
Acc.  quemquam        quicquam (quidquam)
Abl.  quo:quam        quo:quam

487. aliquis\, substantive, _some one_. aliqui:\, adjective, some

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SINGULAR
SUBSTANTIVE                  ADJECTIVE
MASC.  AND FEM.   NEUT.         MASC.        FEM.         NEUT. 
Nom.  aliquis         aliquid      aliqui:      aliqua      aliquod
Gen.  alicu’ius       alicu’ius    alicu’ius   alicu’ius   alicu’ius
Dat.  alicui          alicui       alicui      alicui      alicui
Acc.  aliquem         aliquid      aliquem     aliquam     aliquod
Abl.  aliquo:          aliquo:       aliquo:      aliqua:      aliquo: 

        PLURAL FOR BOTH SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE
        MASC.  FEM.  NEUT. 
  Nom. aliqui:  aliquae aliqua
  Gen. aliquo:’rum aliqua:’rum aliquo:’rum
  Dat. ali’quibus ali’quibus ali’quibus
  Acc. aliquo:s aliqua:s aliqua
  Abl. ali’quibus ali’quibus ali’quibus

a. quis\ (qui:\), any one, any, is the least definite (Sec. 297.b). aliquis\ (aliqui:\), some one, some, is more definite than quis\. quisquam\, any one (at all), and its adjective u:llus\, _any_, occur mostly with a negative, expressed or implied, and in clauses of comparison.

REGULAR VERBS

_488._ FIRST CONJUGATION. _A_-VERBS. _AMO:_

  PRINCIPAL PARTS amo:, ama:re, ama:vi:, ama:tus
  PRES.  STEM ama:- PERF.  STEM ama:v- PART.  STEM ama:t-

  ACTIVE PASSIVE
  INDICATIVE
  PRESENT
  I love, am loving, I am loved, etc.
    do love, etc.
  amo:  ama:mus amor ama:mur
  ama:s ama:tis ama:ris, -re ama:mini: 
  amat amant ama:tur amantur

  IMPERFECT
  I loved, was loving, I was loved, etc.
    did love, etc.
  ama:bam ama:ba:mus ama:bar ama:ba:mur
  ama:ba:s ama:ba:tis ama:ba:ris, -re ama:ba:mini: 
  ama:bat ama:bant ama:ba:tur ama:bantur

FUTURE I shall love, etc. I shall be loved, etc. ama:bo:  ama:bimus ama:bor ama:bimur ama:bis ama:bitis ama:beris, -re ama:bimini:  ama:bit ama:bunt ama:bitur ama:buntur

  PERFECT
  I have loved, loved, I have been (was) loved, etc.
    did love, etc.
  ama:vi ama:vimus ama:tus, {sum ama:ti:, {sumus
  ama:visti:  ama:vistis -a, -um {es -ae, -a {estis
  ama:vit ama:ve:runt, -re {est {sunt

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PLUPERFECT I had loved, etc. I had been loved, etc. ama:veram ama:vera:mus ama:tus, {eram ama:ti:, {era:mus ama:vera:s ama:vera:tis -a, -um {era:s -ae, -a {era:tis ama:verat ama:verant {erat {erant
FUTURE PERFECT I shall have loved, etc. I shall have been loved, etc. ama:vero:  ama:verimus ama:tus, {ero:  ama:ti:, {erimus ama:veris ama:veritis -a, -um {eris -ae, -a {eritis ama:verit ama:verint {erit {erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT amem ame:mus amer ame:mur ame:s ame:tis ame:ris, -re ame:mini:  amet ament ame:tur amentur
IMPERFECT ama:rem ama:remus ama:rer ama:re:mur ama:re:s ama:re:tis ama:re:ris, -re ama:re:mini:  ama:ret ama:rent ama:re:tur ama:rentur
PERFECT ama:verim ama:verimus ama:tus, {sim ama:ti:, {si:mus ama:veris ama:veritis -a, -um {si:s -ae, -a {si:tis ama:verit ama:verint {sit {sint
PLUPERFECT ama:vissem ama:visse:mus ama:tus, {essem ama:ti:, {esse:mus ama:visse:s ama:visse:tis -a, -um {esse:s -ae, -a {esse:tis ama:visset ama:vissent {esset {essent
IMPERATIVE PRESENT ama:, love thou ama:re, be thou loved ama:te, love ye ama:mini:, be ye loved
FUTURE ama:to:, thou shalt love ama:tor, thou shalt be loved ama:to:, he shall love ama:tor, he shall be loved ama:to:te, you shall love ——­ amanto:, they shall love amantor, they shall be loved

INFINITIVE
Pres. ama:re, to love ama:ri:, to be loved
Perf. ama:visse, ama:tus, -a, -um esse,
to have loved to have been loved
Fut. ama:tu:rus, -a, -um [[ama:tum i:ri:]], to be about to be
esse,
to be_ loved_
about to love

PARTICIPLES
Pres. ama:ns, -antis, Pres. ——­
loving
Fut. ama:tu:rus, -a, -um, Gerundive[1] amandus, -a, -um, to be
about to love_ loved_
Perf. ——­ Perf. ama:tus, -a, -um,
having been loved, loved

GERUND
Nom. ——­
Gen. amandi:, of loving
Dat. amando:, for loving
Acc. amandum, loving
Abl. amando:, by loving

SUPINE (Active Voice)
Acc. [[ama:tum]], to love
Abl. [[ama:tu:]], to love, in the loving

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    [Footnote 1:  Sometimes called the future passive participle.]

489. SECOND CONJUGATION. E:-VERBS. MONEO:

  PRINCIPAL PARTS moneo:, mone:re, monui:, monitus
  PRES.  STEM mone:- PERF.  STEM monu- PART.  STEM monit-

ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT I advise, etc., I am advised, etc. moneo:  mone:mus moneor mone:mur mone:s mone:tis mone:ris, -re mone:mini:  monet monent mone:tur monentur
IMPERFECT I was advising, etc., I was advised, etc. mone:bam mone:ba:mus mone:bar mone:ba:mur mone:ba:s mone:ba:tis mone:ba:ris, -re mone:ba:mini:  mone:bat mone:bant mone:ba:tur mone:ba:ntur
FUTURE I shall advise, etc., I shall be advised, etc. mone:bo:  mone:bimus mone:bor mone:bimur mone:bis mone:bitis mone:beris, -re mone:bimini:  mone:bit mone:bunt mone:bitur mone:buntur

  PERFECT
  I have advised, I have been (was) advised, etc.
    I advised, etc.
  monui:  monuimus {sum {sumus
  monuisti:  monuistis monitus, {es moniti:, {estis
  monuit monue:runt, -re -a, -um {est -ae, -a {sunt

  PLUPERFECT
  I had advised, etc., I had been advised, etc.

monueram    monuera:mus                 {eram              {era:mus
monuera:s   monuera:tis        monitus, {eras     moniti:, {eratis
monuerat    monuerant          -a, -um  {erat     -ae, -a  {erant

  FUTURE PERFECT
  I shall have advised, I shall have been advised, etc.
     etc.
  monuero:  monuerimus {ero:  {erimus
  monueris monueri:tis monitus, {eris moniti:, {eritis
  monuerit monueri:nt -a, -um {erit -ae, -a {erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT moneam monea:mus monear monea:mur monea:s monea:tis monea:ris, -re monea:mini:  moneat moneant monea:tur moneantur
IMPERFECT mone:rem mone:re:mus mone:rer mone:re:mur mone:re:s mone:re:tis mone:re:ris, -re mone:re:mini:  mone:ret mone:rent mone:re:tur mone:rentur
PERFECT monuerim monuerimus {sim {si:mus monueris monueritis monitus, {si:s moniti:, {si:tis monuerit monuerint -a, -um {sit -ae, -a {sint
PLUPERFECT monuissem monuisse:mus

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{essem {esse:mus monuisse:s monuisse:tis monitus, {esse:s moniti:, {esse:tis monuisset monuissent -a, -um {esset -ae, -a {essent
IMPERATIVE PRESENT mone:, advise thou mone:re, be thou advised mone:te, advise ye mone:mini:, be ye advised

FUTURE
mone:to:, thou shall mone:tor, thou shalt be advised
advise
mone:to:, he shall advise mone:tor, he shall be advised
mone:to:te, you shall advise ——­
monento:, they shall monentor, they shall be advised
advise

INFINITIVE
Pres. mone:re, to advise mone:ri:, to be advised
Perf. monuisse, to have monitus, -a, -um esse,
advised to have been advised
Fut. monitu:rus, -a, -um [[monitum i:ri:]],
esse, to be to be about to be advised
about to advise

PARTICIPLES
Pres. mone:ns, -entis, Pres. ——­
advising
Fut. monitu:rus, -a, -um, Ger. monendus, -a, -um,
about to advise to be advised
Perf. ——­ Perf. monitus, -a, -um,
having been advised, advised

GERUND
Nom. ——­
Gen. monendi:, of advising
Dat. monendo:, for advising
Acc. monendum, advising
Abl. monendo:, by advising

SUPINE (Active Voice)
Acc. [[monitum]], to advise
Abl. [[monitu:]], to advise, in the advising

490. THIRD CONJUGATION. E-VERBS. REGO:

  PRINCIPAL PARTS rego:, regere, rexi:, re:ctus
  PRES.  STEM rege- PERF.  STEM re:x- PART.  STEM re:ct-

ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT I rule, etc. I am ruled, etc. rego:  regimus re’gor re’gimur regis regitis re’geris, -re regi’mini:  regit regunt re’gitur regun’tur
IMPERFECT I was ruling, etc. I was ruled, etc. rege:bam rege:ba:mus rege:’bar rege:ba:’mur rege:ba:s rege:ba:tis rege:ba:’ris, -re rege:ba:’mini:  rege:bat rege:bant rege:ba:’tur rege:ban’tur
FUTURE I shall rule, etc. I shall be ruled, etc. regam rege:mus re’gar rege:’mur rege:s rege:tis rege:’ris, -re rege:’mini:  reget regent rege:’tur regen’tur
PERFECT I have ruled, etc. I have been ruled, etc. re:xi:  re:ximus {sum

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{sumus re:xisti:  re:xistis re:ctus, {es re:cti:, {estis re:xit re:xe:runt, -re -a, -um {est -ae, -a {sunt
PLUPERFECT I had ruled, etc. I had been ruled, etc. re:xeram re:xera:mus {eram {era:mus re:xera:s re:xera:tis re:ctus, {eras re:cti:, {era:tis re:xerat re:xerant -a, -um {erat -ae, -a {erant
FUTURE PERFECT I shall have ruled, etc. I shall have been ruled, etc. re:xero:  re:xerimus {ero:  {erimus re:xeris re:xeritis re:ctus, {eris re:cti:, {eritis re:xerit re:xerint -a, -um {erit -ae, -a {erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT regam rega:mus regar rega:mur rega:s rega:tis rega:ris, -re rega:mini:  regat regant rega:tur regantur
IMPERFECT regerem regere:mus regerer regere:mur regere:s regere:tis regere:ris, -re regere:mini:  regeret regerent regere:tur regerentur
PERFECT re:xerim re:xerimus {sim {si:mus re:xeris re:xeritis re:ctus, {si:s re:cti, {si:tis re:xerit re:xerint -a, -um {sit -ae, -a {sint
PLUPERFECT re:xissem re:xisse:mus {essem {esse:mus re:xisse:s re:xisse:tis re:ctus, {esse:s re:cti, {esse:tis re:xisset re:xissent -a, -um {esset -ae, -a {essent
IMPERATIVE PRESENT rege, rule thou regere, be thou ruled regite, rule ye regimini:, be ye ruled
FUTURE regito:, thou shalt rule regitor, thou shalt be ruled regito:  he shall rule regitor, he shall be ruled regito:te, ye shall rule ——­ regunto:, they shall rule reguntor, they shall be ruled

INFINITIVE
Pres. regere, to rule regi:, to be ruled
Perf. re:xisse, to have re:ctus, -a, -um esse,
ruled to have been ruled
Fut. re:ctu:rus, -a, -um [[re:ctum i:ri:]],
esse, to be to be about to be ruled
about to rule

PARTICIPLES
Pres. rege:ns, -entis, Pres. ——­
ruling
Fut. re:ctu:rus, -a, -um, Ger. regendus, -a, -um, to be ruled
about to rule
Perf. ——­ Perf. re:ctus, -a, -um,
having been ruled, ruled

GERUND
Nom. ——­
Gen. regendi:, of ruling
Dat. regendo:, for ruling
Acc. regendum, ruling
Abl. regendo:, by ruling

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SUPINE (Active Voice)
Acc. [[re:ctum]], to rule
Abl. [[re:ctu:]], to rule, in the ruling

491. FOURTH CONJUGATION. I:-VERBS. AUDIO:

  PRINCIPAL PARTS audio:, audi:re, audi:vi:, audi:tus
  PRES.  STEM audi:- PERF.  STEM audi:v- PART.  STEM audi:t-

ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT I hear, etc. I am heard, etc. audio:  audi:mus au’dior audi:’mur audi:s audi:tis audi:’ris, -re audi:’mini:  audit audiunt audi:’tur audiun’tur
IMPERFECT I was hearing, etc. I was heard, etc. audie:bam audie:ba:mus audie:’bar audie:ba:’mur audie:ba:s audie:ba:tis audie:ba:’ris, -re audie:ba:’mini:  audie:bat audie:bant audie:ba:’tur audie:ban’tur
FUTURE I shall hear, etc. I shall be heard, etc. audiam audie:mus au’diar audie:’mur audie:s audie:tis audie:’ris, -re audie:’mini:  audiet audient audie:’tur audien’tur
PERFECT I have heard, etc. I have been heard, etc. audi:vi:  audi:vimus {sum {sumus audi:visti:  audi:vistis audi:tus, {es audi:ti:, {estis audi:vit audi:ve:runt, -re -a, -um {est -ae, -a {sunt
PLUPERFECT I had heard, etc. I had been heard, etc. audi:veram audi:vera:mus {eram {era:mus audi:vera:s audi:vera:tis audi:tus, {eras audi:ti:, {era:tis audi:verat audi:verant -a, -um {erat -ae, -a {erant
FUTURE PERFECT I shall have heard, etc. I shall have been heard, etc. audi:vero:  audi:verimus {ero:  {erimus audi:veris audi:veritis audi:tus, {eris audi:ti:, {eritis audi:verit audi:verint -a, -um {erit -ae, -a {erunt
SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT audiam audia:mus audiar audia:mur audia:s audia:tis audia:ris, -re audia:mini:  audiat audiant audia:tur audiantur
IMPERFECT audi:rem audi:re:mus audi:rer audi:re:mur audi:re:s audi:re:tis audi:re:ris, -re audi:re:mini:  audi:ret audi:rent audi:re:tur audi:rentur
PERFECT audi:verim audi:verimus {sim {si:mus audi:veris audi:veritis audi:tus, {si:s audi:ti, {si:tis audi:verit audi:verint -a, -um {sit -ae, -a {sint

Page 191

PLUPERFECT audi:vissem audi:visse:mus {essem {esse:mus audi:visse:s audi:visse:tis audi:tus, {esse:s audi:ti, {esse:tis audi:visset audi:vissent -a, -um {esset -ae, -a {essent
IMPERATIVE PRESENT PRESENT audi:, hear thou audi:re, be thou heard audi:te, hear ye audi:mini:, be ye heard
FUTURE audi:to:, thou shalt hear audi:tor, thou shalt be heard audi:to:  he shall hear audi:tor, he shall be heard audi:to:te, ye shall hear ——­ audunto:, they shall hear audiuntor, they shall be heard

INFINITIVE
Pres. audi:re, to hear audi:ri:, to be heard
Perf. audi:visse, audi:tus, -a, -um esse,
to have heard to have been heard
Fut. audi:tu:rus, -a, -um [[audi:tum i:ri:]],
esse, to be to be about to be heard
about to hear

PARTICIPLES
Pres. audie:ns, -entis, Pres. ——­
hearing
Fut. audi:tu:rus, -a, -um, Ger. audiendus, -a, -um,
about to hear to be heard
Perf. ——­ Perf. audi:tus, -a, -um,
having been heard, heard

GERUND
Nom. ——­
Gen. audiendi:, of hearing
Dat. audiendo:, for hearing
Acc. audiendum, hearing
Abl. audiendo:, by hearing

SUPINE (Active Voice)
Acc. [[audi:tum]], to hear
Abl. [[audi:tu]], to hear, in the hearing

492. THIRD CONJUGATION.  VERBS IN _-IO:_. CAPIO:

  PRINCIPAL PARTS capio:, capere, ce:pi:, captus
  PRES.  STEM cape- PERF.  STEM ce:p- PART.  STEM capt-

ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT capio:  capimus ca’pior ca’pimur capis capitis ca’peris, -re capi’mini:  capit capiunt ca’pitur capiun’tur
IMPERFECT capie:bam capiebamus capie:’bar capie:ba:’mur capie:bas capie:ba:tis capie:ba’ris, -re capie:ba:’mini:  capie:bat capie:bant capie:ba:’tur capieban’tur
FUTURE capiam capie:mus ca’piar capie:’mur capie:s capie:tis capie:’ris, -re capie:’mini:  capiet capient capie:’tur capien’tur

  PERFECT
  ce:pi:, ce:pisti:, ce:pit, etc. captus, -a, -um sum, es, est, etc.

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PLUPERFECT
ce:peram, ce:pera:s, ce:perat,    captus, -a, -um  eram, era:s, erat,
etc.                                               etc.
FUTURE PERFECT
ce:pero:, ce:peris, ce:perit,     captus, -a, -um  ero:, eris, erit,
etc.                                               etc.

  SUBJUNCTIVE
  PRESENT
  capiam, capia:s, capiat, capiar, -ia:ris, -re, -ia:tur, etc.
    etc
  IMPERFECT
  caperem, capere:s, caperet, caperer, -ere:ris, -re, -ere:tur,
    etc. etc
  PERFECT
  ce:perim, ce:peris, ce:perit, captus, -a, -um sim, si:s, sit,
    etc. etc
  PLUPERFECT
  ce:pissem, ce:pisse:s, captus, -a, -um essem, esse:s,
    ce:pisset, etc. esset, etc.

  IMPERATIVE
  PRESENT
  2d Pers. cape capite capere capimini: 

FUTURE
2d Pers.   capito:   capito:te     capitor  ——­
3rd Pers.  capito:   capiunto:      capitor  capiuntor
INFINITIVE
Pres. capere capi: 
Perf. ce:pisse captus, -a, -um esse
Fut. captu:rus, -a, -um [[captum i:ri:]]

                  esse

PARTICIPLES
Pres.  capie:ns, -ientis         Pres.  ——­
Fut.   captu:rus, -a, -um        Ger.   capiendus, -a, -um
Perf.  ——­                      Perf.  captus, -a, -um

GERUND
Gen. capiendi:  etc.

SUPINE (Active Voice)
Acc. [[captum]]
Abl. [[captu:]]

493. DEPONENT VERBS

  [Transcriber’s Note: 
  Asterisks in this section are from the original text ("marked with a
  star").]

  PRINCIPAL PARTS

    I. hortor, horta:ri:, horta:tus sum, urge
   II. vereor, vere:ri:, veritus sum, fear
  III. sequor, sequi:, secu:tus sum, follow
   IV. partior, parti:ri:, parti:tus sum, share, divide

NOTE.  In addition to the passive conjugation, deponent verbs use certain forms from the active.  These are marked with a star.  Deponent -io:  verbs of the third conjugation are inflected like the passive of capio:.

INDICATIVE
Pres.  hortor           vereor         sequor          partior
horta:ris, -re   vere:ris, -re  sequeris, -re   parti:ris, -re
horta:tur        vere:tur       sequitur        parti:tur
horta:mur        vere:mur       sequimur        parti:mur
horta:mini:       vere:mini:      sequimini:       parti:mini: 
hortantur        verentur       sequuntur       partiuntur
Impf.  horta:bar        vere:bar       seque:bar       partie:bar
Fut.   horta:bor        vere:bor       sequar          partiar
Perf.  horta:tus sum    veritus sum    secu:tus sum    parti:tus sum
Plup.  horta:tus eram   veritus eram   secu:tus eram   parti:tus eram

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F. P. horta:tus ero:  veritus ero:  secu:tus ero:  parti:tus ero: 
SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. horter verear sequar partiar
Impf. horta:rer vere:rer sequerer parti:rer
Perf. horta:tus sim veritus sim secu:tus sim parti:tus sim
Plup. horta:tus essem veritus essem secu:tus essem parti:tus essem

IMPERATIVE
Pres.  horta:re         vere:re        sequere         parti:re
Fut.   horta:tor        vere:tor       sequitor        parti:tor
INFINITIVE
Pres.  horta:ri:         vere:ri:        sequi:           parti:ri: 
Perf.  horta:tus esse   veritus esse   secu:tus esse   parti:tus esse
Fut.   horta:tu:rus     veritu:rus     secu:tu:rus     parti:tu:rus
esse             esse           esse            esse
PARTICIPLES
Pres.  horta:ns         vere:ns        seque:ns        partie:ns
Fut.   horta:turus      veritu:rus     secu:tu:rus     parti:tu:rus
Perf.  horta:tus        veritus        secu:tus        parti:tus
Ger.   hortandus        verendus       sequendus       partiendus
GERUND
hortandi:, etc.         verendi:, etc.
sequendi:, etc.         partiendi:, etc.
SUPINE
[[horta:tus, -tu:]]     [[veritum, -tu:]]
[[secu:tum, -tu:]]      [[parti:tum, -tu:]]

IRREGULAR VERBS

494. sum, am, be

  PRINCIPAL PARTS sum, esse, fui:, futu:rus
  PRES.  STEM es- PERF.  STEM fu- PART.  STEM fut-

INDICATIVE PRESENT SINGULAR PLURAL sum, I am sumus, we are es, thou art estis, you are est, he (she, it) is sunt, they are
IMPERFECT eram, I was era:mus, we were era:s, thou wast era:tis, you were erat, he was erant, they were
FUTURE ero:, I shall be erimus, we shall be eris, thou wilt be eritis, you will be erit, he will be erunt, they will be

  PERFECT
  fui:, I have been, was fuimus, we have been, were
  fuisti:, thou hast been, wast fuistis, you have been, were
  fuit, he has been, was fue:runt, fue:re, they have been,
          
                                              were

PLUPERFECT fueram, I had been fuera:mus, we had been fuera:s, thou hadst been fuera:tis, you had been fuerat, he had been fuerant, they had been
FUTURE PERFECT fuero:, I shall have been fuerimus, we shall have been fueris, thou wilt have been fueritis, you

Page 194

will have been
fuerit, he will have been fuerint, they will have been
SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT IMPERFECT SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL sim si:mus essem esse:mus si:s si:tis esse:s esse:tis sit sint esset essent
PERFECT PLUPERFECT fuerim fuerimus fuissem fuisse:mus fueris fueritis fuisse:s fuisse:tis fuerit fuerint fuisset fuissent
IMPERATIVE PRESENT 2d Pers.  Sing. es, be thou 2d Pers.  Plur. este, be ye FUTURE 2d Pers.  Sing. esto:, thou shalt be 3d Pers.  Sing. esto:, he shall be 2d Pers.  Plur. esto:te, ye shall be 3d Pers.  Plur. sunto:, they shall be

  INFINITIVE
  Pres. esse, to be
  Perf. fuisse, to have been
  Fut. futu:rus, -a, -um esse or fore, to be about to be

PARTICIPLE
futu:rus, -a, -um, about to be

495. possum, be able, can

PRINCIPAL PARTS possum, posse, potui:, ——­

INDICATIVE                 SUBJUNCTIVE
SINGULAR   PLURAL          SINGULAR    PLURAL
Pres.  possum     pos’sumus       possim      possi:’mus
potes      potes’tis       possi:s     possi:’tis
potest     possunt         possit      possint
Impf.  poteram    potera:mus      possem      posse:’mus
Fut.   potero:     poterimus       ——­        ——­
Perf.  potui:      potuimus        potuerim    potuerimus
Plup.  potueram   potuera:mus     potuissem   potuisse:mus
F. P.  potuero:    potuerimus      ——­        ——­

INFINITIVE
Pres. posse
Perf. potuisse

PARTICIPLE
Pres. potens, gen. -entis, (adjective) powerful

496. pro:sum, benefit

PRINCIPAL PARTS pro:sum, pro:desse, pro:fui:, pro:futu:rus
PRES.  STEM pro:des- PERF.  STEM pro:fu- PART.  STEM pro:fut-

INDICATIVE                     SUBJUNCTIVE
SINGULAR      PLURAL           SINGULAR     PLURAL
Pres.  pro:sum       pro:’sumus       pro:sim      pro:si:’mus
pro:des       pro:des’tis      pro:si:s     pro:si:’tis
pro:dest      pro:sunt         pro:sit      pro:sint
Impf.  pro:deram     pro:dera:mus     pro:dessem   prodesse:’mus
Fut.   pro:dero:      pro:derimus      ——­         ——­
Perf.  pro:fui:       pro:fuimus       pro:fuerim   pro:fuerimus
Plup.  pro:fueram    pro:fuera:mus    pro:fuissem  pro:fuisse:mus
F. P.  pro:fuero:     pro:fuerimus     ——­         ——­

IMPERATIVE
Pres. 2d Pers. pro:des, pro:deste
Fut. 2d Pers. pro:desto:, pro:desto:te

  INFINITIVE
  Pres. pro:desse
  Perf. pro:fuisse
  Fut. pro:futu:rus, -a, -um esse

  FUTURE PARTICIPLE pro:futu:rus, -a, -um

497. [ volo:, no:lo:, ma:lo:]

Page 195

PRINCIPAL PARTS:  volo:, velle, volui:, ——­, be willing, will, wish no:lo:, no:lle, no:lui:, ——­, be unwilling, will not ma:lo:, ma:lle, ma:lui:, ——­, be more willing, prefer

No:lo:\ and ma:lo:\ are compounds of volo:\. No:lo:\ is for ne\ (_not_) + volo:\, and ma:lo:\ for ma:\ (from magis\, _more_) + volo:\.  The second person vi:s\ is from a different root.

INDICATIVE
SINGULAR
Pres.  volo:              no:lo:               ma:lo: 
vi:s              no:n vis            ma:vi:s
vult              no:n vult           ma:vult
PLURAL volumus no:lumus ma:lumus vultis no:n vultis ma:vul’tis volunt no:lunt ma:lunt
Impf.  vole:bam          no:le:bam           ma:le:bam
Fut.   volam, vole:s,    no:lam, no:le:s,    ma:lam, ma:le:s,
etc.              etc.                etc. 
Perf.  volui:             no:lui:              ma:lui: 
Plup.  volueram          no:lueram           ma:lueram
F. P.  voluero:           no:luero:            ma:luero: 
SUBJUNCTIVE
SINGULAR
Pres.  velim             no:lim              ma:lim
veli:s            no:li:s             ma:li:s
velit             no:lit              ma:lit
PLURAL veli:’mus no:li:’mus ma:li:’mus veli:’tis no:li:’tis ma:li:’tis velint no:lint ma:lint
Impf.  vellem            no:llem             ma:llem
Perf.  voluerim          no:luerim           ma:luerim
Plup.  voluissem         no:luissem          ma:luissem

IMPERATIVE
Pres. no:li: 
no:li:te
Fut. no:li:to:, etc.

INFINITIVE
Pres.  velle             no:lle              ma:lle
Perf.  voluisse          no:luisse           ma:luisse

PARTICIPLE
Pres. vole:ns, -entis no:le:ns, -entis ——­

498. fero:, bear, carry, endure

  PRINCIPAL PARTS fero:, ferre, tuli:, la:tus
  PRES.  STEM fer- PERF.  STEM tul- PART.  STEM la:t-

INDICATIVE
ACTIVE                     PASSIVE
Pres. fero:      ferimus          feror        ferimur
fers      ferti:s          ferris, -re  ferimimi: 
fert      ferunt           fertur       feruntur
Impf. fere:bam                   fere:bar
Fut.  feram, fere:s, etc.        ferar, fere:ris, etc. 
Perf. tuli:                       la:tus, -a, -um sum
Plup. tuleram                    la:tus, -a, -um eram
F. P. tulero:                     la:tus, -a, -um ero: 
SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. feram, fera:s, etc.        ferar, fera:ris, etc. 
Impf. ferrem                     ferrer
Perf. tulerim                    la:tus, -a, -um sim
Plup. tulissem                   la:tus, -a, -um essem

  IMPERATIVE
  Pres. 2d Pers. fer ferte ferre ferimini: 
  Fut. 2d Pers. ferto:  ferto:te fertor
       3d Pers. ferto:  ferunto fertor feruntor

Page 196

INFINITIVE
Pres. ferre                       ferri: 
Perf. tulisse                     la:tus, -a, -um esse
Fut.  la:tu:rus, -a, -um esse     ——­
PARTICIPLES
Pres.  fere:ns, -entis            Pres.  ——­
Fut.   la:tu:rus, -a, -um         Ger.   ferendus, -a, -um
Perf.  ——­                       Perf.  la:tus, -a, -um

  GERUND
  Gen. ferendi: 
  Dat. ferendo: 
  Acc. ferendum
  Abl. ferendo: 

  SUPINE (Active Voice)
  Acc. [[la:tum]]
  Abl. [[la:tu:]]

499. eo:, go

  PRINCIPAL PARTS eo:, i:re, ii:  (i:vi:), itum (n. perf. part.)
  PRES.  STEM i:-
  PERF.  STEM i:- or i:v-
  PART.  STEM it-

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE
SING.  PLUR. 
Pres. eo:  i:mus eam 2d Pers. i:  i:te
i:s i:tis
it eunt
Impf. i:bam i:rem
Fut. i:bo:  ——­ 2d Pers. i:to:  i:to:te
3d Pers. i:to:  eunto: 
Perf. ii:  (i:vi:) ierim (i:verim)
Plup. ieram (i:veram) i:ssem (i:vissem)
F. P. iero:  (i:vero:)

INFINITIVE
Pres. i:re
Perf. i:sse (i:visse)
Fut. itu:rus, -a, -um esse

PARTICIPLES
Pres. ie:ns, gen. euntis (Sec. 472)
Fut. itu:rus, -a, -um
Ger. eundum

  GERUND
  Gen. eundi: 
  Dat. eundo: 
  Acc. eundum
  Abl. eundo: 

  SUPINE
  Acc. [[itum]]
  Abl. [[itu:]]

    a. The verb eo:\ is used impersonally in the third person
    singular of the passive, as
i:tur\, itum est\, _etc._

b. In the perfect system the forms with v\ are very rare.

500. fi:o:\, passive of facio:\; be made, become, happen

PRINCIPAL PARTS fi:o:, fieri:, factus sum

INDICATIVE                SUBJUNCTIVE    IMPERATIVE
Pres.  fi:o:      ——­     fi:am          2d Pers. fi:       fi:te
fi:s      ——­
fit       fi:unt
Impf.  fi:e:bam           fierem
Fut.   fi:am              ——­
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perf. factus, -a, -um sum factus, -a, -um sim
Plup. factus, -a, -um eram factus, -a, -um essem
F. P. factus, -a, -um ero: 

INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES
Pres. fieri:  Perf. factus, -a, -um
Perf. factus, -a, -um esse Ger. faciendus, -a, -um
Fut. [[factum i:ri:]]

  [Illustration:  CASTRA MURO FOSSAQUE MUNIUNTUR]

APPENDIX II

501. RULES OF SYNTAX

NOTE.  The rules of syntax are here classified and numbered consecutively.  The number of the text section in which the rule appears is given at the end of each.

Nominative Case

Page 197

  1. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative and answers the
  question Who? or What?  Sec. 36.

Agreement

  2. A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its
  subject.  Sec. 28.

  3. A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb. 
  Sec. 76.

  4. An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains. 
  Sec. 81.

  5. Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. 
  Sec. 65.

  6. A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive
  agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb. 
  Sec. 215.a.

  7. A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and
  number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own
  clause.  Sec. 224.

Prepositions

  8. A noun governed by a preposition must be in the accusative or
  ablative case.  Sec. 52.

Genitive Case

  9. The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the
  genitive and answers the question Whose?  Sec. 38.

  10. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate,
  especially after the forms of sum\, and is then called the _predicate
  genitive_.  Sec. 409.

  11. Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the
  whole, known as the partitive genitive.  Sec. 331.

  12. Numerical descriptions of measure are expressed by the genitive
  with a modifying adjective.  Sec. 443.

Dative Case

  13. The indirect object of a verb is in the dative.  Sec. 45.

  14. The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive
  verbs credo\, faveo\, noceo\, pareo\, persuadeo\, resisto\,
  studeo\, and others of like meaning.  Sec. 154.

15. Some verbs compounded with ad\, ante\, con\, de\, in\, inter\, ob\, post\, prae\, pro\, sub\, super\, admit the dative of the indirect object.  Transitive compounds may take both an accusative and a dative.  Sec. 426.
16. The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed.  Such are, especially, those meaning near, also fit, friendly, pleasing, like, and their opposites.  Sec. 143.

  17. The dative is used to denote the purpose or end for which;
  often with another dative denoting the person or thing affected
  Sec. 437.

Accusative Case

  18. The direct object of a transitive verb is in the accusative and
  answers the question Whom? or What?  Sec. 37.

Page 198

  19. The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative.  Sec. 214.

  20. The place to which is expressed by ad\ or in\ with the
  accusative.  Before names of towns, small islands, domus\, and rus\
  the preposition is omitted.  Secs. 263, 266.

  21. Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the
  accusative.  Sec. 336.

  22. Verbs of making, choosing, calling, showing, and the like, may
  take a predicate accusative along with the direct object.  With the
  passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives.  Sec. 392.

Ablative Case

  23. Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition.  This
  answers the question Because of what?  Sec. 102.

  24. Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition.  This
  answers the question By means of what? or With what?  Sec. 103.

  25. Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with cum\.  This
  answers the question With whom?  Sec. 104.

  26. The ablative with cum\ is used to denote the manner of an
  action.
Cum\ may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the
  ablative.  This answers the question How? or In what manner?  Sec. 105.

  27. With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is
  used to denote the measure of difference.  Sec. 317.

  28. The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect
  participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance. 
  This is called the ablative absolute.  Sec. 381.

  29. 1.  Descriptions of physical characteristics are expressed by the
    ablative with a modifying adjective.  Sec. 444.

    2.  Descriptions involving neither numerical statements nor physical
    characteristics may be expressed by either the genitive or the
    ablative with a modifying adjective.  Sec. 445.

  30. The ablative is used to denote in what respect something is
  true.  Sec. 398.

31. The place from which is expressed by a\ or ab\, de:\, e:\ or ex\ with the separative ablative.  This answers the question Whence?  Before names of towns, small islands, domus\, and rus\ the preposition is omitted.  Secs. 264, 266.

  _32._ Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative
  to complete their meaning.  This is called the _ablative of
  separation_.  Sec. 180.

  33. The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when
  not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition a\ or
  
ab\.  This is called the ablative of the personal agent.  Sec. 181.

  34. The comparative degree, if quam\ is omitted, is followed by the
  separative ablative.  Sec. 309.

Page 199

  35. The time when or within which anything happens is expressed by
  the ablative without a preposition.  Sec. 275.

  36. 1.  The place at or in which is expressed by the ablative with
    in\.  This answers the question Where?  Before names of towns, small
    islands, and
rus\ the preposition is omitted.  Secs. 265, 266.

    2.  Names of towns and small islands, if singular and of the first or
    second declension, and the word domus\ express the _place in which_
    by the locative.  Sec. 268.

Gerund and Gerundive

  37. 1.  The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive,
    dative, accusative, and ablative singular.  The constructions of
    these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns.  Sec.
    406.1.

2.  The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition.  Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual.  Sec. 406.2.

  38. The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with ad\, or the
  genitive with
causa\, is used to express purpose.  Sec. 407.

Moods and Tenses of Verbs

  39. Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses, and secondary by
  secondary.  Sec. 358.

  40. The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the
  purpose of the action in the principal clause.  Sec. 349.

41. A substantive clause of purpose with the subjunctive is used as object with verbs of commanding, urging, asking, persuading, or advising, where in English we should usually have the infinitive.  Sec. 366.

  42. Verbs of fearing are followed by a substantive clause of
  purpose introduced by ut\ (_that not_) or ne:\ (that or lest). 
  Sec. 372.

  43. Consecutive clauses of result are introduced by ut\ or ut
  non\, and have the verb in the subjunctive.  Sec. 385.

  44. Object clauses of result with ut\ or ut non\ are found after
  verbs of effecting or bringing about.  Sec. 386.

  45. A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe
  an antecedent.  This is called the subjunctive of characteristic or
  description
.  Sec. 390.

  46. The conjunction cum\ means _when, since_, or _although_.  It is
  followed by the subjunctive unless it means _when_ and its clause
  fixes the time at which the main action took place.  Sec. 396.

  47. When a direct statement becomes indirect, the principal verb is
  changed to the infinitive, and its subject nominative becomes subject
  accusative of the infinitive.  Sec. 416.

Page 200

  48. The accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect
  statements is found after verbs of saying, telling, knowing,
  thinking
, and perceiving.  Sec. 419.

49. A present indicative of a direct statement becomes present infinitive of the indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect infinitive, and a future indicative becomes future infinitive.  Sec. 418.

  50. In an indirect question the verb is in the subjunctive and its
  tense is determined by the law for tense sequence.  Sec. 432.

  [Illustration:  DOMINA]

APPENDIX III

REVIEWS[1]

    [Footnote 1:  It is suggested that each of these reviews be assigned
    for a written test.]

  [Transcriber’s Note: 
  In this Review section, the lists of English words for translation may
  not be in the same order as in the original.]

I. REVIEW OF VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR THROUGH LESSON VIII

502. Give the English of the following words:[1]

NOUNS
agricola      gallina\
ancilla        iniuria
aqua\         insula\
casa\         luna\
causa\        nauta\
cena          pecunia\
corona\        puella
dea\          pugna\
domina        sagitta\
fabula        silva\
fera\         terra\
filia\        tuba\
fortuna\      via\
fuga\         victoria\
ADJECTIVES alta\ magna\ bona\ mala\ clara\ nova\ grata\ parva\ lata\ pulchra\ longa\ sola\
VERBS
amat          necat\
dat\          nuntiat\
est\          parat\
habitat       portat\
laborat\      pugnat\
laudat\       sunt\
narrat        vocat\
PREPOSITIONS a:\ or ab\ ad\ cum\ de\ e:\ or ex\ in\
PRONOUNS mea\ tua\ quis\ cuius\ cui\ quem\ quid\
ADVERBS cur\ deinde\ non\ ubi\

  CONJUNCTIONS
  
et\
   quia
  quod\

  INTERROGATIVE
  PARTICLE
  /-ne\

    [Footnote 1:  Proper nouns and proper adjectives are not repeated in
    the reviews.  Words used in Cassar’s “Gallic War” are in heavy type.]

503. Give the Latin of the following words:[1]

Underline the words you do not remember.  Do not look up a single word till you have gone through the entire list.  Then drill on the words you have underlined.

Page 201

flight                      wide
story                         tells
new                         money
lives (verb)                 calls
away from                   with
who                         your
why                         then, in the next place
forest                      daughter
wreath                      to whom
deep, high                  fortune
dinner                       famous
out from                    labors (verb)
my                          kills
where                       not
trumpet                     in
lady, mistress               and
whom                        sailor
island                       farmer
goddess                     what
wild beast                  way
praises (verb)              bad
alone                        loves
pleasing                    pretty
prepares                    water
are                         great
to                          is
because                     announces
arrow                       injury, wrong
cottage                     battle (noun)
gives                       small
girl                         fights (verb)
good                         maid
carries                     down from
chicken                     long
victory                     cause
land                        whose

    [Footnote 1:  The translations of words used in Caesar are in
    italics.]

504. Review Questions.  How many syllables has a Latin word?  How are words divided into syllables?  What is the ultima? the penult? the antepenult?  When is a syllable short?  When is a syllable long?  What is the law of Latin accent?  Define the subject of a sentence; the predicate; the object; the copula.  What is inflection? declension? conjugation?  What is the ending of the verb in the third person singular, and what in the plural?  What does the form of a noun show?  Name the Latin cases.  What case is used for the subject? the direct object? the possessor?  What relation is expressed by the dative case?  Give the rule for the indirect object.  How are questions answered in Latin?  What is a predicate adjective? an attributive adjective?  What is meant by agreement?  Give the rule for the agreement of the adjective.  What are the three relations expressed by the ablative?  What can you say of the position of the possessive pronoun? the modifying genitive? the adjective?  What is the base?  What is grammatical gender?  What is the rule for gender in the first declension?  What are the general principles of Latin word order?

505. Fill out the following summary of the first declension: 

Page 202

  THE FIRST OR A-DECLENSION
  1.  Ending in the nominative singular
  2.  Rule for gender
  3.  Case terminations
      a.  Singular
      b.  Plural
  4.  Irregular nouns

II.  REVIEW OF LESSONS IX-XVII

506. Give the English of the following words: 

NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION
agri cultura\    galea\
constantia\      inopia\
copia\           lacrima\
diligentia\      lorica\
fama\            patria\
femina           praeda\
NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION ager\ liberi\ amicus\ magister arma\ (plural) murus\ auxilium\ numerus\ bellum\ oppidanus\ carrus\ oppidum\ castrum\ pilum\ cibus\ populus\ consilium\ praemium\ domicilium\ proelium\
 dominus puer\
equus\ scutum\ filius\ servus\
 fluvius
studium\
frumentum\ telum\ gladius\ vicus\ legatus\ vir\
ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS aeger, aegra, aegrum\ alius, alia, aliud\ alter, altera, alterum\ armatus, -a, -um\ creber, crebra, crebrum\ durus, -a, -um\ finitimus, -a, -um\ infirmus, -a, -um\ legionarius, -a, -um\ liber, libera, liberum\ maturus, -a, -um\ meus, -a, -um\ miser, misera, miserum\ multus, -a, -um\ neuter, neutra, neutrum\ noster, nostra, nostrum\ nullus, -a, -um\ pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum\ solus, -a, -um\ suus, -a, -um\ totus, -a, -um\ tuus, -a, -um\ ullus, -a, -um\ unus, -a, -um\ uter, utra, utrum\
 validus, -a, -um
vester, vestra, vestrum\

  VERBS
   arat
  curat\
  
desiderat\
  maturat\
  
properat\

  DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN
  is, ea, id\

CONJUNCTIONS an\ -que\ sed\

  ADVERBS
  
iam\
   quo
  saepe\

  PREPOSITION
  apud\

507. Give the Latin of the following words: 

sword                 shield (noun)
corselet              whole
man                   it
your (plural)         aid (noun)
hasten                legionary
but                   weak
among                 arms
tear (noun)            master (of school)
village               friend
strong                 neighboring
long for              sick
and (enclitic)        lieutenant
often                 field
want (noun)           report, rumor
which (of two)        abode
care for              boy

Page 203

or (in a question) his own whither alone wagon prize (noun) townsman master (owner) wretched carefulness ripe plenty war troops number plan (noun) my people free (adj.) beautiful children no (adj.) wall our grain battle weapon spear one food plow (verb) steadiness this or that fatherland already town helmet fort river camp zeal neither (of two) any much he agriculture son other slave the other (of two) your (singular) hard she booty woman frequent horse armed

508. Review Questions.  How many declensions are there?  What three things must be known about a noun before it can be declined?  What three cases of neuter nouns are always alike, and in what do they end in the plural?  What two plural cases are always alike?  When is the vocative singular not like the nominative?  What is a predicate noun?  With what does it agree?  What is an appositive?  Give the rule for the agreement of an appositive.  How can we tell whether a noun in -er is declined like puer\ or like ager\?  Decline bonus\, liber\, pulcher\.  How can we tell whether an adjective in -er is declined like liber\ or like pulcher\?  Why must we say nauta bonus\ and not nauta bona\?  Name the Latin possessive pronouns.  How are they declined?  With what does the possessive pronoun agree?  When do we use tuus\ and when vester\?  Why is suus\ called a reflexive possessive?  What is the non-reflexive possessive of the third person?  When are possessives omitted?  What four uses of the ablative case are covered by the relations expressed in English by with?  Give an illustration in Latin of the ablative of manner; of the ablative of cause; of the ablative of means; of the ablative of accompaniment.  What ablative regularly has cum\?  What ablative sometimes has cum\?  What uses of the ablative never have cum\?  Name the nine pronominal adjectives, with their meanings.  Decline alius\, nullus\.  Decline is\.  What does is\ mean as a demonstrative adjective or pronoun?  What other important use has it?

509. Fill out the following summary of the second declension: 

Page 204

  THE SECOND OR O-DECLENSION
  1.  Endings in the nominative
  2.  Rule for gender
  3.  Case terminations of nouns in -us
          a.  Singular
          b.  Plural
      a.  The vocative singular of nouns in -us
  4.  Case terminations of nouns in -um
          a.  Singular
          b.  Plural
  5.  Peculiarities of nouns in -er and -ir
  6.  Peculiarities of nouns in -ius and -ium

III.  REVIEW OF LESSONS XVIII-XXVI

510. Give the English of the following words: 

NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION disciplina\ regina forma\ superbia poena\ tristitia\ potentia\

  NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION
   ludus
  
ornamentum\
   sacrum
  socius\
  
verbum\

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS amicus\ iratus antiquus\ laetus\ finitimus\ molestus\ gratus\ perpetuus\ idoneus\ proximus\ inimicus\ septem\ interfectus\ superbus\

  ADVERBS
   hodie
  
ibi\
  maxime\
   mox
  
nunc\
  nuper\

  CONJUNCTIONS
  etiam\
  
non solum ... sed etiam\

  PERSONAL PRONOUN
  ego\

  VERBS
    CONJ.  I
     volo, -are

CONJ.  II deleo, -ere\ noceo, -ere\ doceo, -ere\ pareo, -ere\ faveo, -ere\ persuadeo, -ere\ habeo, -ere\ sedeo, -ere iubeo, -ere\ studeo, -ere\ moneo, -ere\ video, -ere\ moveo, -ere\
CONJ.  III ago, -ere\ fugio, -ere\ capio, -ere\ iacio, -ere\ credo, -ere\ mitto, -ere\ dico, -ere\ rapio, -ere duco, -ere\ rego, -ere\ facio, -ere\ resisto, -ere\
CONJ.  IV audio, -ire\ munio, -ire\ reperio, -ire\ venio, -ire\

    IRREGULAR VERB
    
sum, esse\

511. Give the Latin of the following words.  In the case of verbs always give the first form and the present infinitive.

ancient                power
come                   make, do
resist                 injure
see                    now
be                     annoying
fly                     lead
I                      move
proud                   soon
word                   glad
sadness                punishment
find                   believe
rule (verb)            advise
be eager for           especially, most of all
not only ... but also     angry
seven                  beauty

Page 205

ally, companion say pride command (verb) fortify there send slain sit training also take school have hear to-day hurl unfriendly persuade drive only favor (verb) nearest suitable sacred rite pleasing queen teach flee neighboring obey destroy lately friendly constant seize ornament

512. Review Questions.  What is conjugation?  Name two important differences between conjugation in Latin and in English.  What is tense?  What is mood?  What are the Latin moods?  When do we use the indicative mood?  Name the six tenses of the indicative.  What are personal endings?  Name those you have had.  Inflect sum in the three tenses you have learned.  How many regular conjugations are there?  How are they distinguished?  How is the present stem found?  What tenses are formed from the present stem?  What is the tense sign of the imperfect?  What is the meaning of the imperfect?  What is the tense sign of the future in the first two conjugations? in the last two?  Before what letters is a final long vowel of the stem shortened?  What are the three possible translations of a present, as of pugno?  Inflect aro, sedeo, mitto, facio, and venio, in the present, imperfect, and future active.  What forms of -io verbs of the third conjugation are like audio? what like rego?  Give the rule for the dative with adjectives.  Name the special intransitive verbs that govern the dative.  What does the imperative mood express?  How is the present active imperative formed in the singular? in the plural?  What three verbs have a shortened present active imperative?  Give the present active imperative of porto, deleo, ago, facio, munio.

IV.  REVIEW OF LESSONS XXVII-XXXVI

513. Give the English of the following words: 

NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION ala\ cura\ mora\ porta\ provincia\ vita\

  NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION
  animus\ navigium\
   aurum oraculum
  bracchium\ periculum\
  deus\ ventus\
  locus\ vinum\
   monstrum

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS adversus\ dubius\ attentus maximus\ carus\ perfidus commotus\ plenus\ defessus\ saevus dexter\ sinister\
ADVERBS antea\ ita\ celeriter\ longe\ denique\

Page 206

semper\ diu\ subito\ frustra\ tamen\ graviter\ tum\
CONJUNCTIONS autem\ si\ ubi\
PREPOSITIONS de\ per\ pro\ sine\
VERBS
CONJ.  I
adpropinquo\    servo\
navigo\         sto\
occupo\         supero\
postulo\        tempto\
recuso\         vasto\
reporto\        vulnero\
CONJ.  II contineo\ egeo\ prohibeo\ respondeo\ teneo\
CONJ.  III discedo\ gero\ interficio\

    IRREGULAR VERB
    absum\

514. Translate the following words.  Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs.

be away                       heavily
wind                           monster
through                       approach
if                            nevertheless
savage                         place
wound (verb)                  be without, lack
wine                          moved
delay                          gold
faithless                      restrain, keep from
right                         without
seize                         hold
quickly                       suddenly
before, in behalf of          dear
battle                        always
down from or concerning     god
moreover                      hold in, keep
greatest                      afar
oracle                         thus, so, as follows
danger                        arm (noun)
lay waste                     when
gate                          in vain
doubtful                      stand
opposite, adverse             bring back, win
demand                        before, previously
finally                       depart, go away
attentive                      province
then, at that time            care, trouble
weary                         kill
overcome, conquer             reply (verb)
conquer                       wing
boat, ship                    mind, heart
sail (verb)                   left (adj.)
life                          bear, carry on
save                          try
full                          for a long time
refuse

515. Give the principal parts and meaning of the following verbs: 

Page 207

sum\ faveo\ do\ noceo\ teneo\ dico\ iubeo\ pareo\ ago\ duco\ mitto\ facio\ munio\ persuadeo\ moveo\ sedeo\ credo\ studeo\ rapio\ fugio\ reperio\ venio\ deleo\ iacio\ resisto\ video\ audio\ absum\ moneo\ egeo\ capio\ gero\ doceo\ sto\ rego\

_516._ Review Questions.  What are the personal endings in the passive voice?  What is the letter -r sometimes called?  What are the distinguishing vowels of the four conjugations?  What forms constitute the principal parts?  What are the three different conjugation stems?  How may they be found?  What are the tenses of the indicative? of the infinitive?  What tense of the imperative have you learned?  What forms are built on the present stem? on the perfect stem? on the participial stem?  What are the endings of the perfect active indicative?  What is the tense sign of the pluperfect active? of the future perfect active?  How is the present active infinitive formed? the present passive infinitive?  How is the present active imperative formed? the present passive imperative?  How is the perfect active infinitive formed? the perfect passive infinitive?  How is the future active infinitive formed?  What is a participle?  How are participles in -us declined?  Give the rule for the agreement of the participle.  How are the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive indicative formed?  Conjugate the verb sum\ in all moods and tenses as far as you have learned it (Sec. 494).  What is meant by the separative ablative?  How is the place from which expressed in Latin?  Give the rule for the ablative of separation; for the ablative of the personal agent.  How can we distinguish between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent?  What is the perfect definite? the perfect indefinite?  What is the difference in meaning between the perfect indefinite and the imperfect?  What two cases in Latin may be governed by a preposition?  Name the prepositions that govern the ablative.  What does the preposition in\ mean when it governs the ablative? the accusative?  What are the three interrogatives used to introduce _yes_-and-_no_ questions?  Explain the force of each.  What words are sometimes used for _yes_ and _no?_ What are the different meanings and uses of ubi?

V. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXXVII-XLIV

517. Give the English of the following words: 

NOUNS
FIRST DECLENSION SECOND DECLENSION
ripa\ barbari\
captivus\
castellum\
impedimentum\

Page 208

THIRD DECLENSION
animal\        homo\          ordo\
arbor\         hostis\        pater\
avis\          ignis\         pedes\
caedes\        imperator\     pes\
calamitas\     insigne\        pons
calcar         iter\          princeps\
caput\         iudex           rex\
civis\         labor\         salus\
cliens\        lapis\         sanguis\
collis\        legio\         soror\
consul\        mare\          tempus
dens\          mater\         terror\
dux\           mensis\        turris\
eques\         miles\         urbs\
finis\         mons\          victor\
flumen\        navis\         virtus\
fons           opus\          vis\
frater\        orator\
ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS barbarus\ dexter\ sinister\ summus\
PREPOSITIONS in\ with the abl. in\ with the acc. trans\

  ADVERBS
  
cotidie\
  numquam\

CONJUNCTIONS
nec, neque\
nec ... nec\, or neque ... neque\

VERBS
CONJ.  I CONJ.  III
cesso\ accipio\
oppugno\ peto\
confirmo\ vinco\
veto\ incipio\
pono\
vivo\

518. Translate the following words.  Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs: 

forbid in rank, row judge brother defeat, disaster force fire across tree savages foot soldier horseman receive never general mountain highest manliness, courage fountain leader orator put, place neither ... nor time and not savage, barbarous left sister tooth seek soldier captive month hindrance, baggage city captive victor hindrance, baggage daily man-of-war live (verb) conquer redoubt, fort consul sea mother tower retainer drill (verb) citizen legion head terror safety into, to assail, storm right (adj.) begin stone march blood decoration

Page 209

labor (noun) bridge king bird spur cease chief man slaughter river strengthen work (noun) foot and enemy ship animal bank father

519. Review Questions.  Give the conjugation of possum\.  What is an infinitive?  What three uses has the Latin infinitive that are like the English?  What is the case of the subject of the infinitive?  What is meant by a complementary infinitive?  In the sentence _The bad boy cannot be happy_, what is the case of _happy_?  Give the rule.  Decline qui\.  Give the rule for the agreement of the relative.  What are the two uses of the interrogative?  Decline quis\.  What is the base of a noun?  How is the stem formed from the base?  Are the stem and the base ever the same?  How many declensions of nouns are there?  Name them.  What are the two chief divisions of the third declension?  How are the consonant stems classified?  Explain the formation of lapis\ from the stem lapid-, miles\ from milit-, rex\ from reg-.  What nouns have i-stems?  What peculiarities of form do i-stems have,—­masc., fem., and neut.?  Name the five nouns that have -i and -e in the abl.  Decline turris\.  Give the rules for gender in the third declension.  Decline miles\, lapis\, rex\, virtus\, consul\, legio\, homo\, pater\, flumen\, opus\, tempus\, caput\, caedes\, urbs\, hostis\, mare\, animal\, vis\, iter\.

520. Fill out the following scheme: 

               { { Masculine
               { GENDER { Feminine
               { ENDINGS { Neuter
               {
    THE THIRD { { I. CONSONANT { a.  Masc. and fem. 
    DECLENSION { { STEMS { b.  Neuters
               { CASE {
               { TERMINATIONS {
               { {
               { { II. I-STEMS { a.  Masc. and fem.
               { { { b.  Neuters
               {
               { IRREGULAR NOUNS

VI.  REVIEW OF LESSONS XLV-LII

521. Give the English of the following words: 

  NOUNS
    FIRST DECLENSION
    amicitia\
    
hora\
    littera\

Page 210

SECOND DECLENSION annus\ supplicium\, modus\ supplicium dare\ nuntius\ supplicium sumere de\ oculus\ tergum\, regnum\ tergum vertere\ signum\ vestigium\
THIRD DECLENSION
aestas\             nox\
corpus\             pars\
hiems\              pax\
libertas\            rus
lux\,               sol\
prima lux\        vox\
nomen\              vulnus\
FOURTH DECLENSION adventus\ impetus\ cornu\ lacus\ domus\ manus\ equitatus\ metus\ exercitus\ portus\ fluctus\

FIFTH DECLENSION
acies\ res\,
dies\ res gestae\
fides\, res adversae\
in fidem venire\ res secundae\
res publica\
spes\

INDECLINABLE NOUN
nihil\

ADJECTIVES
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS
densus\                 pristinus\
invisus\                publicus\
mirus\                  secundus\
pauci\                  tantus\
primus\                 verus\
THIRD DECLENSION acer, acris, acre\ gravis, grave\ brevis, breve\ incolumis, incolume\ difficilis, difficile\ omnis, omne\ facilis, facile\ par, par\ fortis, forte\ velox, velox\

  PRONOUNS
    PERSONAL
    ego\
    
nos\
    sui\
    
tu\
    vos\

DEMONSTRATIVE hic\ idem\ ille\ iste\

    INTENSIVE
    ipse\

INDEFINITE aliquis, aliqui\ quidam\ quis, qui\ quisquam\ quisque\
ADVERBS
ne:  ... quidem\    quoque\
olim            satis\
paene\          vero\

  CONJUNCTIONS
  itaque\
  
nisi\

PREPOSITIONS ante\ post\ propter\
VERBS
CONJ.  I                    CONJ.  II
conloco\                  debeo\
convoco\                  exerceo\
cremo\                    maneo\
demonstro\                placeo\
mando\                    sustineo\

    CONJ.  III CONJ.  IV
    
committo\, desilio\
      
committere proelium\
    decido\
    
eripio\
    sumo\,
      
sumere supplicium de\
    traduco\
    
verto\

522. Translate the following words.  Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs.

Page 211

if not, unless adversity on account of former, old-time public all, every commonwealth any one (at all) leap down, dismount this (of mine) unharmed heavy, serious lead across hateful, detested remain true call together burn friendship snatch from footprint, trace letter each punishment fear (noun) inflict punishment on hope behind, after therefore suffer punishment so great liberty equal sun in truth, indeed sustain that (yonder) take up, assume a certain hour fall down reign, realm owe, ought messenger measure, mode part, direction eye body name harbor wave, billow faith, protection thing, matter of himself exploits also, too republic sufficiently prosperity you (plur.) burn peace that (of yours) back before turn the back, retreat light night daybreak hand, force winter lake attack day line of battle commit, intrust army a few only drill, train sharp, eager join battle we house, home turn midday you (sing.) wonderful I brave signal almost summer the same cavalry some, any wound if any one horn, wing self, very country not even second, favorable easy formerly, once dense short point out, explain voice difficult arrival first come under the protection of arrange, station nothing please swift year

523. Review Questions.  By what declensions are Latin adjectives declined?  What can you say

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about the stem of adjectives of the third declension?  Into what classes are these adjectives divided?  How can you tell to which of the classes an adjective belongs?  Decline acer, omnis, par\.  What are the nominative endings and genders of nouns of the fourth or u-declension?  What nouns are feminine by exception?  Decline adventus, lacus, cornu, domus\.  Give the rules for the ordinary expression of the place to which, the place from which, the place in which.  What special rules apply to names of towns, small islands, and rus\?  What is the locative case?  What words have a locative case?  What is the form of the locative case?  Translate _Galba lives at home, Galba lives at Rome, Galba lives at Pompeii_.  What is the rule for gender in the fifth or e:\-declension?  Decline dies\, res\.  When is the long e:\ shortened?  What can you say about the plural of the fifth declension?  Decline tuba\, servus\, pilum\, ager\, puer\, miles\, consul\, flumen\, caedes\, animal\.  How is the _time when_ expressed?  Name the classes of pronouns and define each class.  Decline ego, tu, is\.  What are the reflexives of the first and second persons?  What is the reflexive of the third person?  Decline it.  Translate I see myself, he sees himself, he sees him.  Decline ipse\.  How is ipse\ used?  Decline idem\.  Decline hic\, iste\, ille\.  Explain the use of these words.  Name and translate the commoner indefinite pronouns.  Decline aliquis\, quisquam\, quidam\, quisque\.

VII.  REVIEW OF LESSONS LIII-LX

524. Give the English of the following words: 

  NOUNS
    FIRST DECLENSION
    aquila\ fossa\

SECOND DECLENSION aedificium\ negotium\ captivus\ spatium\ concilium\ vallum\ imperium\
THIRD DECLENSION agmen\ mors\ celeritas\ mulier\ civitas\ multitudo\ clamor\ munitio\ cohors\ nemo\ difficultas\ obses\ explorator\ opinio\ gens\ regio\ latitudo\ rumor\ longitudo\ scelus\ magnitudo\ servitus\ mens\ timor\ mercator\ valles\ mille\

    FOURTH DECLENSIONS
    aditus\ passus\
    commeatus\

    FIFTH DECLENSION
    res frumentaria\

ADJECTIVES
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS
aequus\          pessimus\
bini\            plurimus\
ducenti\         posterus\
duo\             primus\
exterus\          reliquus
inferus\         secundus\
maximus\         singuli\
medius\          superus\
minimus\         tardus\
opportunus\      terni\
optimus\         unus\

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    THIRD DECLENSION
    
alacer, alacris, alacre\
    audax, audax\
    
celer, celeris, celere\
    citerior, citerius\
    
difficilis, difficile\
    dissimilis, dissimile\
    
facilis, facile\
     gracilis, gracile
    humilis, humile\
    
ingens, ingens\
    interior, interius\
    
lenis, lene\
    maior, maius\
    
melior, melius\
    minor, minus\
    
nobilis, nobile\
    peior, peius\
     ——­,
plus\
    prior, prius\
    
recens, recens\
    similis, simile\
    
tres, tria\
    ulterior, ulterius\

ADVERBS acriter\ optime\ audacter\ parum\ bene\ paulo\ facile\ plurimum\ fere\ prope\ fortiter\ propius\ magis\ proxime\ magnopere\ quam\ maxime\ statim\ melius\ tam\ minime\ undique\ multum\
CONJUNCTIONS atque, ac\ qua de causa\ aut\ quam ob rem\ aut ... aut\ simul atque or\ et ... et\ simul ac nam\\
PREPOSITIONS circum\ contra\ inter\ ob\ trans\
VERBS
CONJ.  I         CONJ.  II
conor\         obtineo\
hortor\        perterreo\
moror\         valeo\
vexo\          vereor\
CONJ.  III
abdo\          patior\
cado\           premo
cognosco\      proficiscor\
consequor\     progredior\
contendo\      quaero\
cupio\         recipio\
curro\         relinquo\
dedo\          revertor\
defendo\       sequor\
egredior        statuo
incendo\        subsequor
incolo\        suscipio\
insequor\      trado\
occido\        traho\

    CONJ.  IV
    
orior\ pervenio\

525. Translate the following words.  Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs: 

on account of width nearly scout keenly, sharply cohort thousand tribe, nation two business opportune by a little remaining somewhat above (adj.) crime next difficult grain supply equal pace move forward, advance shout (noun) further from all sides multitude against woman around desire (verb) three give over, surrender line of

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march
kill manor overtake region hasten, strive fortification hide eagle one almost first boldly second, favorable bravely two hundred across former between, among inner hither (adj.) middle so low less outward more three by three most provisions worst speed difficulty ditch hostage wherefore or therefore death length command, power for this reason captive fear (noun) or return and inquire arrive set out attempt, try move out, disembark fear (verb) leave worse abandon greater, larger be strong two by two receive, recover least (adv.) terrify, frighten opinion, expectation dwell defend state, citizenship approach, entrance valley trader slavery magnitude, size greatly council, assembly best of all (adv.) space, room better (adv.) either ... or well (adv.) rise, arise very much suffer, allow much press hard unlike fall like (adj.) surrender slow set fire to very greatly, exceedingly possess, hold building delay (verb) mind (noun) nearest (adv.) easily nearer (adv.) easy better (adj.) recent well known, noble huge, great rampart bold mild, gentle immediately swift as soon as eager for low (adj.) than slender best (adj.) one by one greatest no one follow close least (adv.) encourage little (adv.) annoy, ravage learn, know hide drag follow undertake

Page 215

pursue run both ... and fix, decide

526. Review Questions.  What is meant by comparison?  In what two ways may adjectives be compared?  Compare clarus, brevis, velox\, and explain the formation of the comparative and the superlative.  What are the adverbs used in comparison?  Compare brevis\ by adverbs.  Decline the comparative of velox\.  How are adjectives in -er compared?  Compare acer\, pulcher\, liber\.  What are possible translations for the comparative and superlative?  Name the six adjectives that form the superlative in -limus.  Translate in two ways Nothing is brighter than the sun.  Give the rule for the ablative with comparatives.  Compare bonus, magnus, malus, multus, parvus, exterus, inferus, posterus, superus\.  Decline plus\.  Compare citerior, interior, propior, ulterior\.  Translate _That route to Italy is much shorter_.  Give the rule for the expression of measure of difference.  Name five words that are especially common in this construction.  How are adverbs usually formed from adjectives of the first and second declensions? from adjectives of the third declension?  Compare the adverbs care\, libere\, fortiter\, audacter\.  What cases of adjectives are sometimes used as adverbs?  What are the adverbs from facilis\? multus? primus? plurimus\? bonus\? magnus\? parvus\?  Compare prope\, saepe\, magnopere\.  How are numerals classified?  Give the first twenty cardinals.  Decline unus, duo, tres, mille\.  How are the hundreds declined?  What is meant by the partitive genitive?  Give the rule for the partitive genitive.  What sort of words are commonly used with this construction?  What construction is used with quidam\ and cardinal numbers excepting mille\?  Give the first twenty ordinals.  How are they declined?  How are the distributives declined?  Give the rule for the expression of duration of time and extent of space.  What is the difference between the ablative of time and the accusative of time?  What is a deponent verb?  Give the synopsis of one.  What form always has a passive meaning?  Conjugate amo\, moneo\, rego\, capio\, audio\, in the active and passive.

VIII.  REVIEW OF LESSONS LXI-LXIX

527. Review the vocabularies of the first seventeen lessons.  See Secs. 502, 503, 506, 507.

528. Review Questions.  Name the tenses of the subjunctive.  What time is denoted by these tenses?  What are the mood signs of the present subjunctive?  How may the imperfect subjunctive be formed?  How do the perfect subjunctive and the future perfect indicative active differ in form?  How is the pluperfect subjunctive active formed?  Inflect the subjunctive active and passive of curo\, deleo\, vinco\, rapio\, munio\.  Inflect the subjunctive tenses of sum\; of possum\. 

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What are the tenses of the participles in the active?  What in the passive?  Give the active and passive participles of amo\, moneo\, rego\, capio\, audio\.  Decline regens\.  What participles do deponent verbs have?  What is the difference in meaning between the perfect participle of a deponent verb and of one not deponent?  Give the participles of vereor\.  How should participles usually be translated?  Conjugate volo\, nolo\, malo\, fio\.

What is the difference between the indicative and subjunctive in their fundamental ideas?  How is purpose usually expressed in English?  How is it expressed in Latin?  By what words is a Latin purpose clause introduced?  When should quo\ be used?  What is meant by sequence of tenses?  Name the primary tenses of the indicative and of the subjunctive; the secondary tenses.  What Latin verbs are regularly followed by substantive clauses of purpose?  What construction follows iubeo\?  What construction follows verbs of fearing?  How is consequence or result expressed in Latin?  How is a result clause introduced?  What words are often found in the principal clause foreshadowing the coming of a result clause?  How may negative purpose be distinguished from negative result?  What is meant by the subjunctive of characteristic or description?  How are such clauses introduced?  Explain the ablative absolute.  Why is the ablative absolute of such frequent occurrence in Latin?  Explain the predicate accusative.  After what verbs are two accusatives commonly found?  What do these accusatives become when the verb is passive?

  [Illustration:  IMPERATOR MILITES HORTATUR]

SPECIAL VOCABULARIES

The words in heavy type are used in Caesar’s “Gallic War.”

[Transcriber’s Note: 

Each chapter’s Special Vocabulary was included with its chapter text in addition to its original location here.  Details are given in the Transcriber’s Note at the beginning of the text.  In the printed book, the vocabularies for Lesson IV and Lesson V appeared on the same page; the Footnote about conjunctions was shared by the two lists.]

LESSON IV, Sec. 39

  NOUNS
   dea, goddess (deity)
   Dia:’na, Diana
  fera\, _a wild beast_ (fierce)
   La:to:’na, _Latona_
  
sagit’ta\, arrow

  VERBS
  est\, _he (she, it) is_; sunt, _they are_
  
necat\, he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill

  CONJUNCTION[A]
  et\, _and_

  PRONOUNS
  quis\, interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_
  
cuius\ (pronounced c[oo]i’y[oo]s, two syllables), interrog.
    pronoun, gen. sing., whose?

    [Footnote A:  A conjunction is a word which connects words, parts
    of sentences, or sentences.]

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LESSON V, Sec. 47

  NOUNS
  coro:’na\, _wreath, garland, crown_
   fa:’bula, _story_ (fable)
  
pecu:’nia\, money (pecuniary)
  pugna\, _battle_ (pugnacious)
  
victo:’ria\, victory

  VERBS
  dat\, _he (she, it) gives_
   na:rrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate)

  CONJUNCTION[A]
  quia\ or quod\, because

  cui\ (pronounced _c[oo]i_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat.
    sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_

    [Footnote A:  A conjunction is a word which connects words, parts
    of sentences, or sentences.]

LESSON VI, Sec. 56

ADJECTIVES bona\, _good_ gra:ta\, pleasing magna\, _large, great_ mala\, bad, wicked parva\, _small, little_ pulchra\, beautiful, pretty so:la\, _alone_

  NOUNS
  ancil’la, _maidservant_
  Iu:lia, _Julia_

  ADVERBS[A]
  cu:r\, _why_
  
no:n\, not

  PRONOUNS
  mea\, _my_; tua, _thy, your_ (possesives)
  
quid\, interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., what?

/-ne\, the question sign, an enclitic (Sec. 16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as amat\, _he loves_, but amat’ne?\ does he love? est, he is; estne?\ _is he?_ Of course -ne\ is not used when the sentence contains quis, cu:r, or some other interrogative word.

    [Footnote A:  An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an
    adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings sweetly; she is
    very talented; she began to sing very early.]

LESSON VII, Sec. 62

NOUNS casa, -ae\, f., _cottage_ ce:na, -ae, f., _dinner_ galli:’na, -ae\, f., hen, chicken i:n’sula, ae\, f., _island_ (pen-insula)

  ADVERBS
  
de-in’de\, then, in the next place
  ubi\, _where_

  PREPOSITION
  ad\, _to_, with acc. to express motion toward

  PRONOUN
  quem\, interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_

  VERBS
  ha’bitat, he (she, it) lives, is living, does live (inhabit)
  laudat\, _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud)
  
parat\, he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare
  vocat\, _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites,
    is inviting, does invite_ (vocation)

LESSON VIII, Sec. 69

  NOUNS
  Italia, -ae\, f., _Italy_
   Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_
  
tuba, -ae\, f., trumpet (tube)
  via, -ae\, f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct)

ADJECTIVES alta\, _high, deep_ (altitude) cla:ra\, clear, bright; famous la:ta\, _wide_ (latitude) longa\, long (longitude) nova\, _new_ (novelty)

LESSON IX, Sec. 77

Page 218

  NOUNS
  bellum, -i:\, n., war (re-bel)
  co:nstantia, -ae\, f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_
   dominus, -i:, m., _master, lord_ (dominate)
  
equus, -i:\, m., horse (equine)
  fru:mentum, -i:\, n., _grain_
  
le:ga:tus, -i:\, m., lieutenant, ambassador (legate)
  Ma:rcus, -i:\, m., _Marcus, Mark_
  
mu:rus, -i:\, m., wall (mural)
  oppida:nus, -i:\, m., _townsman_
  
oppidum, -i:\, n., town
  pi:lum, -i:\, n., _spear_ (pile driver)
  
servus, -i:\, m., slave, servant
   Sextus, -i:, m., Sextus

  VERBS
  cu:rat\, _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc.
  
properat\, he (she, it) hastens

LESSON X, Sec. 82

NOUNS ami:cus, -i:\, m., _friend_ (amicable) Germa:nia, -ae\, f., Germany patria, -ae\, f., _fatherland_ populus, -i:\, m., people Rhe:nus, -i:\, m., _the Rhine_ vi:cus, -i:\, m., village

LESSON XI, Sec. 86

NOUNS arma, armo:rum\, n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons fa:ma, -ae\, f., rumor; reputation, fame galea, -ae\, f., _helmet_ praeda, -ae\, f., booty, spoils (predatory) te:lum, -i:\, n., _weapon of offense, spear_

  ADJECTIVES
  
du:rus, -a, -um\, hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome
    (durable)
  Ro:ma:nus, -a, -um\, _Roman_.  As a noun, Ro:ma:nus, -i:, m.,
    _a Roman_

LESSON XII, Sec. 90

  NOUNS
  fi:lius, fi:li:\, m., _son_ (filial)
   fluvius, fluvi:, m., _river_ (fluent)
  
gladius, gladi:\, m., sword (gladiator)
  praesidium, praesi’di:\, n., _garrison, guard, protection_
  
proelium, proeli:\, n., battle

  ADJECTIVES
  fi:nitimus, -a, -um\, _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_. 
    As a noun, fi:nitimi:, -o:rum, m., plur., _neighbors_
  
Germa:nus, -a, -um\, German.  As a noun, Germa:nus, -i:, m.,
    a German
  multus, -a, -um\, _much_; plur., _many_

  ADVERB
  saepe\, _often_

LESSON XIII, Sec. 95

  NOUNS
  ager, agri:\, m., _field_ (acre)
  
co:pia, -ae\, f., plenty, abundance (copious); plur., troops,
    forces

  Corne:lius, Corne:’li:\, m., _Cornelius_
  
lo:ri:’ca, -ae\, f., coat of mail, corselet
  praemium, praemi:\, n., _reward, prize_ (premium)
  
puer, pueri:\, m., boy (puerile)
  Ro:ma, -ae\, f., _Rome_
  
scu:tum, -i:\, n., shield (escutcheon)
  vir, viri:\, m., _man, hero_ (virile)

Page 219

  ADJECTIVES
  legio:na:rius, -a, -um\,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_. 
    As a noun, legio:na:rii:, -o:rum, m., plur., _legionary soldiers_
  
li:ber, li:bera, li:berum\, free (liberty) As a noun. li:beri:,
    -o:rum, m., plur., children (lit. the freeborn)
  pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum\, _pretty, beautiful_

  PREPOSITION
  apud\, _among_, with acc.

  CONJUNCTION
  sed\, _but_

    [Footnote A:  The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in -ius
    ends in -ii:  and the vocative in -ie; not in -i:, as in nouns.]

LESSON XIV, Sec. 99

  NOUNS
  auxilium, auxi’li:\, n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary)
  
castrum, -i:\, n., fort (castle); plur., camp (lit. forts)
  cibus, -i:\, m., _food_
  
co:nsilium, co:nsi’li:\, n., plan (counsel)
  di:ligentia, -ae\, f., _diligence, industry_
   magister, magistri:, m., _master, teacher_[A]

ADJECTIVES aeger, aegra, aegrum\, _sick_ cre:ber, cre:bra, cre:brum\, frequent miser, misera, miserum\, _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser)

    [Footnote A:  Observe that dominus, as distinguished from
    
magister\, means master in the sense of owner.]

LESSON XV, Sec. 107

NOUNS carrus, -i:\, m., _cart, wagon_ inopia, -ae\, f., want, lack; the opposite of co:pia studium, studi:\, n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study)

  ADJECTIVES
  
arma:tus, -a, -um\, armed
  i:nfi:rmus, -a, -um\, _week, feeble_ (infirm)
   vali’dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_

  VERB
  ma:tu:rat\, _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat

  ADVERB
  iam\, _already, now_

  /-que\, conjunction, and; an enclitic (cf.  Sec. 16) and always added
  to the second of two words to be connected, as arma te:la’que,
  arms and weapons.

LESSON XVII, Sec. 117

NOUNS agri:  cultu:ra, -ae\, f., _agriculture_ Gallia, -ae\, f., Gaul domicili:um, domi:ci’li:\, n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_ Gallus, -i\, m., a Gaul lacrima, -ae\, f., _tear_ fe:mina, -ae\, f., woman (female) numerus, -i:\, m., _number_ (numeral)

  ADJECTIVE
  
ma:tu:rus, -a, -um\, ripe, mature

  ADVERB
   quo:, whither

  VERBS
   arat, he (she, it) plows (arable)
  de:si:derat\, _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc.

  CONJUNCTION
  an\, _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as
  _Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, Estne Romanus an Gallus?

Page 220

LESSON XVIII, Sec. 124

  NOUNS
   lu:dus, -i:, m., school
  socius, soci:\, m., _companion, ally_ (social)

  ADJECTIVES
  i:ra:tus, -a, -um\, _angry, furious_ (irate)
  
laetus, -a, -um\, happy, glad (social)

  ADVERBS
   hodie:, to-day
  ibi\, _there, in that place_
   mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future
  
nunc\, now, the present moment
  nu:per\, _lately, recently_, of the immediate past

LESSON XX, Sec. 136

  NOUNS
  fo:rma, -ae\, f., _form, beauty_
  
regi:na, -ae\, f., queen (regal)
  poena, -ae\, f., _punishment, penalty_
   superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_
  
potentia, -ae\, f., power (potent)
  tri:sti:ti:a, -ae\, f., _sadness, sorrow_

  ADJECTIVES
  septem\, indeclinable, _seven_
  
superbus, -a, -um\, proud, haughty (superb)

  CONJUNCTIONS
  no:n so:lum ... sed etiam\, _not only ... but also_

LESSON XXI, Sec. 140

  NOUNS
   sacrum, -i:, n., sacrifice, offering, rite
  verbum, -i:\, n., _word_ (verb)

  VERBS
   sedeo:, -e:re, sit (sediment)
   volo:, -a:re, fly (volatile)

ADJECTIVES interfectus, -a, -um\, _slain_ molestus, -a, -um\, troublesome, annoying (molest) perpetuus, -a, -um\, _perpetual, continuous_

  ego\, personal pronoun, I (egotism).  Always emphatic in the
    nominative.

LESSON XXII, Sec. 146

  NOUNS
  discipli:na, -ae\, f., _training, culture, discipline_
  
Ga:ius, Ga:i:\, m., Caius, a Roman first name
  o:rna:mentum, -i:\, n., _ornament, jewel_
   Tiberius, Tibe’ri:, m., _Tiberius_, a Roman first name

  VERB
  doceo:, -e:re\, _teach_ (doctrine)

  ADVERB
  maxime:\, _most of all, especially_

  ADJECTIVE
  anti:quus, -qua, -quum\, _old, ancient_ (antique)

LESSON XXVII, Sec. 168

  NOUNS
  a:la, -ae\, f., _wing_
  
deus, -i:\, m., god (deity)[A]
  monstrum, -i:\, n., _omen, prodigy; monster_
   o:ra:culum, -i:, n., _oracle_

  VERB
  va:sto:, -a:re\, _lay waste, devastate_

ADJECTIVES commo:tus, -a, -um\, _moved, excited_ maximus, -a, -um\, greatest (maximum) saevus, -a, -um\, _fierce, savage_

  ADVERBS
  
ita\, thus, in this way, as follows
  tum\, _then, at that time_

    [Footnote A:  For the declension of deus, see Sec. 468]

LESSON XXVIII, Sec. 171

Page 221

  VERBS
  respondeo:, -e:re\, _respond, reply_
  
servo:, -a:re\, save, preserve

  ADJECTIVE
  ca:rus, -a, -um\, _dear_ (cherish)

  CONJUNCTION
  autem\, _but, moreover, now_.  Usually stands second, never first

  NOUN
  vi:ta, -ae\, f., _life_ (vital)

LESSON XXIX, Sec. 176

  VERB
  supero:, -a:re\, _conquer, overcome_ (insuperable)

  NOUNS
  cu:ra, -ae\, f., _care, trouble_
  
locus, -i:\, m., place, spot (location).  Locus is neuter in the
    plural and is declined loca, -o:rum, etc.
  peri:culum, -i:\, n., _danger, peril_

  ADVERBS
  semper\, _always_
  
tamen\, yet, nevertheless

  PREPOSITIONS
  de:\, with abl., _down from.; concerning_
  
per\, with acc., through

  CONJUNCTION
  si\, _if_

LESSON XXX, Sec. 182

  VERBS
  absum, abesse\, irreg., _be away, be absent, be distant_, with
    separative abl.
  
adpropinquo:, -a:re\, draw near, approach (propinquity), with
    dative[A]
  contineo:, -e:re\, _hold together, hem in, keep_ (contain)
  
disce:do:, -ere\, depart, go away, leave, with separative abl.
  egeo:, -e:re\, _lack, need, be without_, with separative abl.
  
interficio:, -ere\, kill
  prohibeo:, -e:re\, _restrain, keep from_ (prohibit)
  
vulnero:, -a:re\, wound (vulnerable)

  NOUNS
  pro:vincia, -ae\, f., _province_
  
vi:num, -i:\, n., wine

  ADJECTIVE
  de:fessus, -a, -um\, _weary, worn out_

  ADVERB
  longe:\, _far, by far, far away_

[Footnote A:  This verb governs the dative because the idea of nearness to is stronger than that of motion to.  If the latter idea were the stronger, the word would be used with ad and the accusative.]

LESSON XXXI, Sec. 188

  NOUNS
   aurum, -i:, n., gold (oriole)
  mora, -ae\, f., _delay_
  
na:vigium, na:vi’gi:\, n., boat, ship
  ventus, -i:\, m., _wind_ (ventilate)

  VERB
  na:vigo:, -a:re\, _sail_ (navigate)

  ADJECTIVES
   attentus, -a, -um, attentive, careful
  dubius, -a, -um\, _doubtful_ (dubious)
   perfidus, -a, -um, _faithless, treacherous_ (perfidy)

  ADVERB
  antea:\, _before, previously_

  PREPOSITION
  sine\, with abl., _without_

LESSON XXXII, Sec. 193

NOUNS animus, -i:\, m., _mind, heart; spirit, feeling_ (animate) bracchium, bracchi:\, n., forearm, arm porta, -ae\, f., _gate_ (portal)

  ADJECTIVES
  
adversus, -a, -um\, opposite; adverse, contrary
  ple:nus, -a, -um\, _full_ (plenty)

Page 222

  PREPOSITION
  pro\, with abl., _before; in behalf of; instead of_

  ADVERB
  diu:\, _for a long time, long_

LESSON XXXIV, Sec. 200

ADVERBS celeriter\, _quickly_ (celerity) de:nique\, finally graviter\, _heavily, severely_ (gravity) subito:\, suddenly

  VERB
  reporto:, -a:re\, -a:vi:, _bring back, restore; win, gain_ (report)

LESSON XXXVI, Sec. 211

  dexter, dextra, dextrum\, _right_ (dextrous)
  
sinister, sinistra, sinistrum\, left
  fru:stra:\, adv., _in vain_ (frustrate)

  gero:, gerere, gessi:, gestus\, _bear, carry on; wear_;
    
bellum gerere\, to wage war
  occupo:, occupa:re, occupa:vi:, occupa:tus\, _seize, take possession
    of_ (occupy)
  
postulo:, postula:re, postula:vi:, postula:tus\, demand
    (ex-postulate)
  recu:so:, recu:sa:re, recu:sa:vi:, recu:sa:tus\, _refuse_
  
sto:, sta:re, steti:, status\, stand
  tempto:, tempta:re, tempta:vi:, tempta:tus\, _try, tempt, test;
    attempt_
  
teneo:, tene:re, tenui:, ——­\, keep, hold (tenacious)

  The word ubi, which we have used so much in the sense of where in
  asking a question, has two other uses equally important: 

  1. ubi = when, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as,
    Ubi mo:nstrum audi:ve:runt, fu:ge:runt\, _when they heard the
    monster, they fled_

  2. ubi = where, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as,
    Video:  oppidum ubi Galba habitat\, _I see the town where Galba
    lives_

ubi\ is called a _relative conjunction_ because it is equivalent to a relative pronoun. _When_ in the first sentence is equivalent to _at the time at which;_ and in the second, _where_ is equivalent to _the place in which._

LESSON XXXVII, Sec. 217

  neque or nec\, conj., neither, nor, and ... not;
    neque ... neque\, _neither ... nor_
  
castellum, -i:\, n., redoubt, fort (castle)
  coti:die:\, adv., _daily_

   cesso:, cessa:re, cessa:vi:, cessa:tus, cease, with the infin.
  incipio:, incipere, ince:pi:, inceptus\, _begin_ (incipient),
    with the infin.
  
oppugno:, oppugna:re, oppugna:vi:, oppugna:tus\, storm, assail
  peto:, petere, petivi or petii:, peti:tus\, _aim at, assail, storm,
    attack; seek, ask_ (petition)
  
po:no:, po:nere, posui:, positus\, place, put (position);
    castra po:nere\, _to pitch camp_
  
possum, posse, potui:, ——­\, be able, can (potent), with the
    infin.
  veto:, veta:re, vetui:, vetitus\, _forbid_ (veto), vith the infin.;
    opposite of iubeo:, _command_
  
vinco:, vincere, vi:ci:, victus\, conquer (in-vincible)
  vi:vo:, vi:vere, vi:xi:, ——­\, _live, be alive_ (re-vive)

Page 223

LESSON XXXIX, Sec. 234

  barbarus, -a, -um\, _strange, foreign, barbarous_.  As a noun,
    
barbari:, -o:rum\, m., plur., savages, barbarians
  dux, ducis\, m., _leader_ (duke).  Cf. the verb du:co: 
  
eques, equitis\, m., horseman, cavalryman (equestrian)
   iu:dex, iu:dicis, m., judge
  lapis, lapidis\, m., _stone_ (lapidary)
  
mi:les, mi:litis\, m., soldier (militia)
  pedes, peditis\, m., _foot soldier_ (pedestrian)
  
pe:s, pedis\,[A] m., foot (pedal)
  pri:nceps, pri:ncipis\, m., _chief_ (principal)
  
re:x, re:gis\, m., king (regal)
  summus, -a, -um\, _highest, greatest_ (summit)
  
virtu:s, virtu:tis\, f., manliness, courage (virtue)

    [Footnote A:  Observe that e is long in the nom. sing, and
    short in the other cases.]

LESSON XL, Sec. 237

  Caesar, -aris\, m., _Caesar_
  
capti:vus, -i:\, m., captive, prisoner
  co:nsul, -is\, m., _consul_
  
fra:ter, fra:tris\, m., brother (fraternity)
  homo:, hominis\, m., _man, human being_
  
impedi:mentum, -i:\, n., hindrance (impediment); plur.
    impedi:menta, -o:rum\, _baggage_
  
impera:tor, impera:to:ris\, m., commander in chief, general
    (emperor)
  legio:, legio:nis\, f., _legion_
  
ma:ter, ma:tris\, f., mother (maternal)
  o:rdo:, o:rdinis\, m., _row, rank_ (order)
  
pater, patris\, m., father (paternal)
  salu:s, salu:tis\, f., _safety_ (salutary)
  
soror, soro:ris\, f., sister (sorority)

LESSON XLI, Sec. 239

calamita:s, calamita:tis\, f., _loss, disaster, defeat_ (calamity) caput, capitis\, n., head (capital) flu:men, flu:minis\, n., _river_ (flume) labor, labo:ris\, m., labor, toil opus, operis\, n., _work, task_ o:ra:tor, o:ra:to:ris\, m., orator ri:pa, -ae\, f., _bank_ (of a stream) tempus, temporis\, n., time (temporal) terror, terro:ris\, m., _terror, fear_ victor, victo:ris\, m., victor

  accipio:, accipere, acce:pi:, acceptus\, _receive, accept_
  
co:nfirmo:, co:nfi:rma:re, co:nfi:rma:vi:, co:nfi:rma:tus\,
    strengthen = establish, encourage (confirm)

LESSON XLIII, Sec. 245

  animal, anima:lis (-ium[A])\, n., _animal_
  
avis, avis (-ium)\, f., bird (aviation)
  caede:s, caedis (-ium)\, f., _slaughter_
  calcar, calca:ris (-ium), n., _spur_
  
ci:vis, ci:vis (-ium)\, m. and f., citizen (civic)
  clie:ns, clientis (-ium)\, m., _retainer, dependent_ (client)
  
fi:nis, fi:nis (-ium)\, m., end,

Page 224

limit (final);
    plur., country, territory
  hostis, hostis (-ium)\, m. and f., _enemy_ in war (hostile). 
    Distinguish from inimi:cus, which means a _personal_ enemy
  
ignis, ignis (-ium)\, m., fire (ignite)
  i:nsigne, i:nsignis (-ium)\, n. _decoration, badge_ (ensign)
  
mare, maris (-ium[B])\, n., sea (marine)
  na:vis, na:vis (-ium)\, f., _ship_ (naval);
  
na:vis longa\, man-of-war
  turris, turris (-ium)\, f., _tower_ (turret)
  
urbs, urbis (-ium)\, f., city (suburb).  An urbs\ is larger than an
    
oppidum\.

    [Footnote A:  The genitive plural ending -ium is written to mark the
    i-stems.]

    [Footnote B:  The genitive plural of mare is not in use.]

LESSON XLIV, Sec. 249

  arbor, arboris\, f., _tree_ (arbor)
  
collis, collis (-ium)\, m., hill
  de:ns, dentis (-ium)\, m., _tooth_ (dentist)
   fo:ns, fontis (-ium), m.. _fountain, spring; source_
  
iter, itineris\, n., march, journey, route (itinerary)
  me:nsis, me:nsis (-ium)\, m., _month_
  
moenia, -ium\, n., plur., walls, fortifications.  Cf. mu:rus
  mo:ns, montis (-ium)\, m., _mountain_;
    
summus mo:ns\, top of the mountain
  numquam\, adv., _never_
  
po:ns, pontis\, m., bridge (pontoon)
  sanguis, sanguinis\, m., blood (sanguinary)
  
summus, -a, -um\, highest, greatest (summit)
  tra:ns\, prep, with acc., _across_ (transatlantic)
  
vi:s (vi:s)\, gen. plur. virium\, f. _strength, force, violence_
    (vim)

LESSON XLV, Sec. 258

a:cer, a:cris, a:cre\, _sharp, keen, eager_ (acrid) brevis, breve\, short, brief difficilis, difficile\, _difficult_ facilis, facile\, facile, easy fortis, forte\, _brave_ (fortitude) gravis, grave\, heavy, severe, serious (grave) omnis, omne\, _every, all_ (omnibus) pa:r\, gen. paris\, _equal_ (par) pauci:, -ae, -a\, few, only a few (paucity) secundus, -a, -um\, _second; favorable_, opposite of adversus signum, -i:\, n., signal, sign, standard ve:lo:x\, gen. ve:lo:cis\, swift (velocity)

  conloco:, conloca:re, conloca:vi:, conloca:tus\, _arrange, station,
    place_ (collocation)
  
de:mo:nstro:, de:mo:nstra:re, de:mo:nstra:vi:, de:mo:nstra:tus\,
    point out, explain (demonstrate)
  mando:, manda:re, manda:vi:, manda:tus\, _commit, intrust_ (mandate)

LESSON XLVI, Sec. 261

Page 225

  adventus, -u:s\, m., _approach, arrival_ (advent)
  
ante\, prep, with acc., before (ante-date)
  cornu:, -u:s\, n., _horn, wing_ of an army (cornucopia);
    
a:  dextro:  cornu:\, on the right wing;
    a:  sinistro:  cornu:\, _on the left wing_
  
equita:tus, -u:s\, m., cavalry
  exercitus, -u:s\, m., _army_
  
impetus, -u:s\, m., attack (impetus);
    impetum facere in\, with acc., _to make an attack on_
  
lacus, -u:s\, dat. and abl. plur. lacubus, m., lake
  manus, -u:s\, f., _hand; band, force_ (manual)
  
portus, -u:s\, m., harbor (port)
  post\, prep, with acc., _behind, after_ (post-mortem)

  cremo:, crema:re, crema:vi:, crema:tus\, _burn_ (cremate)
  
exerceo:, exerce:re, exercui:, exercitus\, practice, drill, train
    (exercise)

LESSON XLVII, Sec. 270

   Athe:nae, -a:rum, f., plur., Athens
   Corinthus, -i:, f., Corinth
  domus, -u:s\, locative domi:\, f., house, home (dome). 
    Cf. domicilium
  Gena:va, -ae\, f., _Geneva_
   Pompe:ii, -o:rum, m., plur., _Pompeii_, a city in Campania.  See map
  
propter\, prep. with acc., on account of, because of
   ru:s, ru:ris, in the plur. only nom. and acc. ru:ra, n., country
    (rustic)
  tergum, tergi:\, n., _back_; a:  tergo:, _behind, in the rear_
  
vulnus, vulneris\, n., wound (vulnerable)

  committo:, committere, commi:si:, commissus\, _intrust, commit;_
    
proelium committere\, join battle
  convoco:, convoca:re, convoca:vi:, convoca:tus\, _call together,
    summon_ (convoke)
  
timeo:, time:re, timui:, ——­\, fear; be afraid (timid)
  verto:, vertere, verti:, versus\, _turn, change_ (convert);
    
terga vertere\, to turn the backs, hence to retreat

LESSON XLVIII, Sec. 276

  acie:s, -e:i:\, f., _line of battle_
  
aesta:s, aesta:tis\, f., summer
  annus, -i:\, m., _year_ (annual)
  
die:s, die:i:\, m., day (diary)
  fide:s, fidei:\, no plur., f., _faith, trust; promise, word;
    protection_; in fidem veni:re, _to come under the protection_
  
fluctus, -u:s\, m. wave, billow (fluctuate)
  hiems, hiemis\, f., _winter_
  
ho:ra, -ae\, f., hour
  lu:x, lu:cis\, f., _light_ (lucid); pri:ma lux, _daybreak_
  
meri:die:s\, acc. -em, abl. -e:, no plur., m., midday
    (meridian)
  nox, noctis (-ium)\, f., _night_ (nocturnal)
  
pri:mus, -a, -um\, first (prime)
  re:s, rei:\, f., _thing, matter_ (real);
    
re:s gestae\, deeds, exploits (lit. things performed);
    re:s adversae\, _adversity_;
    
re:s secundae\, prosperity
  spe:s, spei:\, f., _hope_

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LESSON XLIX, Sec. 283

  ami:citia, -ae\, f., _friendship_ (amicable)
  
itaque\, conj., and so, therefore, accordingly
  littera, -ae\, f., _a letter_ of the alphabet;
    plur., _a letter, an epistle_
  
metus, metu:s\, m., fear
  nihil\, indeclinable, n., _nothing_ (nihilist)
  
nu:ntius, nu:nti:\, m., messenger.  Cf. nu:ntio: 
  pa:x, pa:cis\, f., _peace_ (pacify)
  
re:gnum, -i:\, n., reign, sovereignty, kingdom
  supplicum, suppli’ci:\, n., _punishment_;
    
supplicum su:mere de:\, with abl., inflict punishment on;
    supplicum dare\, _suffer punishment_.  Cf. poena

  placeo:, place:re, placui:, placitus\, _be pleasing to, please_,
    with dative.  Cf.  Sec. 154
  
su:mo:, su:mere, su:mpsi:, su:mptus\, take up, assume
  sustineo:, sustine:re, sustinui:, sustentus\, _sustain_

LESSON L, Sec. 288

corpus, corporis\, n., _body_ (corporal) de:nsus, -a, -um\, dense i:dem, e’adem, idem\, demonstrative pronoun, _the same_ (identity) ipse, ipsa, ipsum\, intensive pronoun, self; even, very mi:rus, -a, -um\, _wonderful, marvelous_ (miracle) o:lim\, adv., formerly, once upon a time pars, partis (-ium)\, f., _part, region, direction_ quoque\, adv., also.  Stands after the word which it emphasizes so:l, so:lis\, m., _sun_ (solar) ve:rus, -a, -um\, true, real (verity)

  de:beo:, de:be:re, de:bui:, de:bitus\, _owe, ought_ (debt)
  
e:ripio:, e:ripere, e:ripui:, e:reptus\, snatch from

LESSON LI, Sec. 294

  hic, haec, hoc\, demonstrative pronoun, _this_ (of mine);
    _he, she, it_
  
ille, illa, illud\, demonstrative pronoun that (yonder);
    he, she, it
  invi:sus, -a, -um\, _hateful, detested_, with dative Cf.  Sec. 143
  
iste, ista, istud\, demonstrative pronoun, that (of yours);
    he, she, it
  li:berta:s, -a:tis\, f., _liberty_
  
modus, -i:\, m., measure; manner, way, mode
  no:men, no:minis\, n., _name_ (nominate)
  
oculus, -i:\, m., eye (oculist)
  pri:stinus, -a, -um\, _former, old-time_ (pristine)
  
pu:blicus, -a, -um\, public, belonging to the state;
    re:s pu:blica, rei:  pu:blicae\, f., _the commonwealth, the state,
    the republic_
  
vesti:gium, vesti:’gi:\, n., footprint, track; trace, vestige
  vo:x, vo:cis\, f., _voice_

LESSON LII, Sec. 298

  incolumis, -e\, _unharmed_
  
ne:  ... quidem\, adv., not even.  The emphatic word stands between
    ne:\ and quidem
  
nisi\, conj., unless, if ... not
  paene\, adv., _almost_ (pen-insula)
  
satis\, adv., enough, sufficiently (satisfaction)
  tantus, -a, -um\, _so great_
  
ve:ro:\, adv., truly, indeed, in fact.  As a conj. but, however,
    usually stands second, never first.

Page 227

de:cido:, de:cidere, de:cidi:, ——­\, _fall down_ (deciduous) de:silio:, de:sili:re, de:silui:, de:sultus\, leap down, dismount maneo:, mane:re, ma:nsi:, ma:nsu:rus\, _remain_ tra:du:co:, tra:du:cere, tra:du:xi:, tra:ductus\, lead across

LESSON LIII, Sec. 306

  aquila, -ae\, f., _eagle_ (aquiline)
  
auda:x\, gen. auda:cis\, adj., _bold, audacious_
  
celer, celeris, celere\, swift, quick (celerity).  Cf. ve:lo:x
  explo:rato:r, -o:ris\, m., _scout, spy_ (explorer)
  
inge:ns\, gen. ingentis\, adj., _huge, vast_
  
medius, -a, -um\, middle, middle part of (medium)
  me:ns, mentis (-ium)\, f., _mind_ (mental).  Cf. animus
  
opportu:nus, -a, -um\, opportune
  quam\, adv., _than_.  With the superlative quam gives the force of
    _as possible_, as quam auda:cissimi:  viri:, _men as bold as
    possible_
  
recens\, gen. recentis\, adj., _recent_
  
tam\, adv., so.  Always with an adjective or adverb, while ita is
    generally used with a verb

  quaero:, quaerere, quaesi:vi:, quaesi:tus\, _ask, inquire, seek_
    (question).  Cf. peto: 

LESSON LIV, Sec. 310

  alacer, alacris, alacre\, _eager, spirited, excited_ (alacrity)
  
celerita:s, -a:tis\, f., speed (celerity)
  cla:mor, cla:mo:ris\, m., _shout, clamor_
  
le:nis, le:ne\, mild, gentle (lenient)
  mulier, muli’eris\, f., _woman_
  
multitu:do:, multitu:dinis\, f., multitude
  ne:mo:\, dat. ne:mini:\, acc. ne:minem\ (gen. nu:lli:us\,
    abl. nu:llo:\, from nu:llus\), no plur., m. and f., no one
  no:bilis, no:bile\, _well known, noble_
  
noctu:\, adv. (an old abl.), by night (nocturnal)
  statim\, adv., _immediately, at once_
  
subito:\, adv., suddenly
  tardus, -a, -um\, _slow_ (tardy)
  
cupio:, cupere, cupi:vi:, cupi:tus\, desire, wish (cupidity)

LESSON LV, Sec. 314

  aedificium, aedifi’ci:\, n., _building, dwelling_ (edifice)
  
imperium, impe’ri:\, n., command, chief power; empire
  mors, mortis (-ium)\, f., _death_ (mortal)
  
reliquus, -a, -um\, remaining, rest of.  As a noun, m. and n. plur.,
    the rest (relic)
  scelus, sceleris\, n., _crime_
  
servitu:s, -u:tis\, f., slavery (servitude)
  valle:s, vallis (-ium)\, f., _valley_

  abdo:, abdere, abdidi:, abditus\, _hide_
  
contendo:, contendere, contendi:, contentus\, strain, struggle;
    hasten
(contend)
  occi:do:, occi:dere, occi:di:, occi:sus\, _cut down, kill_. 
    Cf.
neco:\, interficio:\
  
perterreo:, perterre:re, perterrui:,

Page 228

perterritus\, terrify,
    frighten

  recipio:, recipere, rece:pi:, receptus\, _receive, recover_;
    
se:  recipere\, betake one’s self, withdraw, retreat
  tra:do:, tra:dere, tra:didi:, tra:ditus\, _give over, surrender,
     deliver_ (traitor)

LESSON LVI, Sec. 318

  aditus, -u:s\, m., _approach, access; entrance_
  
ci:vita:s, ci:vita:tis\, f., citizenship; body of citizens, state
     (city)
  inter\, prep, with acc., _between, among_ (interstate commerce)
  
nam\, conj., for
  obses, obsidis\, m. and f., _hostage_
  
paulo:\, adv. (abl. n. of paulus\), _by a little, somewhat_

  incolo:, incolere, incolui:, ——­\, transitive, _inhabit_;
    intransitive, _dwell_.  Cf. habito:, vi:vo: 
  
relinquo:, relinquere, reli:qui:, relictus\, leave, abandon
    (relinquish)
  statuo:, statuere, statui:, statu:tus\, _fix, decide_ (statute),
    usually with infin.

LESSON LVII, Sec. 326

  aequus, -a, -um\, _even, level; equal_
  
cohors, cohortis (-ium)\, f., cohort, a tenth part of a legion,
    about 360 men
  curro:, currere, cucurri:, cursus\, _run_ (course)
  
difficulta:s, -a:tis\, f., difficulty
  fossa, -ae\, f., _ditch_ (fosse)
  
ge:ns, gentis (-ium)\, f., race, tribe, nation (Gentile)
  nego:tium, nego:ti:\, n., _business, affair, matter_ (negotiate)
  
regio:, -o:nis\, f., region, district
  ru:mor, ru:mo:ris\, m., _rumor, report_.  Cf. fa:ma
  
simul atque\, conj., as soon as

  suscipio:, suscipere, susce:pi:, susceptus\, _undertake_
  
traho:, trahere, tra:xi:, tra:ctus\, drag, draw (ex-tract)
  valeo:, vale:re, valui:, valitu:rus\, _be strong_; plu:rimum vale:re,
    _to be most powerful, have great influence_ (value).  Cf. validus

LESSON LVIII, Sec. 332

commea:tus, -u:s\, m.. _provisions_ la:titu:do:, -inis\, f., width (latitude) longitu:do:, -inis\, f., _length_ (longitude) magnitu:do:, -inis\, f., size, magnitude merca:tor, merca:to:ris\, m., _trader, merchant_ mu:ni:tio:, -o:nis\, f., fortification (munition) spatium, spati:\, n., _room, space, distance; time_

  cogno:sco:, cogno:scere, cogno:vi:, cognitus\, learn;
    in the perfect tenses, know (re-cognize)
  co:go:, co:gere, coe:gi:, coa:ctus\, _collect; compel_ (cogent)
  
de:fendo:, de:fendere, de:fendi:, de:fe:nsus\, defend
  incendo:, incendere, incendi:, ince:nsus\, _set fire to, burn_
    (incendiary).  Cf. cremo: 
  
obtineo:, obtine:re, obtinui:, obtentus\, possess, occupy, hold
    (obtain)
  pervenio:, perveni:re, perve:ni:, perventus\, _come through, arrive_

Page 229

LESSON LIX, Sec. 337

  agmen, agminis\, n., _line of march, column_;
    
pri:mum agmen\, the van;
    novissimum agmen\, _the rear_
  
atque\, ac\, conj., _and_; atque is used before vowels and
    consonants, ac before consonants only.  Cf. et and -que
  
concilium, conci’li:\, n., council, assembly
  Helve:tii:, -o:rum\, m., _the Helvetii_, a Gallic tribe
  
passus, passu:s\, m., a pace, five Roman feet;
    mi:lle passuum\, _a thousand (of) paces_, a Roman mile
  
qua:  de:  causa:\, for this reason, for what reason
  va:llum, -i:\, n., _earth-works, rampart_

  cado:, cadere, cecidi:, ca:su:rus\, _fall_ (decadence)
  
de:do:, de:dere, de:didi:, de:ditus\, surrender, give up;
    with a reflexive pronoun, surrender one’s self, submit, with the
    dative of the indirect object
  premo:, premere, pressi:, pressus\, _press hard, harass_
  
vexo:, vexa:re, vexa:vi:, vexa:tus\, annoy, ravage (vex)

LESSON LX, Sec. 341

  aut\, conj., _or_; aut ... aut, _either ... or_
  
causa:\, abl. of causa, for the sake of, because of.  Always stands
    after the gen. which modifies it
  fere:\, adv., _nearly, almost_
  
opi:nio:, -o:nis\, f., opinion, supposition, expectation
  re:s fru:menta:ria, rei:  fru:menta:riae\, f. (lit. _the grain
    affair_), _grain supply_
  
timor, -o:ris\, m., fear.  Cf. timeo: 
  undique\, adv., _from all sides_

  co:nor, co:na:ri:, co:na:tus sum\, _attempt, try_
  
e:gredior, e:gredi:, e:gressus sum\, move out, disembark;
    pro:gredior\, _move forward, advance_ (egress, progress)
  
moror, mora:ri:, mora:tus sum\, delay
  orior, oriri:, ortus sum\, _arise, spring; begin; be born_
    (_from_) (origin)
  
profici:scor, profici:sci:, profectus sum\, set out
  revertor, reverti:, reversus sum\, _return_ (revert).  The forms of
    this verb are usually active, and not deponent, in the perfect
    system.  Perf. act., reverti: 
  
sequor, sequi:, secu:tus sum\, follow (sequence).  Note the
    following compounds of sequor\ and the force of the different
    prefixes: 
    
co:nsequor\ (follow with), overtake;
    i:nsequor\ (_follow against_), _pursue_;
    
subsequor\ (follow under), follow close after

LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY

Translations inclosed within parentheses are not to be used as such; they are inserted to show etymological meanings.

  [Transcriber’s Note: 
  The “parentheses” were originally printed as [square brackets].  They
  are rendered here as [[double brackets]].]

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A

a:  or ab, prep. with abl. from, by, off
  Translated on in a:  dextro:  cornu:, on the right wing;
  a:  fronte, on the front or in front;
  a:  dextra:, on the right;
  a:  latere, on the side; etc.
ab-do:, -ere, -didi:, -ditus, hide, conceal
ab-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus, lead off, lead away
abs-ci:do:, -ere, -ci:di:,-ci:sus [[ab(s), off, + caedo:, cut]],
    cut off
ab-sum, -esse, a:fui:, a:futu:rus, be away, be absent, be distant,
    be off
; with a:  or ab and abl., Sec. 501.32
ac, conj., see atque
ac-cipio:, -ere, -ce:pi:, -ceptus [[ad, to, + capio:, take]],
    receive, accept
a:cer, a:cris, a:cre, adj. sharp; figuratively, keen, active, eager
    (Sec. 471)
acerbus, -a, -um, adj. bitter, sour
acie:s, -e:i:, f. [[a:cer, sharp]], edge; line of battle
a:criter, adv. [[a:cer, sharp]], compared a:crius, a:cerrime:,
    sharply, fiercely
ad, prep. with acc. to, towards, near
  With the gerund or gerundive, to, for
ad-aequo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, make equal, make level with
ad-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus, lead to; move, induce
ad-eo:, -i:re, -ii:, -itus, go to, approach, draw near, visit, with
    acc. (Sec. 413)
ad-fero:, ad-ferre, at-tuli:, ad-la:tus, bring, convey; report,
    announce; render, give
(Sec. 426)
ad-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[ad, to, + facio:, do]],
    affect, visit
adfli:cta:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of adfli:cto:, shatter]],
    shattered
ad-fli:go:, -ere, -fli:xi:, -fli:ctus, dash upon, strike upon; harass,
    distress

ad-hibeo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus [[ad, to, + habeo:, hold]], apply,
    employ, use

ad-hu:c, adv. hitherto, as yet, thus far
aditus, -u:s, m. [[adeo:, approach]], approach, access; entrance
    Cf. adventus
ad-ligo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, bind to, fasten
ad-loquor, -loqui:, -locu:tus sum, dep. verb [[ad, to, + loquor,
    speak]], speak to, address, with acc.
ad-ministro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, manage, direct
admi:ra:tio:, -o:nis, f. [[admi:ror, wonder at]], admiration,
    astonishment

ad-moveo:, -e:re, -mo:vi:, -mo:tus, move to; apply, employ
ad-propinquo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, come near, approach, with dat.
ad-sum, -esse, -fui:, -futu:res, be present; assist; with dat., Sec.
    426
adule:sce:ns, -entis, m. and f. [[part. of adole:sco:, grow]], a
    youth, young man, young person

adventus, -u:s, m. [[ad, to, + venio:, come]], approach,

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    arrival (Sec. 466)
adversus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of adverto:, turn to]], turned
    towards, facing; contrary, adverse
.
  re:s adversae, adversity
aedificium, aedifi’ci:, n. [[aedifico:, build]], building, edifice
aedifico:, -a:re, -a:vi, -a:tus [[aede:s, house, + facio:, make]],
    build
aeger, aegra, aegrum, adj. sick, feeble
aequa:lis, -e, adj. equal, like.  As a noun, aequa:lis, -is, m. or f.
    one of the same age
aequus, -a, -um, adj. even, level; equal
Aeso:pus, -i:, m. Aesop, a writer of fables
aesta:s, -a:tis, f. summer,
  inita:  aesta:te, at the beginning of summer
aeta:s, -a:tis, f. age
Aethiopia, -ae, f. Ethiopia, a country in Africa
A:frica, -ae, f. Africa
A:frica:nus, -a, -um, adj. of Africa.  A name given to Scipio for his
    victories in Africa
ager, agri:, m. field, farm, land (Sec. 462.c)
agger, -eris, m. mound
agmen, -inis, n. [[ago:, drive]], an army on the march, column.
    pri:mum agmen, the van
ago:, -ere, e:gi:, a:ctus, drive, lead; do, perform.
  vi:tam agere, pass life
agricola, -ae, m. [[ager, field, + colo:, cultivate]], farmer
agri:  cultu:ra, -ae, f. agriculture
a:la, -ae, f. wing
alacer, -cris, -cre, adj. active, eager.  Cf. a:cer
alacrita:s, -a:tis, f. [[alacer, active]], eagerness, alacrity
alacriter, adv. [[alacer, active]], comp alacrius, alacerrime:,
    actively, eagerly
albus, -a, -um, adj., white
alce:s, -is, f. elk
Alcme:na, -ae, f. Alcme’na, the mother of Hercules
aliquis (-qui:), -qua, -quid (-quod), indef. pron. some one, some
    (Sec. 487)
alius, -a, -ud (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), adj. another, other.
  alius ... alius, one ... another.
  alii:  ... alii:, some ... others (Sec. 110)
Alpe:s, -ium, f. plur. the Alps
alter, -era, -erum (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), adj. the one, the other
    (of two).
  alter ... alter, the one ... the other (Sec. 110)
altitu:do:, -inis, f. [[altus, high]], height
altus, -a, -um, adj. high, tall, deep
Ama:zone:s, -um, f. plur. Amazons, a fabled tribe of warlike women
ambo:, -ae, -o:, adj. (decl. like duo), both
ami:ce:, adv. [[ami:cus, friendly]], superl. ami:cissime:, in a
    friendly manner

amicio:, -i:re, ——­, -ictus [[am-, about, + iacio:, throw]],
    throw around, wrap about, clothe
ami:citia, -ae, f. [[ami:cus, friend]], friendship
ami:cus, -a, -um, adj. [[amo:, love]], friendly.  As a noun,
    ami:cus, -i:, m. friend

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a:-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus, send away; lose
amo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, love, like, be fond of (Sec. 488)
amphithea:trum, -i:, n. amphitheater
amplus, -a, -um, adj. large, ample; honorable, noble
an, conj. or, introducing the second part of a double question
ancilla, -ae, f. maidservant
ancora, -ae, f. anchor
Andromeda, -ae, f. Androm’eda, daughter of Cepheus and wife of
    Perseus
angulus, -i:, m. angle, corner
anim-adverto:, -ere, -ti:, -sus [[animus, mind, + adverto:, turn
    to
]], turn the mind to, notice
animal, -a:lis, n. [[anima, breath]], animal (Sec. 465.b)
animo:sus, -a, -um, adj. spirited
animus, -i:, m. [[anima, breath]], mind, heart; spirit, courage,
    feeling;
in this sense often plural
annus, -i, m. year
ante, prep, with acc. before
antea:, adv. [[ante]], before, formerly
anti:quus, -a, -um, adj. [[ante, before]], former, ancient, old
aper, apri:, m. wild boar
Apollo:, -inis, m. Apollo, son of Jupiter and Latona, brother of
    Diana
ap-pa:reo:, -e:re, -ui:, ——­ [[ad + pa:reo:, appear]], appear
ap-pello:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, call by name, name.  Cf. no:mino:,
    voco: 
Appius, -a, -um, adj. Appian
ap-plico:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, apply, direct, turn
apud, prep, with acc. among; at, at the house of
aqua, -ae, f. water
aquila, -ae, f. eagle
a:ra, -ae, f. altar
arbitror, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, think, suppose (Sec. 420.c).  Cf.
    exi:stimo:, puto: 
arbor, -oris, f. tree (Sec. 247.1.a)
Arcadia, -ae, f. Arcadia, a district in southern Greece
a:rdeo:, -e:re, a:rsi:, a:rsu:rus, be on fire, blaze, burn
arduus, -a, -um, adj. steep
Ari:cia, -ae, f. Aricia, a town on the Appian Way, near Rome
arie:s, -etis, m. battering-ram (p. 221)
arma, -o:rum, n. plur. arms, weapons.  Cf. te:lum
arma:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[armo:, arm]], armed, equipped
aro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, plow, till
ars, artis, f. art, skill
articulus, -i:, m. joint
ascri:bo:, -ere, -scri:psi:, -scri:ptus [[ad, in addition, + scri:bo:,
    write]], enroll, enlist
A:sia, -ae, f. Asia, i.e.  Asia Minor
at, conj. but.  Cf. autem, sed
Athe:nae, -a:rum, f. plur. Athens
Atla:s, -antis, m. Atlas, a Titan who was said to hold up the sky
at-que, ac, conj. and, and also, and what is more. atque may be
    used before either vowels or consonants, ac before consonants only
attentus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of attendo:, direct (the mind)
    toward]], attentive, intent on, careful

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at-tonitus, -a, -um, adj. thunderstruck, astounded
auda:cia, -ae, f. [[auda:x, bold]], boldness, audacity
auda:cter, adv. [[auda:x, bold]], compared auda:cius, auda:cissime:,
    boldly
auda:x, -a:cis, adj. bold, daring
audeo:, -e:re, ausus sum, dare
audio:, -i:re, -i:vi:  or -i:i:, -i:tus, hear, listen to (Secs. 420.d,
    491)
Auge:a:s, -ae, m. Auge’as, a king whose stables Hercules cleaned
aura, -ae, f. air, breeze
aura:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[aurum, gold]], adorned with gold
aureus, -a, -um, adj.[[aurum, gold]], golden
aurum, -i:, n. gold
aut, conj. or.
  aut ... aut, either ... or
autem, conj., usually second, never first, in the clause, but,
    moreover, however, now
.  Cf. at, sed
auxilium, auxi’li:, n. help, aid, assistance; plur. auxiliaries
a:-verto:, -ere, -ti:, -sus, turn away, turn aside
avis, -is, f. bird (Sec. 243.1)

B

ballista, -ae, f. ballista, an engine for hurling missiles (p. 220) balteus, -i:, m. belt, sword belt barbarus, -i:, m. barbarian, savage bellum, -i:, n. war.
  bellum i:nferre, with dat. make war upon
bene, adv. [[for bone:, from bonus]], compared melius, optime:,
    well
benigne:, adv. [[benignus, kind]], compared benignius,
    benignissime:, kindly
benignus, -a, -um, adj. good-natured, kind, often used with dat. bi:ni:, -ae, -a, distributive numeral adj. two each, two at a time
    (Sec. 334)
bis, adv. twice bonus, -a, -um, adj. compared melior, optimus, good, kind
    (Sec. 469.a)
bo:s, bovis (gen. plur. boum or bovum, dat. and abl. plur. bo:bus
    or bu:bus), m. and f. ox, cow
bracchium, bracchi:, n. arm brevis, -e, adj. short Brundisium, -i:, n. Brundisium, a seaport in southern Italy.  See map bulla, -ae, f. bulla, a locket made of small concave plates of gold
    fastened by a spring (p. 212)

C

C. abbreviation for Ga:ius, Eng. Caius cado:, -ere, ce’cidi:, ca:su:rus, fall caede:s, -is, f. [[caedo:, cut]], (a cutting down), slaughter,
    carnage
(Sec. 465.a)
caelum, -i:, n. sky, heavens Caesar, -aris, m. Caesar, the famous general, statesman, and writer calamita:s, -a:tis, f. loss, calamity, defeat, disaster calcar, -a:ris, n. spur (Sec. 465.b) Campa:nia, -ae, f. Campania., a district of central Italy.  See map Campa:nus, -a, -um, adj. of Campania campus, -i:, m. plain, field, esp. the Campus Martius, along the
    Tiber just outside the walls of Rome
canis, -is, m. and f. dog cano:, -ere, ce’cini:,

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——­, sing canto:, -a:re, -a:vi, -a:tus [[cano:, sing]], sing Cape:nus, -a, -um, adj. of Capena, esp. the Porta Cape’na, the gate
    at Rome leading to the Appian Way
capio:, -ere, ce:pi:, captus, take, seize, capture (Sec. 492) Capito:li:nus, -a, -um, adj. belonging to the Capitol, Capitoline Capito:lium, Capito:’li:, n. [[caput, head]], the Capitol, the hill
    at Rome on which stood the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and the
    citadel
capsa, -ae, f. box for books capti:vus, -i:, m. [[capio:, take]], captive Capua, -ae, f. Capua, a large city of Campania.  See map caput, -itis, n. head (Sec. 464.2.b) carcer, -eris, m. prison, jail carrus, -i:, m. cart, wagon ca:rus, -a, -um, adj. dear; precious casa, -ae, f. hut, cottage castellum, -i:, n. [[dim. of castrum, fort]], redoubt, fort castrum, -i:, n. fort.  Usually in the plural, castra, -o:rum,
    a military camp.
  castra po:nere, to pitch camp
ca:sus, -us, m. [[cado:, fall]], chance; misfortune, loss catapulta, -ae, f. catapult, an engine for hurling stones cate:na, -ae, f. chain caupo:na, -ae, f. inn causa, -ae, f. cause, reason, qua:  de:  causa:, for this reason ce:do:, -ere, cessi:, cessu:rus, give way, retire celer, -eris, -ere, adj. swift, fleet celerita:s, -a:tis, f. [[celer, swift]], swiftness, speed celeriter, adv. [[celer, swift]], compared celerius, celerrime:,
    swiftly
ce:na, -ae, f. dinner centum, indecl. numeral adj. hundred centurio:, -o:nis, m. centurion, captain Ce:pheus (dissyl.), -ei:  (acc.  Ce:phea), m. Cepheus, a king of
    Ethiopia and father of Andromeda
Cerberus, -i:, m. Cerberus, the fabled three-headed dog that guarded
    the entrance to Hades
certa:men, -inis, n. [[certo:, struggle]], struggle, contest,
    rivalry

certe:, adv. [[certus, sure]], compared certius, certissime:,
    surely, certainly
certus, -a, -um, adj. fixed, certain, sure.
  aliquem certio:rem facere (to make some one more certain),
    to inform some one
cervus, -i:, m. stag, deer cesso:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, delay, cease ciba:ria, -o:rum, n. plur. food, provisions cibus, -i:, m. food, victuals Cimbri:, -o:rum, m. plur. the Cimbri Cimbricus, -a, -um, adj. Cimbrian ci:nctus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of cingo:, surround]], girt,
    surrounded

cingo:, -ere, ci:nxi:, ci:nctus, gird, surround circiter, adv. about circum, prep, with acc. around circum’-do:, -dare, -dedi:, -datus, place around, surround, inclose circum’-eo:, -i:re, -ii:, -itus, go around circum-sisto:, -ere, circum’steti:, ——­, stand

Page 235

around, surround
circum-venio:, -i:re, -ve:ni:, -ventus (come around), surround citerior, -ius, adj. in comp., superl. citimus, hither, nearer
    (Sec. 475)
ci:vi:lis, -e, adj. [[ci:vis]], civil ci:vis, -is, m. and f. citizen (Sec. 243.1) ci:vita:s, -a:tis, f. [[ci:vis, citizen]], (body of citizens),
    state; citizenship
cla:mor, -o:ris, m. shout, cry cla:rus, -a, -um, adj. clear; famous, renowned; bright, shining classis, -is, f. fleet claudo:, -ere, -si:, -sus, shut, close clavus, -i:, m. stripe clie:ns, -entis, m. dependent, retainer, client (Sec. 465.a) Cocles, -itis, m. (blind in one eye), Cocles, the surname of
    Horatius
co-gno:sco:, -ere, -gno:vi:, -gni:tus, learn, know, understand.  Cf.
    scio:  (Sec. 420.b)
co:go:, -ere, coe:gi:, coa:ctus [[co(m)-, together, + ago:, drive]],
    (drive together), collect; compel, drive
cohors, cohortis, f. cohort, the tenth part of a legion, about 360
    men
collis, -is, m. hill, in summo:  colle, on top of the hill
    (Sec. 247.2.a)
collum, -i:, n. neck colo:, -ere, colui:, cultus, cultivate, till; honor, worship; devote
    one’s self to

columna, -ae, f. column, pillar com- (col-, con-, cor-, co-), a prefix, together, with, or
    intensifying the meaning of the root word
coma, -ae, f. hair comes, -itis, m. and f. [[com-, together, + eo:, go]],
    companion, comrade
comita:tus, -u:s, m. [[comitor, accompany]], escort, company comitor, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, dep. verb [[comes, companion]],
    accompany
com-mea:tus, -u:s, m. supplies com-minus, adv. [[com-, together, + manus, hand]], hand to
    hand

com-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus, join together; commit, intrust.
  proelium committere, join battle.
  se:  committere with dat, trust one’s self to
commode:, adv. [[commodus, fit]], compared commodius,
    commodissime:, conveniently, fitly
commodus, -a, -um, adj. suitable, fit com-mo:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of commoveo:, move]], aroused,
    moved

com-paro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[com-, intensive, + paro:,
    prepare]], prepare; provide, get
com-pleo:, -e:re, -ple:vi:, -ple:tus [[com-, intensive, + pleo:,
    fill]], fill up
complexus, -u:s, m. embrace com-primo:, -ere, -pressi:, -pressus [[com-, together, + premo:,
    press]], press together, grasp, seize
con-cido:, -ere, -cidi:, ——­ [[com-, intensive, + cado:, fall]],
    fall down
concilium, conci’li:, n. meeting, council con-clu:do:, -ere, -clu:si:, -clu:sus [[com-, intensive,

Page 236

+ claudo:,
    close]], shut up, close; end, finish
con-curro:, -ere, -curri:, -cursus [[com-, together, + curro:,
    run]], run together; rally, gather
condicio:, -o:nis, f. [[com-, together, + dico:, talk]],
    agreement, condition, terms
con-do:no:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, pardon con-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus, hire co:n-fero:, -ferre, -tuli:, -la:tus, bring together.
  se:  co:nferre, betake one’s self
co:n-fertus, -a, -um, adj. crowded, thick co:nfestim, adv. immediately co:n-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[com-, completely, + facio:,
    do]], make, complete, accomplish, finish
co:n-fi:rmo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, make firm, establish, strengthen,
    affirm, assert

co:n-fluo:, -ere, -flu:xi:, ——­, flow together co:n-fugio:, -ere, -fu:gi:, -fugitu:rus, flee for refuge, flee con-icio:, -ere, -ie:ci:, -iectus [[com-, intensive, + iacio:,
    throw]], hurl
con-iungo:, -ere, -iu:nxi:, -iu:nctus [[com-, together, + iungo:,
    join]], join together, unite
con-iu:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[com-, together, + iu:ro:,
    swear]], unite by oath, conspire
con-loco:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[com-, together, + loco:, place]],
    arrange, place, station
conloquium, conlo’qui:, n. [[com-, together, + loquor, speak]],
    conversation, conference
co:nor, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, dep. verb, endeavor, attempt, try co:n-scendo:, -ere, -scendi:, -sce:nsus [[com-, intensive, + scando:,
    climb]], climb up, ascend.
  na:vem co:nscendere, embark, go on board
co:n-scri:bo:, -ere, -scri:psi:, -scri:ptus [[com-, together, +
    scri:bo:, write]], (write together), enroll, enlist
co:n-secro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[com-, intensive, + sacro:,
    consecrate]], consecrate, devote
co:n-sequor, -sequi:, -secu:tus sum, dep. verb [[com-, intensive, +
    sequor, follow]], pursue; overtake; win
co:n-servo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[com-, intensive, + servo:,
    save]], preserve, save
co:nsilium, co:nsi’li:, n. plan, purpose, design; wisdom co:n-sisto:, -ere, -stiti:, -stitus [[com-, intensive, + sisto:,
    cause to stand]], stand firmly, halt, take one’s stand
co:n-spicio:, -ere, -spe:xi:, -spectus [[com-, intensive, + spicio:,
    spy]], look at attentively, perceive, see
co:nstantia, -ae, f. firmness, steadiness, perseverance co:n-stituo:, -ere, -ui:, -u:tus [[com-, intensive, + statuo:,
    set]], establish, determine, resolve
co:n-sto:, -a:re, -stiti:, -sta:tu:rus [[com-, together, + sto:,
    stand]], agree;

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be certain; consist of

co:nsul, -ulis, m. consul (Sec. 464.2.a) co:n-su:mo:, -ere, -su:mpsi:, -su:mptus [[com-, intensive, + sumo:,
    take]], consume, use up
con-tendo:, -ere, -di:, -tus, strain; hasten; fight, contend,
    struggle

con-tineo:, -e:re, -ui:, -tentus [[com-, together, + teneo:,
    hold]], hold together, hem in, contain; restrain
contra:, prep, with acc. against, contrary to con-traho:, -ere, -tra:xi:, -tra:ctus [[com-, together, + traho:,
    draw]], draw together; of sails, shorten, furl
contro:versia, -ae, f. dispute, quarrel con-venio:, -i:re, -ve:ni:, -ventus [[com-, together, + venio:,
    come]], come together, meet, assemble
con-verto:, -ere, -verti:, -versus [[com-, intensive, + verto:,
    turn]], turn
con-voco:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[com-, together, + voco:, call]],
    call together
co-orior, -i:ri:, -ortus sum, dep. verb [[com-, intensive, + orior,
    rise]], rise, break forth
co:pia, -ae, f. [[com-, intensive, + ops, wealth]], abundance,
    wealth, plenty
.  Plur. co:piae, -a:rum, troops
coquo:, -ere, coxi:, coctus, cook Corinthus, -i:, f. Corinth, the famous city on the Isthmus of Corinth Corne:lia, -ae, f. Cornelia, daughter of Scipio and mother of the
    Gracchi
Corne:lius, Corne:’li:, m. Cornelius, a Roman name cornu:, -u:s, n. horn; wing of an army, a:  dextro:  cornu:, on the
    right wing
(Sec. 466)
coro:na, -ae, f. garland, wreath; crown coro:na:tus, -a, -um, adj. crowned corpus, -oris, n. body cor-ripio:, -ere, -ui:, -reptus [[com-, intensive, + rapio:,
    seize]], seize, grasp
coti:dia:nus, -a, -um, adj. daily coti:die:, adv. daily cre:ber, -bra, -brum, adj. thick, crowded, numerous, frequent cre:do:, -ere, -di:di:, -ditus, trust, believe, with dat. 
    (Sec. 501.14)
cremo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, burn creo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, make; elect, appoint Creo:n, -ontis, m. Creon, a king of Corinth cre:sco:, -ere, cre:vi:, cre:tus, rise, grow, increase Cre:ta, -ae, f. Crete, a large island in the Mediterranean Cre:taeus, -a, -um, adj. Cretan cru:s, cru:ris, n. leg cru:stulum, -i:, n. pastry, cake cubi:le, -is, n. bed cultu:ra, -ae, f. culture, cultivation cum, conj. with the indic. or subjv. when; since; although
    (Sec. 501.46)
cum, prep, with abl. with (Sec. 209) cupide:, adv. [[cupidus, desirous]], compared cupidius,
    cupidissime:, eagerly
cupidita:s, -a:tis, f. [[cupidus, desirous]], desire, longing cupio:, -ere, -i:vi:  or -ii:, -i:tus, desire, wish.  Cf. volo:  cu:r, adv. why, wherefore cu:ra, -ae, f. care, pains; anxiety cu:ria, -ae, f. senate house cu:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[cu:ra, care]], care for, attend to,
    look after

curro:, -ere, cucurri:, cursus, run currus, -u:s, m. chariot cursus, -u:s, m. course custo:dio:, -i:re, -i:vi:, -i:tus [[custo:s, guard]], guard, watch

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D

Daedalus, -i:, m. Daed’alus, the supposed inventor of the first flying
    machine
Da:vus, -i:, m. Davus, name of a slave
de:, prep, with abl. down from, from; concerning, about, for
    (Sec. 209).
  qua:  de:  causa:, for this reason, wherefore
dea, -ae, f. goddess (Sec. 461.a)
de:beo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus [[de:, from, + habeo:, hold]], owe,
    ought, should

decem, indecl. numeral adj. ten
de:-cerno:, -ere, -cre:vi:, -cre:tus [[de:, from, + cerno:,
    separate]], decide, decree
de:-cido:, -ere, -cidi:, ——­ [[de:, down, + cado:, fall]], fall
    down

decimus, -a, -um, numeral adj. tenth
de:cli:vis, -e, adj. sloping downward
de:-do:, -ere, -didi:, -ditus, give up, surrender, se:  de:dere,
    surrender one’s self
de:-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus [[de:, down, + du:co:, lead]],
    lead down, escort
de:-fendo:, -ere, -di:, -fe:nsus, ward off, repel, defend
de:-fero:, -ferre, -tuli:, -la:tus [[de:, down, + fero:, bring]],
    bring down; report, announce (Sec. 426)
de:-fessus, -a, -um, adj. tired out, weary
de:-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[de:, from, + facio:, make]],
    fail, be wanting; revolt from
de:-fi:go:, -ere, -fi:xi:, -fi:xus [[de:, down, + fi:go:, fasten]],
    fasten, fix
de:-icio:, -ere, -ie:ci:, -iectus [[de:, down, + iacio:, hurl]],
    hurl down; bring down, kill
de-inde, adv. (from thence), then, in the next place
de:lecto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, delight
de:leo:, -e:re, -e:vi:, -e:tus, blot out, destroy
de:li:bero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, weigh, deliberate, ponder
de:-ligo:, -ere, -le:gi:, -le:ctus [[de:, from, + lego:, gather]],
    choose, select
Delphicus, -a, -um, adj. Delphic
de:missus, -a, -um [[part. of de:mitto:, send down]], downcast,
    humble

de:-mo:nstro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[de:, out, + mo:nstro:,
    point]], point out, show
de:mum, adv. at last, not till then.
  tum de:mum, then at last
de:nique, adv. at last, finally.  Cf. postre:mo: 
de:ns, dentis, m. tooth (Sec. 247.2.a)
de:nsus, -a, -um, adj. dense, thick
de:-pendeo:, -e:re, ——­, ——­ [[de:, down, + pendeo:, hang]], hang
    from, hang down

de:-plo:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[de:, intensive, + plo:ro:,
    wail]], bewail, deplore
de:-po:no:, -ere, -posui:, -positus [[de:, down, + po:no:, put]],
    put down
de:-scendo:, -ere, -di:, -sce:nsus [[de:, down,

Page 239

+ scando:, climb]],
    climb down, descend
de:-scri:bo:, -ere, -scri:psi:, -scri:ptus [[de:, down, + scri:bo:,
    write]], write down
de:si:dero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, long for
de:-silio:, -i:re, -ui:, -sultus [[de:, down, + salio:, leap]],
    leap down
de:-spe:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[de:, away from, + spe:ro:,
    hope]], despair
de:-spicio:, -ere, -spe:xi, -spectus [[de:, down]], look down upon,
    despise

de:-sum, -esse, -fui:, -futu:rus [[de:, away from, + sum, be]],
    be wanting, lack, with dat. (Sec. 426)
deus, -i:, m. god (Sec. 468)
de:-volvo:, -ere, -volvi:, -volu:tus [[de:, down, + volvo:, roll]],
    roll down
de:-voro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[de:, down, + voro:, swallow]],
    devour
dexter, -tra, -trum (-tera, -terum), adj. to the right, right.
  a:  dextro:  cornu:, on the right wing
Dia:na, -ae, f. Diana, goddess of the moon and twin sister of Apollo
di:co:, -ere, di:xi:, dictus (imv. di:c), say, speak, tell.  Usually
    introduces indirect discourse (Sec. 420.a)
dicta:tor, -o:ris, m. [[dicto:, dictate]], dictator, a chief
    magistrate with unlimited power
die:s, -e:i or die:, m., sometimes f. in sing., day (Sec. 467)
dif-fero:, -ferre, distuli:, di:la:tus [[dis-, apart, + fero:,
    carry]], carry apart; differ.
  differre inter se:, differ from each other
dif-ficilis, -e, adj. [[dis-, not, + facilis, easy]], hard,
    difficult
(Sec. 307)
difficulta:s, -a:tis, f. [[difficilis, hard]], difficulty
di:ligenter, adv. [[di:lige:ns, careful]], compared di:ligentius,
    di:ligentissime:, industriously, diligently
di:ligentia, -ae, f. [[di:lige:ns, careful]], industry, diligence
di:-mico:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, fight, struggle
di:-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus [[di:-, off, + mitto:, send]],
    send away, dismiss, disband.
  di:mittere animum in, direct one’s mind to, apply one’s self to
Diome:de:s, -is, m. Di:-o-me:’de:s, a name
dis-, di:-, a prefix expressing separation, off, apart, in different
    directions
.  Often negatives the meaning
dis-ce:do:, -ere, -cessi:, -cessus [[dis-, apart, + ce:do:, go]],
    depart from, leave, withdraw, go away
dis-cerno:, -ere, -cre:vi:, -cre:tus [[dis-, apart, + cerno:,
    sift]], separate; distinguish
discipli:na, -ae, f. instruction, training, discipline
discipulus, -i:, m. [[disco:, learn]], pupil, disciple
disco:, -ere, didici:, ——­, learn
dis-cutio:, -ere, -cussi:, -cussus [[dis-, apart,

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+ quatio:,
    shake]], shatter, dash to pieces
dis-po:no:, -ere, -posui:, -positus [[dis-, apart, + po:no:, put]],
    put here and there, arrange, station
dis-similis, -e, adj. [[dis-, apart, + similis, like]],
    unlike, dissimilar (Sec. 307)
dis-tribuo:, -ere, -ui:, -u:tus, divide, distribute
diu:, adv., compared diu:tius, diu:tissime:, for a long time, long
    (Sec. 477)
do:, dare, dedi:, datus, give.
  in fugam dare, put to flight.
  alicui nego:tium dare, employ some one
doceo:, -e:re, -ui:, -tus, teach, show
doctri:na, -ae, f. [[doctor, teacher]], teaching, learning,
    wisdom

dolor, -o:ris, m. pain, sorrow
domesticus, -a, -um, adj. [[domus, house]], of the house,
    domestic

domicilium, domici’li:, n. dwelling; house, abode.  Cf. domus
domina, -ae, f. mistress (of the house), lady (Sec. 461)
dominus, -i:, m. master (of the house), owner, ruler (Sec. 462)
domus, -u:s, f. house, home.
  domi:, locative, at home (Sec. 468)
dormio:, -i:re, -i:vi:, -i:tus, sleep
draco:, -o:nis, m. serpent, dragon
dubito:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, hesitate
dubius, -a, -um, adj. [[duo, two]], (moving two ways),
    doubtful, dubious
du-centi:, -ae, -a, numeral adj. two hundred
du:co:, -ere, du:xi:, ductus (imv. du:c), lead, conduct
dum, conj. while, as long as
duo, duae, duo, numeral adj. two (Sec. 479)
duo-decim, indecl. numeral adj. twelve
du:rus, -a, -um, adj. hard, tough; harsh, pitiless, bitter
dux, ducis, m. and f. [[cf. du:co:, lead]], leader, commander

E

e:  or ex, prep, with abl. out of, from, off, of (Sec. 209) eburneus, -a, -um, adj. of ivory ecce, adv. see! behold! there! here! e:-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus [[e:, out, + du:co:, lead]], lead
    out, draw out

ef-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[ex, thoroughly, + facio:,
    do]], work out; make, cause
ef-fugio:, -ere, -fu:gi:, -fugitu:rus [[ex, from, + fugio:, flee]],
    escape
egeo:, -e:re, -ui:, ——­, be in need of, lack, with abl. (Sec. 501.32) ego, pers. pron. I; plur. no:s, we (Sec. 480) e:-gredior, -i:, e:gressus sum, dep. verb [[e:, out of, + gradior,
    go]], go out, go forth.
  e:  na:vi:  e:gredi:, disembark
e:-icio:, -ere, -ie:ci:, -iectus [[e:, forth, + iacio:, hurl]],
    hurl forth, expel
elementum, -i:, n., in plur. first principles, rudiments elephantus, -i:, m. elephant E:lis, Elidis, f. E’lis, a district of

Page 241

southern Greece emo:, -ere, e:mi:, e:mptus, buy, purchase enim, conj., never standing first, for, in fact, indeed. Cf. nam Ennius, Enni:, m. Ennius, the father of Roman poetry, born 239 B.C. eo:, i:re, ii:  (i:vi:), itu:rus, go (Sec. 499) eo:, adv. to that place, thither E:pi:rus, -i:, f. Epi’rus, a district in the north of Greece eques, -itis, m. [[equus, horse]], horseman, cavalryman equita:tus, -u:s, m. [[equito:, ride]], cavalry equus, -i:, m. horse e:-rigo:, -ere, -re:xi:, -re:ctus [[e:, out, + rego:, make
    straight
]], raise up
e:-ripio:, -ere, -ui:, -reptus [[e:, out of, + rapio:, seize]],
    seize, rescue
e:-rumpo:, -ere, -ru:pi:, -ruptus [[e:, forth, + rumpo:, break]],
    burst forth
e:ruptio:, -o:nis, f. sally Erymanthius, -a, -um, adj. Erymanthian, of Erymanthus, a district in
    southern Greece
et, conj. and, also. et ... et, both ... and.  Cf. atque, ac,
    -que
etiam, adv. (rarely conj.) [[et, also, + iam, now]], yet,
    still; also, besides
.  Cf. quoque.
  no:n so:lum ... sed etiam, not only ... but also
Etru:sci:, -o:rum, m. the Etruscans, the people of Etruria.  See map of
    Italy
Euro:pa, -ae, f. Europe Eurystheus, -i:, m. Eurys’theus, a king of Tiryns, a city in southern
    Greece
e:-va:do:, -ere, -va:si:, -va:sus [[e:, out, + va:do:, go]], go
    forth, escape

ex, see e:  exanima:tus, -a, -um [[part. of exanimo:, put out of breath
    (anima)]], adj. out of breath, tired; lifeless
ex-cipio:, -ere, -ce:pi:, -ceptus [[ex, out, + capio:, take]],
    welcome, receive
exemplum, -i:, n. example, model ex-eo:,-i:re,-ii:,-itu:rus [[ex, out, + eo:, go]], go out, go
    forth
(Sec. 413)
ex-erceo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus [[ex, out, + arceo:, shut]], (shut
    out), employ, train, exercise, use

exercitus, -us, m. [[exerceo:, train]], army ex-i:stimo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[ex, out, + aestimo:, reckon]],
    estimate; think, judge (Sec. 420.c).  Cf. arbitror, puto: 
ex-orior, -i:ri:, -ortus sum, dep. verb [[ex, forth, + orior,
    rise]], come forth, rise
expedi:tus, -a, -um, adj. without baggage ex-pello:, -ere, -puli:, -pulsus [[ex, out, + pello:, drive]],
    drive out
ex-pio:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[ex, intensive, + pi:o, atone for]],
    make amends for, atone for
explo:ra:tor, -o:ris, m. [[explo:ro:, investigate]], spy, scout explo:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, examine, explore ex-pugno:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[ex, out, + pugno:, fight]], take

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    by storm, capture

exsilium, exsi’li:, n. [[exsul, exile]], banishment, exile ex-specto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[ex, out, + specto:, look]],
    expect, wait
ex-struo:, -ere, -stru:xi:, -stru:ctus [[ex, out, + struo:,
    build]], build up, erect
exterus, -a, -um, adj., compared exterior, extre:mus or extimus,
    outside, outer (Sec. 312)
extra:, prep, with acc. beyond, outside of ex-traho:, -ere, -tra:xi:, -tra:ctus [[ex, out, + traho:, drag]],
    drag out, pull forth
extre:mus, -a, -um, adj., superl. of exterus, utmost, farthest
    (Sec. 312)

F

fa:bula, -ae, f. story, tale, fable
facile, adv. [[facilis, easy]], compared facilius, facillime:,
    easily (Sec. 322)
facilis, -e, adj. [[cf. facio:, make]], easy, without difficulty
    (Sec. 307)
facio:, -ere, fe:ci:, factus (imv. fac), make, do; cause, bring
    about
.
  impetum facere in, make an attack upon.
  proelium facere, fight a battle.
  iter facere, make a march or journey.
  aliquem certio:rem facere, inform some one.
  facere verba pro:, speak in behalf of
    Passive fi:o:, fieri:, factus sum, be done, happen.
      certior fieri:, be informed
fallo:, -ere, fefelli:, falsus, trip, betray, deceive
fa:ma, -ae, f. report, rumor; renown, fame, reputation
fame:s, -is (abl. fame:), f. hunger
familia, -ae, f. servants, slaves; household, family
fasce:s, -ium (plur. of fascis), f. fasces (p. 225)
fasti:gium, fasti:’gi:, n. top; slope, descent
fa:tum, -i:, n. fate, destiny
fauce:s, -ium, f. plur. jaws, throat
faveo:, -e:re, fa:vi:, fautu:rus, be favorable to, favor, with dat. 
    (Sec. 501.14)
fe:li:x, -i:cis, adj. happy, lucky
fe:mina, -ae, f. woman.  Cf. mulier
fera, -ae, f. [[ferus, wild]], wild beast
fera:x, -a:cis, adj. fertile
fere:, adv. about, nearly, almost
fero:, ferre, tuli:, la:tus, bear.
  graviter or moleste:  ferre, be annoyed (Sec. 498)
ferreus, -a, -um, adj. [[ferrum, iron]], made of iron
fide:lis, -e, adj. [[fide:s, trust]], faithful, true
fide:s, fidei:  or fide:, trust, faith; promise, word; protection.
  in fidem veni:re, come under the protection.
  in fide:  mane:re, remain loyal
fi:lia, -ae (dat. and abl. plur. fi:lia:bus), f. daughter (Sec. 461.a)
fi:lius, fi:li:  (voc. sing, fi:li:), m. son
fi:nis, -is, m. boundary, limit, end; in plur. territory, country
    (Sec. 243.1)
fi:nitimus, -a, -um, adj. [[fi:nis, boundary]],

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adjoining,
    neighboring

  Plur. fi:nitimi:, -o:rum, m. neighbors
fi:o:, fieri:, factus sum, used as passive of facio:.  See facio:  (Sec.
    500)
flamma, -ae, f. fire, flame
flo:s, flo:ris, m. flower
fluctus, -u:s, m. [[of. fluo:, flow]], flood, wave, billow
flu:men, -inis, n. [[cf. fluo:, flow]], river (Sec. 464.2.b)
fluo:, -ere, flu:xi:, fluxus, flow
fluvius, fluvi:, m. [[cf. fluo:, flow]], river
fodio:, -ere, fo:di:, fossus, dig
fo:ns, fontis, m. fountain (Sec. 247.2.a)
fo:rma, -ae, f. form, shape, appearance; beauty
Formiae, -a:rum, f. Formiae, a town of Latium on the Appian Way. 
    See map
forte, adv. [[abl. of fors, chance]], by chance
fortis, -e, adj. strong; fearless, brave
fortiter, adv. [[fortis, strong]], compared fortius, fortissime:,
    strongly; bravely
fortu:na, -ae, f. [[fors, chance]], chance, fate, fortune
forum, -i:, n. market place, esp. the Forum Ro:ma:num, where the life
    of Rome centered
Forum Appi:, Forum of Appius, a town in Latium on the Appian Way
fossa, -ae, f. [[cf. fodio:, dig]], ditch
fragor, -o:ris, m. [[cf. frango:, break]], crash, noise
frango:, -ere, fre:gi:, fra:ctus, break
fra:ter, -tris, m. brother
fremitus, -u:s, m. loud noise
frequento:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, attend
fre:tus, -a, -um, adj. supported, trusting.  Usually with abl. of
    means
fro:ns, frontis, f. front, a:  fronte, in front
fru:ctus, -u:s, m. fruit
fru:menta:rius, -a, -um, adj. pertaining to grain.
  re:s fru:menta:ria, grain supplies
fru:mentum, -i:, n. grain
fru:stra:, adv. in vain, vainly
fuga, -ae, f. [[cf. fugio:, flee]], flight.
  in fugam dare, put to flight
fugio:, -ere, fu:gi:, fugitu:rus, flee, run; avoid, shun
fu:mo:, -are, ------, ------, smoke
fu:nis, -is, m. rope
furor, -o:ris, m. [[furo:, rage]], madness.
  in furo:rem inci:dere, go mad

G

Ga:ius, Ga:i:, m. Gaius, a Roman name, abbreviated C., English form
    Caius
Galba, -ae, m. Galba, a Roman name
galea, -ae, f. helmet
Gallia, -ae, f. Gaul, the country comprising what is now Holland,
    Belgium, Switzerland, and France
Gallicus, -a, -um, adj. Gallic
galli:na, -ae, f. hen, chicken
Gallus, -i:, m. a Gaul
gaudium, gaudi:, n. joy
Gena:va, -ae, f. Geneva, a city in Switzerland
ge:ns, gentis, f. [[cf. gigno:, beget]], race, family; people,
    nation, tribe

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genus, -eris, n. kind, variety
Germa:nia, -ae, f. Germany
Germa:nus, -i:, m. a German
gero:, -ere, gessi:, gestus, carry, wear; wage.
  bellum gerere, wage war.
  re:s gestae, exploits.
  bene gerere, carry on successfully
gladia:to:rius, -a, -um, adj. gladiatorial
gladius, gladi:, m. sword
glo:ria, -ae, f. glory, fame
Gracchus, -i:, m. Gracchus, name of a famous Roman family
gracilis, -e, adj. slender (Sec. 307)
Graeca, -o:rum, n. plur. Greek writings, Greek literature
Graece:, adv. in Greek
Graecia, -ae, f. Greece
grammaticus, -i:, m. grammarian
gra:tia, -ae, f. thanks, gratitude
gra:tus, -a, -um, adj. acceptable, pleasing.  Often with dat. 
    (Sec. 501.16)
gravis, -e:, adj. heavy; disagreeable; serious, dangerous; earnest,
    weighty

graviter, adv. [[gravis, heavy]], compared gravius, gravissime:,
    heavily; greatly, seriously.
  graviter ferre, bear ill, take to heart
guberna:tor, -o:ris, m. [[guberno:, pilot]], pilot

H

habe:na, -ae, f. halter, rein. habeo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus, have, hold; regard, consider, deem habito:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[cf. habeo:, have]], dwell, abide,
    inhabit
.  Cf. incolo:, vi:vo: 
ha:c-tenus, adv. thus far Helve:tii:, -o:rum, m. the Helvetii, a Gallic tribe Hercule:s, -is, m. Hercules, son of Jupiter and Alcmena, and god of
    strength
Hesperide:s, -um, f. the Hesperides, daughters of Hesperus, who kept
    the garden of the golden apples
hic, haec, hoc, demonstrative adj. and pron. this (of mine); as
    pers. pron. he, she, it (Sec. 481)
hi:c, adv. here hiems, -emis, f. winter hi:nc, adv. [[hi:c, here]], from here, hence Hippolyte:, -e:s, f. Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons ho-die:, adv. [[modified form of ho:c die:, on this day]], to-day homo:, -inis, m. and f. (human being), man, person honestus, -a, -um, adv. [[honor, honor]], respected, honorable honor, -o:ris, m. honor ho:ra, -ae, f. hour Hora:tius, Hora:’ti:, m. Horatius, a Roman name horribilis, -e, adj. terrible, horrible hortor, -a:ri, -a:tus sum, dep. verb, urge, incite, exhort, encourage
    (Sec. 493)
hortus, -i:, m. garden hospitium, hospi’ti:, n. [[hospes, host]], hospitality hostis, -is, m. and f. enemy, foe (Sec. 465.a) humilis, -e, adj. low, humble (Sec. 307) Hydra, -ae, f. the Hydra, a mythical water snake slain by
    Hercules

I

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iacio:, -ere, ie:ci:, iactus, throw, hurl iam, adv. now, already.
  nec iam, and no longer
Ia:niculum, -i:, n. the Janiculum, one of the hills of Rome ia:nua, -ae, f. door ibi, adv. there, in that place I:carus, -i:, m. Ic’arus, the son of Daedalus ictus, -u:s, m. [[cf. i:co:, strike]], blow i:dem, e’adem, idem, demonstrative pron. [[is + dem]], same
    (Sec. 481)
ido:neus, -a, -um, adj. suitable, fit igitur, conj., seldom the first word, therefore, then.  Cf. itaque ignis, -is, m. fire (Secs. 243.1; 247. 2.a; 465, 1) igno:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, not, + (g)notus, known]],
    unknown, strange
ille, illa, illud, demonstrative adj. and pron. that (yonder); as
    pers. pron. he, she, it (Sec. 481)
illi:c, adv. [[cf. ille]], yonder, there im-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus [[in, against, + mitto:, send]],
    send against; let in
immolo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[in, upon, + mola, meal]],
    sprinkle with sacrificial meal; offer, sacrifice
im-morta:lis, -e, adj. [[in-, not, + mortalis, mortal]],
    immortal
im-morta:lita:s, -a:tis, f. [[immorta:lis, immortal]], immortality im-para:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, not, + para:tus, prepared]],
    unprepared
impedi:mentum, -i:, n. [[impedio:, hinder]], hindrance; in plur.
    baggage
impedi:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of impedio:, hinder]], hindered,
    burdened

im-pello:, -ere, -puli:, -pulsus [[in, against, + pello:,
    strike]], strike against; impel, drive, propel
impera:tor, -o:ris, m. [[impero:, command]], general imperium, impe’ri:, n. [[impero:, command]], command, order; realm,
    empire; power, authority

impero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, command, order.  Usually with dat. and
    an object clause of purpose (Sec. 501.41). 
  With acc. object, levy, impose
impetus, -u:s, m. attack, impetum facere in, make an attack upon im-po:no:, -ere, -posui, -positus [[in, upon, + po:no:, place]],
    place upon; impose, assign
in, prep, with acc. into, to, against, at, upon, towards; with abl.
    in, on.
  in reliquum tempus, for the future
in-, inseparable prefix.  With nouns and adjectives often with a
    negative force, like English un-, in-
in-cautus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, not, + cautus, careful]], off
    one’s guard

incendium, incendi:, n. flame, fire.  Cf. ignis, flamma in-cendo:, -ere, -di:, -ce:nsus, set fire to, burn in-cido:, -ere, -cidi:, ——­, [[in, in, on, + cado:, fall]],
    fall in, fall on; happen.
  in furo:rem incidere, go mad

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in-cipio:, -ere, -ce:pi, -ceptus [[in, on, + capio:, take]],
    begin
in-cognitus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, not, + cognitus, known]],
    unknown
in-colo:, -ere, -ui:, ——­, [[in, in, + colo:, dwell]], inhabit;
    live

incolumis, -e, adj. sound, safe, uninjured, imharmed in-cre:dibilis, -e, adj. [[in-, not, + cre:dibilis, to be
    believed
]], incredible
inde, from that place, thence induo:, -ere, -ui:, -u:tus, put on indu:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of induo:, put on]], clothed in-eo:, -i:re, -ii:, -itus [[in, into, + eo:, go]], go into;
    enter upon, begin
, with acc. (Sec. 413)
i:n-fa:ns, -fantis, adj. [[in-, not, + fa:ns, _speaking_]], _not
    speaking_.  As a noun, m. and f. _infant_
i:n-fe:li:x, -i:cis, adj. [[in-, _not_, + fe:li:x, _happy_]], _unhappy,
    unlucky_
i:nfe:nsus, -a, -um, adj. _hostile_ i:n’-fero:, i:nfer’re, in’tuli:, inla:’tus [[in, _against_, + fero:,
    _bear_]], _bring against or upon, inflict_, with acc. and dat. 
    (Sec. 501.15).
  bellum i:nferre, with dat., _make war upon_
i:nferus, -a, -um, adj. _low, below_ (Sec. 312). i:n-fi:ni:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, _not_, + fi:ni:tus, _bounded_]],
    _boundless, endless_
i:n-fi:rmus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, _not_, + fi:rmus, _strong_]],
    _weak, infirm_
ingenium, inge’ni, n. _talent, ability_ inge:ns, -entis, adj. _vast, huge, enormous, large_.  Cf. magnus in-gredior, -gredi:, -gressus sum [[in, _in_, + gradior, _walk_]],
    _advance, enter_
inimi:cus, -a, -um, adj. [[in-, _not_, + ami:cus, _friendly_]],
    _hostile_. 
  As a noun, inimi:cus, -i:, m. _enemy, foe_.  Cf. hostis
initium, ini’ti:, _entrance, beginning_ initus, -a, -um, part. of ineo:.
  inita:  aesta:te, _at the beginning of summer_
iniu:ria, -ae, f. [[in, _against_, + iu:s, _law_]], _injustice,
    wrong, injury_.
  alicui iniu:ria:s i:nferre, _inflict wrongs upon some one_
inopia, -ae, f. [[inops, _needy_]], _want, need, lack_ in-opi:na:ns, -antis, adj. [[in-, _not_, + opi:na:ns, _thinking_]],
    _not expecting, taken by surprise_
inquit, _said he, said she_.  Regularly inserted in a direct quotation in-rigo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _irrigate, water_ in-rumpo:, -ere, -ru:pi:, -ruptus [[in, _into_, + rumpo:, _break_]],
    _burst in, break in_
in-ruo:, -ere, -rui:,——­ [[in, _in_, + ruo:, _rush_]], _rush in_ i:n-sequor, -sequi:, -secu:tus sum, dep. verb [[in, _on_, + sequor,
    _follow_]], _follow on, pursue_
i:n-signe, -is, n. _badge, decoration_ (Sec. 465.b) i:nsignis, -e, adj. _remarkable, noted_ i:nsta:ns, -antis, adj. [[part. of i:nsto, _be at hand_]], _present,
    immediate_
i:n-sto:, -a:re, -stiti:, -statu:rus [[in, _upon_, + sto:, _stand_]],
    _stand upon; be at hand; pursue, press on_

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i:nstru:mentum, -i:, n. _instrument_ i:n-struo:, -ere, -stru:xi:, -stru:ctus [[in, _on_, + struo:, _build_]],
    _draw up_
i:nsula, -ae, f. _island_ integer, -gra, -grum, _untouched, whole; fresh, new_ intellego:, -ere, -le:xi:, -le:ctus [[inter, _between_, +lego:,
    _choose_]], _perceive, understand_ (Sec. 420.d)
intento:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _aim; threaten_ inter, prep. with acc. _between, among; during, while_ (Sec. 340) interfectus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of inter-ficio:, _kill_]], _slain,
    dead_
inter-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[inter, _between_, + facio:,
    _make_]], _put out of the way, kill_.  Cf. neco:, occi:do:, truci:do: 
interim, adv. _meanwhile_ interior, -ius, adj. _interior, inner_ (Sec. 315) inter-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus, _leave off, suspend_ interpres, -etis, m. and f. _interpreter_ inter-rogo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _question_ inter-sum, -esse, -fui:, -futu:rus [[inter, _between_, +sum, _be_]],
    _be present, take part in_, with dat. (Sec. 501.15)
inter-va:llum, -i:, n. _interval, distance_ intra:, adv. and prep. with acc. _within, in_ intro:, -a:re, -a:vi, -a:tus, _go into, enter_ in-venio:, -i:re, -ve:ni:, -ventus [[in, _upon_, +venio:, _come_]],
    _find_
invi:sus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of invideo:, _envy_]], _hated,
    detested_
Iola:us, -i:, m. _I-o-la:’us_, a friend of Hercules ipse, -a, -um, intensive pron. _that very, this very; self, himself,
    herself, itself_, (Sec. 481)
i:ra, -ae, f. _wrath, anger_ i:ra:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of i:ra:scor, _be angry_]], _angered,
    enraged_
is, ea, id, demonstrative adj. and pron. _this, that; he, she, it_
    (Sec. 481)
iste, -a, -ud, demonstrative adj. and pron. _that_ (of yours), _he,
    she, it_ (Sec. 481)
ita, adv. _so, thus_.  Cf. si:c and tam Italia, -ae, f. _Italy_ ita-que, conj. _and so, therefore_ item, adv. _also_ iter, itineris, n. _journey, march, route; way, passage_
    (Secs. 247.1.a; 468).
  iter dare, _give a right of way, allow to pass_.
  iter facere, _march_ (see p. 159)
iubeo:, -e:re, iussi:, iussus, _order, command_.  Usually with the infin.
    and subj. acc. (Sec. 213)
iu:dex, -icis, m. and f. _judge_ (Sec. 464.1) iu:dico:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[iu:dex, _judge_]], _judge, decide_
    (Sec. 420.c)
Iu:lia, -ae, _Julia_, a Roman name Iu:lius, Iu:li:, m. _Julius_, a Roman name iungo:, -e:re, iu:nxi:, iu:nctus, _join; yoke, harness_ Iu:no:, -o:nis, f. _Juno_, the queen of the gods and wife of Jupiter Iuppiter, Iovis, m. _Jupiter_, the supreme god iu:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, _swear, take an oath_ iussus, -a, -um, part. of iubeo:, _ordered_

L

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L., abbreviation for Lu:cius labefactus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of labefacio:, cause to shake]],
    shaken, weakened, ready to fall
Labie:nus, -i:, m. La-bi-e’nus, one of Caesar’s lieutenants labor, -o:ris, m. labor, toil labo:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[labor, labor]], labor; suffer, be
    hard pressed

lacrima, -ae, f. tear lacus, -u:s (dat. and abl. plur. lacubus), m. lake laete:, adv. [[laetus, glad]], compared laetius, laetissime:,
    gladly
laetitia, -ae, f. [[laetus, glad]], joy laetus, -a, -um, adj. glad, joyful lapis, -idis, m. stone (Secs. 247.2.a; 464.1) La:r, Laris, m.; plur.  Lare:s, -um (rarely -ium), the Lares or
    household, gods
la:te:, adv. [[la:tus, wide]], compared la:tius, la:tissime:, widely Latine:, adv. in Latin
  Lati:ne:  loqui:, to speak Latin
la:titu:do:, -inis, f. [[la:tus, wide]], width La:to:na, -ae, f. Latona, mother of Apollo and Diana latus, -a, -um, adj. wide la:tus, -eris, n. side, flank.
  ab utro:que latere, on each side
laudo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[laus, praise]], praise laurea, -ae, f. laurel laurea:tus, -a, -um, adj. crowned with laurel laus, laudis, f. praise lectulus, -i:, m. couch, bed le:ga:tus, -i:, m. ambassador; lieutenant legio:, -o:nis, f. [[cf. lego:, gather]], (body of soldiers),
    legion, about 3600 men (Sec. 464.2.a)
legio:na:rius, -a, -um, adj. legionary.  Plur. legio:narii:, -o:rum, m.
    the soldiers of the legion
lego:, -ere, le:gi:, le:ctus, read le:nis, -e, adj. gentle, smooth, mild le:niter, adv. [[le:nis, gentle]], compared le:nius, le:nissime:,
    gently
Lentulus, -i, m. Lentulus, a Roman family name leo:, -o:nis, m. lion Lernaeus, -a, -um, adj. Lernaeean, of Lerna, in southern Greece Lesbia, -ae, f. Lesbia, a girl’s name levis, -e, adj. light le:x, le:gis, f. measure, law libenter, adv. [[libe:ns, willing]], compared libentius,
    libentissime:, willingly, gladly
li:ber, -era, -erum, adj. free (Sec. 469.b) li:beri:, -o:rum, m. [[li:ber, free]], children li:bero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[li:ber, free]], set free, release,
    liberate

li:berta:s, -a:tis, f. [[li:ber, free]], freedom, liberty li:ctor, -o:ris, m. lictor (p. 225) li:mus, -i:, m. mud littera, -ae, f. a letter of the alphabet; in plur. a letter,
    epistle

li:tus, -oris, n. seashore, beach locus, -i:, m. (plur. loci:  and loca, m. and n.), place, spot longe:, adv. [[longus, long]], comp. longius, longissime:, a long
    way off; by far

longinquus, -a, -um, adj. [[longus, long]],

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distant, remote longitu:do:, -inis, f. [[longus, long]], length longus, -a, -um, adj. long loquor, loqui, locu:tus sum, dep. verb, talk, speak lo:ri:ca, -ae, f. [[lo:rum, thong]], coat of mail, corselet lu:do:, -ere, lu:si:, lu:sus, play lu:dus, -i:, m. play; school, the elementary grades.  Cf. schola lu:na, -ae, f. moon lu:x, lu:cis, f. (no gen. plur.), light.
  pri:ma lu:x, daybreak
Ly:dia, -ae, f. Lydia, a girl’s name

M

M., abbreviation for Ma:rcus magicus, -a, -um, adj. magic magis, adv. in comp. degree [[magnus, great]], more, in a higher
    degree
(Sec. 323)
magister, -tri:, m. master, commander; teacher magistra:tus, -u:s, m. [[magister, master]], magistracy;
    magistrate

magnitu:do:, -inis, f. [[magnus, great]], greatness, size magnopere, adv. [[abl. of magnum opus]], compared magis, maxime:,
    greatly, exceedingly (Sec. 323)
magnus, -a, -um, adj., compared maior, maximus, great, large;
    strong, loud
(Sec. 311)
maior, maius, -o:ris, adj., comp. of magnus, greater, larger (Sec.
    311)
maio:re:s, -um, m. plur. of maior, ancestors ma:lo:, ma:lle, ma:lui:, ——­ [[magis, more, + volo:, wish]], wish
    more, prefer
(Sec. 497)
malus, -a, -um, adj., compared peior, pessimus, bad, evil (Sec. 311) mando:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[manus, hand, + do:, put]], (put in
    hand), intrust; order, command

maneo:, -e:re, ma:nsi:, ma:nsu:rus, stay, remain, abide Ma:nlius, Ma:nli:, m. Manlius, a Roman name ma:nsue:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of ma:nsue:sco:, tame]], tamed manus, -u:s, f. hand; force, band Ma:rcus, -i:, m. Marcus, Mark, a Roman first name mare, -is, n. (no gen. plur.), sea.
  mare tene:re, be out to sea
margo:, -inis, m. edge, border mari:tus, -i:, m. husband Marius, Mari:, m. Marius, a Roman name, esp. C.  Marius, the general Ma:rtius, -a, -um, adj. of Mars, esp. the Campus Martius ma:ter, -tris, f. mother ma:trimo:nium, ma:trimo:’ni:, n. marriage.
  in ma:trimo:nium du:cere, marry
ma:tu:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, hasten.  Cf. contendo:, propero:  ma:tu:rus, -a, -um, adj. ripe, mature maxime:, adv. in superl. degree [[maximus, greatest]], compared
    magnopere, magis, maxime:, especially, very much (Sec. 323)
maximus, -a, -um, adj., superl. of magnus, greatest, extreme
    (Sec. 311)
medius, -a, -um, adj. middle part; middle, intervening melior, -ius, -o:ris, adj., comp. of bonus, better (Sec. 311) melius, adv. in comp. degree, compared bene, melius, optime:,
    better (Sec. 323)

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memoria, -ae, f. [[memor, mindful]], memory.
  memoria:  tene:re, remember
me:ns, mentis, f. mind.  Cf. animus me:nsis, -is, m. month (Sec. 247.2. a) merca:tor, -o:ris, m. [[mercor, trade]], trader, merchant meri:dia:nus, -a, -um, adj. [[meri:die:s, noon]], of midday meri:die:s, ——­ (acc. -em, abl. -e:), m. [[medius, mid, +
    die:s, day]], noon
metus, -u:s, m. fear, dread meus, -a, -um, possessive adj. and pron. my, mine (Sec. 98) mi:les, -itis, m. soldier (Sec. 464.1) mi:lita:ris, -e, adj. [[mi:les, soldier]], military.
  re:s mi:lita:ris, science of war
mi:lito:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[mi:les, soldier]], serve as a
    soldier

mi:lle, plur. mi:lia, -ium, numeral adj. and subst. thousand (Sec.
    479)
minime:, adv. in superl. degree, compared parum, minus, minime:,
    least, very little; by no means (Sec. 323)
minimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared parvus, minor,
    minimus, least, smallest (Sec. 311)
minor, minus, -o:ris, adj. in comp. degree, compared parvus, minor,
    minimus, smaller, less (Sec. 311)
Mi:no:s, -o:is, m. Minos, a king of Crete minus, adv. in comp. degree, compared parum, minus, minime:, less
    (Sec. 323)
Minyae, -a:rum, m. the Minyae, a people of Greece mi:ra:bilis, -e, adj. [[mi:ror, wonder at]], wonderful, marvelous mi:ror, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, dep. verb [[mi:rus, wonderful]], wonder,
    marvel, admire

mi:rus, -a, -um, adj. wonderful Mi:se:num, -i:, Mise’num, a promontory and harbor on the coast of
    Campania.  See map
miser, -era, -erum, adj. wretched, unhappy, miserable missus, -a, -um, part. of mitto:, sent mitto:, -ere, mi:si:, missus, send modicus, -a, -um [[modus, measure]], modest, ordinary modo, adv. [[abl. of modus, measure, with shortened o]], only,
    merely, just now
.
  modo ... modo, now ... now, sometimes ... sometimes
modus, -i:, m. measure; manner, way; kind moenia, -ium, n. plur. [[cf. mu:nio:, fortify]], walls, ramparts moleste:, adv. [[molestus, troublesome]], compared molestius,
    molestissime:, annoyingly.
  moleste:  ferre, to be annoyed
molestus, -a, -um, troublesome, annoying, unpleasant (Sec. 501.16) moneo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus, remind, advise, warn (Sec. 489) mo:ns, montis, m. mountain (Sec. 247.2. a) mo:nstrum, -i:, n. monster mora, -ae, f. delay moror, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, dep. verb [[mora, delay]], delay, linger;
    impede

mors, mortis, f. [[cf. morior, die]], death mo:s, mo:ris, m. custom, habit mo:tus, -u:s, m. [[cf. moveo:, move]], motion, movement.

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  terrae mo:tus, earthquake
moveo:, -e:re, mo:vi:, mo:tus, move mox, adv. soon, presently mulier, -eris, f. woman multitu:do:, -inis, f. [[multus, much]], multitude multum (multo:), adv. [[multus, much]], compared plu:s, plu:rimum,
    much (Sec. 477)
multus, -a, -um, adj., compared plu:s, plu:rimus, much; plur. many
    (Sec. 311)
mu:nio:, -i:re, -i:vi:  or -ii:, -i:tus, fortify, defend mu:ni:tio:, -o:nis, f. [[mu:nio:, fortify]], defense, fortification mu:rus, -i:, m. wall.  Cf. moenia mu:sica, -ae, f. music

N

nam, conj. for.  Cf. enim nam-que, conj., a strengthened nam, introducing a reason or
    explanation, for, and in fact; seeing that
na:rro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, tell, relate na:scor, na:sci:, na:tus sum, dep. verb, be born, spring from na:tu:ra, -ae, f. nature na:tus, part. of na:scor nauta, -ae, m. [[for na:vita, from na:vis, ship]], sailor na:va:lis, -e, adj. [[na:vis, ship]], naval na:vigium, na:vi’gi:, n. ship, boat na:vigo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[na:vis, ship, + ago:, drive]],
    sail, cruise
na:vis, -is (abl. -i:  or -e), f. ship (Sec. 243.1).
    na:vem co:nscendere, embark, go on board.
    na:vem solvere, set sail.
    na:vis longa, man-of-war
ne:, conj. and adv. in order that not, that (with verbs of fearing),
    lest; not.
  ne:  ... quidem, not even
-ne, interrog. adv., enclitic (see Secs. 16, 210).  Cf. no:nne and num nec or neque, conj. [[ne:, not, + que, and]], and not, nor.
  nec ... nec or neque ... neque, neither ... nor
necessa:rius, -a, -um, adj. needful, necessary neco:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[cf. nex, death]], kill.  Cf. interficio:,
    occi:do:, truci:do: 
nego:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, deny, say not (Sec. 420.a) nego:tium, nego:’ti:, n. [[nec, not, + o:tium, ease]], business,
    affair, matter
.
  alicui nego:tium dare, to employ some one
Nemaeus, -a, -um, adj. Neme’an, of Neme’a, in southern Greece ne:mo, dat. ne:mini:  (gen. nu:lli:us, abl. nu:llo:, supplied from
    nu:llus), m. and f. [[ne:, not, + homo:, man]], (not a man),
    no one, nobody

Neptu:nus, -i:, m. Neptune, god of the sea, brother of Jupiter neque, see nec neuter, -tra, -trum (gen. -tri:us, dat. -tri:), adj. neither (of
    two) (Sec. 108)
ne:-ve, conj. adv. and not, and that not, and lest nihil, n. indecl. [[ne:, not, + hi:lum, a whit]], nothing.
  nihil posse, to have no power
nihilum, -i:, n., see nihil Niobe:, -e:s, f. Ni’obe, the queen of Thebes whose children were

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    destroyed by Apollo and Diana
nisi, conj. [[ne:, not, + si:, if]], if not, unless, except no:bilis, -e, adj. well known; noble noceo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itu:rus [[cf. neco:, kill]], hurt, injure,
    with dat. (Sec. 501.14)
noctu:, abl. used as adv. [[cf. nox, night]], at night, by night No:la, -ae, f. Nola, a town in central Campania.  See map no:lo:, no:lle, no:lui:, ——­ [[ne, not, + volo:, wish]], not to
    wish, be unwilling
(Sec. 497)
no:men, -inis, n. [[cf. no:sco:, know]], (means of knowing), name no:mino:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[no:men, name]], name, call.  Cf.
    appello:, voco: 
no:n, adv. [[ne:, not, + u:num, one]], not.
  no:n so:lum ... sed etiam, not only ... but also
no:n-dum, adv. not yet no:n-ne, interrog. adv. suggesting an affirmative answer, not?
    (Sec. 210).  Cf. -ne and num
no:s, pers. pron. we (see ego) (Sec. 480) noster, -tra, -trum, possessive adj. and pron. our, ours.  Plur.
    nostri:, -o:rum, m. our men (Sec. 98)
novem, indecl. numeral adj. nine novus, -a, -um, adj. new.
  novae re:s, a revolution
nox, noctis, f. night, multa:  nocte, late at night nu:llus, -a, -um (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:) adj. [[ne:, not, +
    u:llus, any]], not any, none, no (Sec. 108)
num, interrog. adv. suggesting a negative answer (Sec. 210).  Cf. -ne and
    no:nne.  In indir. questions, whether
numerus, -i:, m. number numquam, adv. [[ne:, not, + umquam, ever]], never nunc, adv. now.  Cf. iam nu:ntio:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[nu:ntius, messenger]], report,
    announce
(Sec. 420.a)
nu:ntius, nu:nti:, m. messenger nu:per, adv. recently, lately, just now nympha, -ae, f. nymph

O

ob, prep. with acc. on account of.  In compounds it often means in
    front of, against
, or it is intensive.
  quam ob rem, for this reason (Sec. 340)
obses, -idis, m. and f. hostage ob-sideo:,-e:re,-se:di:, -sessus [[ob, against, + sedeo:, sit]],
    besiege
obtineo:, -e:re, -ui:, -tentus [[ob, against, + teneo:, hold]],
    possess, occupy, hold
occa:sio:, -o:nis, f. favorable opportunity, favorable moment occa:sus, -u:s, m. going down, setting occi:do:, -ere, -ci:di:, -ci:sus [[ob, down, + caedo:, strike]],
    strike down; cut down, kill.  Cf. interficio:, neco: 
occupo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[ob, completely, + capio:, take]],
    seize, take possession of, occupy.  Cf. rapio
oc-curro:, -ere, -curri:, -cursus [[ob, against + curro:, run]],

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    run towards; meet, with dat. (Sec. 426)
o:ceanus, -i:, m. the ocean octo:, indecl. numeral adj. eight oculus, -i:, m. eye officium, offi’ci:, n. duty o:lim, adv. formerly, once upon a time o:men, -inis, n. sign, token, omen o:-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus [[ob, over, past, + mitto:,
    send]], let go, omit.
  consilium omittere, give up a plan
omni:no:, adv. [[omnis, all]], altogether, wholly, entirely omnis, -e, adj. all, every. Cf. to:tus onera:ria, -ae, f. [[onus, load]], with na:vis expressed or
    understood, merchant vessel, transport
onus, -eris, n. load, burden opi:nio:, -o:nis, f. [[opi:nor, suppose]], opinion, supposition,
    expectation

oppida:nus, -i:, m. [[oppidum, town]], townsman oppidum, -i:, n. town, stronghold opportu:nus, -a, -um, adj. suitable, opportune, favorable op-primo:, -ere, -pressi:, -pressus [[ob, against, + premo:,
    press]], (press against), crush; surprise
oppugna:tio:, -o:nis, f. storming, assault oppugno:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[ob, against, + pugno:  fight]],
    fight against, assault, storm, assail
optime:, adv. in superl. degree, compared bene, melius, optime:, very
    well, best of all
(Sec. 323)
optimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared bonus, melior,
    optimus, best, most excellent (Sec. 311)
opus, -eris, n. work, labor, task (Sec. 464.2.b) o:ra:culum, -i:, n. [[o:ro:, speak]], oracle o:ra:tor, -o:ris, m. [[o:ro:, speak]], orator orbis, -is, m. ring, circle.
  orbis terra:rum, the earth, world
orbita, -ae, f. [[orbis, wheel]], rut Orcus, -i:, m. Orcus, the lower world o:rdo:, -inis, m. row, order, rank (Sec. 247.2.a) ori:go, -inis, f. [[orior, rise]], source, origin orior, -i:ri:, ortus sum, dep. verb, arise, rise, begin; spring, be
    born

o:rna:mentum, -i:, n. [[o:rno:, fit out]], ornament, jewel o:rna:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of o:rno:, fit out]] fitted out;
    adorned

o:rno:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, fit out, adorn

P

P., abbreviation for Pu:blius paene, adv. nearly, almost palu:da:mentum, -i:, n. military cloak palu:s, -u:dis, f. swamp, marsh pa:nis, -is, m. bread pa:r, paris, adj. equal (Sec. 471.  III) para:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of paro:, prepare]], prepared,
    ready

parco:, -ere, peper’ci:  (parsi:), parsu:rus, spare, with dat. 
    (Sec. 501.14)
pa:reo:, -e:re, -ui:, ——­, obey, with dat. (Sec. 501.14) paro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, prepare for, prepare; provide, procure pars,

Page 254

partis, f. part, share; side, direction parum, adv., compared minus, minime:, too little, not enough (Sec.
    323)
parvus, -a, -um, adj., compared minor, minimus, small, little
    (Sec. 311)
passus, -u:s, m. step, pace.
  mi:lle passuum, thousand paces, mile (Sec. 331.b)
pateo:, -e:re, patui:, ——­, lie open, be open; stretch, extend pater, -tris, m. father (Sec. 464.2.a) patior, -i:, passus sum, dep. verb, bear, suffer, allow, permit patria, -ae, f. [[cf. pater, father]], fatherland, (one’s)
    country
paucus, -a, -um, adj. (generally plur.), few, only a few paulisper, adv. for a little while paulo:, adv. by a little, little paulum adv. a little, somewhat pa:x, pa:cis, f. (no gen. plur.), peace pecu:nia, -ae, f. [[pecus, cattle]], money pedes, -itis, m. [[pe:s, foot]], foot soldier pedester, -tris, -tre, adj. [[pe:s, foot]], on foot; by land peior, peius, -o:ris, adj. in comp. degree, compared malus, peior,
    pessimus, worse (Sec. 311)
pellis, -is, f. skin, hide penna, -ae, f. feather per, prep. with acc. through, by means of, on account of.  In
    composition it often has the force of thoroughly, completely, very
    (Sec. 340)
percussus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of percutio:, strike through]],
    pierced
per-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus [[per, through, + du:co:, lead]],
    lead through.
  fossam perdu:cere, to construct a ditch
per-exiguus, -a, -um, adj. [[per, very, + exiguus, small]],
    very small, very short
perfidus, -a, -um, adj. faithless, treacherous, false per-fringo:, -ere, -fre:gi:, -fra:ctus [[per, through, frango:,
    break]], shatter
pergo:, -ere, perre:xi:, perre:ctus [[per, through, + rego:,
    conduct]], go on, proceed, hasten
peri:culum, -i:, n. trial, test; danger peristy:lum, -i:, n. peristyle, an open court with columns around it peri:tus, -a, -um, adj. skillful perpetuus, -a, -um, adj. perpetual Perseus, -ei:, Perseus, a Greek hero, son of Jupiter and Danae perso:na, -ae, f. part, character, person per-sua:deo:, -e:re, -sua:si:, -sua:sus [[per, thoroughly, + sua:deo:,
    persuade]], persuade, advise, with dat. (Sec. 501.14), often
    with an object clause of purpose (Sec. 501.41)
per-terreo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus [[per, thoroughly, + terreo:,
    frighten]], thoroughly terrify, alarm
per-venio:, -i:re, -ve:ni:, -ventus [[per, through, + venio:,
    come]], arrive, reach, come to
pe:s, pedis, m. foot.
  pedem referre, retreat (Sec. 247.2.a)
pessimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared

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malus, peior,
    pessimus, worst (Sec. 311)
peto:, -ere, -i:vi:  or -ii:, -i:tus, strive for, seek, beg, ask; make
    for, travel to
.  Cf. postulo:, quaero:, rogo: 
Pharsa:lus, -i:, f. Pharsa’lus or Pharsa’lia, a town in Thessaly,
    near which Cassar defeated Pompey, 48 B.C.
philosophia, -ae, f. philosophy philosophus, -i:, m. philosopher pictus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of pingo:, paint]], colored,
    variegated

pi:lum, -i:, n. spear, javelin (Sec. 462.b) pisci:na, -ae, f. [[piscis, fish]], fish pond piscis, -is, m. fish pi:stor, -o:ris, m. baker placeo:. -e:re, -ui:, -itus, please, be pleasing, with dat. (Sec.
    501.14)
pla:nitie:s, -e:i:, f. [[pla:nus, level]], plain pla:nus, -a, -um, adj. level, flat ple:nus, -a, -um, full plu:rimum, adv. in superl. degree, compared multum, plu:s, plu:rimum,
    very much.
  plu:rimum vale:re, be most influential (Sec. 322)
plu:rimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared multus, plu:s,
    plu:rimus, most, very many (Sec. 311)
plu:s, plu:ris, adj. in comp. degree, compared multus, plu:s, plu:rimus;
    sing. n. as substantive, more; plur. more, several (Sec. 311)
pluteus, -i:, m. shield, parapet poena, -ae, f. punishment, penalty poe:ta, -ae, m. poet pompa, -ae, f. procession Pompe:ii:, -o:rum, m. Pompeii, a city of Campania.  See map Pompe:ius, Pompe:’i:, m. Pompey, a Roman name po:mum, -i:, n. apple po:no:, -ere, posui:, positus, put, place.
  castra po:nere, pitch camp
po:ns, pontis, m. bridge (Sec. 247.2.a) popi:na, -ae, f. restaurant populus, -i:, m. people Porsena, -ae, m. Porsena, king of Etruria, a district of Italy. 
    See map
porta, -ae, f. gate, door porto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, bear, carry portus, -u:s, m. [[cf. porta, gate]], harbor possideo:, -e:re, -se:di:, -sessus, have, own, possess possum, posse, potui:, ——­, irreg. verb [[potis, able, + sum,
    I am]], be able, can (Sec. 495).
  nihil posse, have no power
post, prep, with acc. after, behind (Sec. 340) postea:, adv. [[post, after, + ea:, this]], afterwards (posterus), -a, -um, adj., compared posterior, postre:mus or
    postumus, following, next (Sec. 312)
postquam, conj. after, as soon as postre:mo:, adv. [[abl. of postre:mus, last]], at last, finally
    Cf. de:mum, de:nique (Sec. 322)
postri:die:, adv. [[postero:, next, + die:, day]], on the next
    day

postulo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, ask, demand, require.  Cf. peto:,
    quaero:, rogo: 
potentia, -ae, f. [[pote:ns, able]], might, power, force prae-beo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus [[prae,

Page 256

forth, + habeo:, hold]],
    offer, give
praeda, -ae, f. booty, spoil, plunder prae-di:co:, -ere, -di:xi:, -dictus [[prae, before, + di:co:,
    tell]], foretell, predict
prae-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[prae, before, + facio:,
    make]], place in command, with acc. and dat. (Sec. 501.15)
prae-mitto:, -ere, -mi:si:, -missus [[prae, forward, + mitto:,
    send]], send forward
praemium, praemi:, n. reward, prize praeruptus, -a, -um [[part. of prae-rumpo:, break off]], broken
    off, steep

praese:ns, -entis, adj. present, immediate praesertim, adv. especially, chiefly praesidium, praesi’di, n. guard, garrison, protection prae-sto:, -a:re, -stiti:, -stitus [[prae, before, + sto,
    stand]], (stand before), excel, surpass, with dat. (Sec.
    501.15); show, exhibit
prae-sum, -esse, -fui:, -futu:rus [[prae, before, + sum, be]],
    be over, be in command of, with dat. (Sec. 501.15)
praeter, prep, with acc. beyond, contrary to (Sec. 340) praeterea:, adv. [[praeter, besides, + ea:, this]], in
    addition, besides, moreover

praetextus, -a, -um, adj. bordered, edged praeto:rium, praeto:’ri:, n. praetorium prandium, prandi:, n. luncheon premo:, -ere, pressi:, pressus, press hard, compress; crowd, drive,
    harass

(prex, precis), f. prayer pri:mo:, adv. [[pri:mus, first]], at first, in the beginning (Sec.
    322)
pri:mum, adv. [[pri:mus, first]], first.
  quam primum, as soon as possible
pri:mus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared prior, pri:mus,
    first (Sec. 315)
pri:nceps, -cipis, m. [[pri:mus, first, + capio:, take]],
    (taking the first place), chief, leader (Sec. 464.1)
prior, prius, -o:ris, adj. in comp. degree, superl., pri:mus, former
    (Sec. 315)
pri:stinus, -a, -um, adj. former, previous pro:, prep, with abl. before; for, for the sake of, in behalf of;
    instead of, as
(Sec. 209).  In composition, forth, forward
pro:-ce:do:, -ere, -cussi:, -cessu:rus [[pro:, forward, + ce:do:,
    go]], go forward, proceed
procul, adv. far, afar off pro:-curro:, -ere, -curri:  (-cucurri:), -cur-sus [[pro:, forward, +
    curro:, run]], run forward
proelium, proeli, n. battle, combat.
  proelium committere, join battle.
  proelium facere, fight a battle
profectio:, -o:nis, f. departure profici:scor, -i:, -fectus sum, dep. verb, set out, march.  Cf.
    e:gredior, exeo: 
pro:-gredior, -i:, -gressus sum, dep. verb [[pro:, forth, +
    gradior, go]], go

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forth, proceed, advance
.  Cf. pergo:,
    pro:ce:do: 
pro:gressus, see pro:gredior prohibeo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itus [[pro:, forth, away from, + habeo:,
    hold]], keep away from, hinder, prevent
pro:-moveo:, -e:re, -mo:vi:, -mo:tus [[pro:, forward, + moveo:,
    move]], move forward, advance
pro:-nu:ntio:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[pro:, forth, + nu:ntio:,
    announce]], proclaim, declare
prope, adv., compared propius, proxi-me:, nearly.  Prep, with acc.
    near
pro:-pello:, -ere, -puli:, -pulsus [[pro:, forth, + pello:,
    drive]], drive forth; move, impel
propero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[properus, quick]], go quickly,
    hasten
.  Cf. contendo:, maturo: 
propinquus, -a, -um, adj. [[prope, near]], near, neighboring propior, -ius, -o:ris, adj. in comp. degree, superl., proximus,
    nearer (Sec. 315)
propius, adv. in comp. degree, compared prope, propius, proxime:,
    nearer (Sec. 323)
propter, prep. with acc. on account of, because of (Sec. 340) pro:-scri:bo:, -ere, -scri:psi:, -scriptus [[pro:, forth, + scribo:,
    write]], proclaim, publish.  Cf. pro:nu:ntio: 
pro:-sequor, -sequi:, -secu:tus sum, dep. verb [[pro:, forth, +
    sequor, follow]], escort, attend
pro:-sum, pro:desse, pro:fui:, pro:futu:rus [[pro:, for, + sum, be]],
    be useful, benefit, with dat. (Secs. 496; 501.15)
pro:-tego:, -ere, -te:x=i], -te:ctus [[pro:, in front, + tego:,
    cover]], cover in front, protect
pro:vincia, -ae, f. territory, province proxime:, adv. in superl. degree, compared prope, propius, proxime:,
    nearest, next; last, most recently (Sec. 323)
proximus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared propior,
    proximus, nearest, next (Sec. 315)
pu:blicus, -a, -um, adj. [[populus,_people_]], of the people,
    public
, res pu:blica, the commonwealth
puella, -ae, f. [[diminutive of puer, boy]], girl, maiden puer, -eri, m. boy; slave (Sec. 462.c) pugna, -ae, f _-fight, battle._ Cf. proelium pugno:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[pugna, battle]], fight.  Cf. contendo:,
    di:mico: 
pulcher, -chra, -chrum, adj. beautiful, pretty (Secs. 469.b; 304) Pullo:, -o:nis, m. Pullo, a centurion pulso:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, strike, beat puppis, -is (acc. -im, abl. -i:), f. stern of a ship, deck pu:re:, adv. [[pu:rus, pure]], comp. pu:rius, purely pu:rgo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, cleanse, clean purpureus, -a, -um, adj. purple, dark red puto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, reckon, think (Sec. 420,_c_).  Cf. arbitror,
    exi:stimo: 
Py:thia, -ae, f. Pythia, the inspired priestess of Apollo at Delphi

Page 258

Q

qua:  de:  causa:, for this reason, wherefore qua:  re:, therefore, for this reason quaero:, -ere, -si:vi:, -si:tus, seek, ask, inquire.  Cf. peto:, postulo:,
    rogo: 
qua:lis, -e, interrog. pronom. adj. of what sort, what kind of.
    talis ... qualis, such ... as
quam, adv. how; after a comparative, than; with a superlative,
    translated as ... as possible, quam pri:mum, as soon as possible
quantus, -a, -um, adj. [[quam, how]], how great, how much,
    tantus ... quantus, as great as
qua:rtus, -a, -um, numeral adj. [[quattuor, four]], fourth quattuor, indecl. numeral adj. four quattuor-decim, indecl. numeral adj. fourteen -que, conj., enclitic, and (Sec. 16).  Cf. ac, atque, et qui:, quae, quod, rel. pron. and adj. who, which, what, that (Sec.
    482)
quia, conj. because.  Cf. quod qui:dam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam), indef. pron. and adj. a certain
    one, a certain, a
(Sec. 485).
quidem, adv. to be sure, certainly, indeed, ne:  ... quidem, not
    even

quie:s, -e:tis, f. rest, repose quie:tus, -a, -um, adj. quiet, restful qui:ndecim, indecl. numeral adj. fifteen qui:ngenti:, -ae, -a, numeral adj. five hundred qui:nque, indecl. numeral adj. five qui:ntus, -a, -um, numeral adj. fifth quis (qui:), quae, quid (quod), interrog. pron. and adj. who? what?
    which?
(Sec. 483).
quis (qui:), qua (quae), quid (quod), indef. pron. and adj., used after
    si:, nisi, ne:, num, any one, anything, some one, something, any,
    some
(Sec. 484).
quisquam, quicquam or quidquam (no fem. or plur.), indef. pron. any
    one
(at all), anything (at all) (Sec. 486).
quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque), indef. pron. and adj. each, each
    one, every
(Sec. 484).
quo:, interrog. and rel. adv. whither, where quo:, conj. in order to, that, with comp. degree (Sec. 350). quod, conj. because, in that.  Cf. quia quoque, conj., following an emphatic word, also, too.  Cf. etiam quot-anni:s, adv. [[quot, how many + annus, year]], every
    year, yearly

quotie:ns, interrog. and rel. adv. how often? as often as

R

ra:di:x, -i:cis, f. root; foot rapio:, -ere, -ui:, -tus, seize, snatch ra:ro:, adv. [[ra:rus, rare]], rarely ra:rus, -a, -um, adj. rare re- or red-, an inseparable prefix, again, back, anew, in return rebellio:, -o:nis, f. renewal of war, rebellion rece:ns, -entis, adj. recent re-cipio:, -ere, -ce:pi:, -ceptus [[re-, back, + capio:, take]],
    take back, receive.
  se:  recipere, withdraw, retreat

Page 259

re-cli:na:tus, -a, -um, part. of recli:no:, leaning back re-crea:tus, -a, -um, part. of recreo:, refreshed re:ctus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of rego:, keep straight]], straight,
    direct

re-cu:so:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, refuse red-a:ctus, -a, -um, part. of redigo:, reduced, subdued red-eo:, -i:re, -ii:, -itus [[red-, back, + eo:, go]], go back,
    return
(Sec. 413).  Cf. reverto: 
reditus, -u:s, m. [[cf. redeo:, return]], return, going back re-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus [[re-, back, + du:co:, lead]],
    lead back
re-fero:, -ferre, rettuli:, -la:tus [[re-, back, + fero:, bear]],
    bear back; report.
  pedem referre, withdraw, retreat
re-ficio:, -ere, -fe:ci:, -fectus [[re-, again, + facio:, make]],
    make again, repair.
  se:  reficere, refresh one’s self
re:gi:na, -ae, f. [[re:x, king]], queen regio:, -o:nis, f. region, district re:gnum, -i:, n. sovereignty; kingdom rego:, -ere, re:xi:, re:ctus [[cf. re:x, king]], govern, rule (Sec.
    490)
re-icio:, -ere, -ie:ci:, -iectus [[re-, back, + iacio:, hurl]],
    hurl back; throw away
re-linquo:, -ere, -li:qui:, -lictus [[re-, behind, + linquo:,
    leave]], leave behind, leave, abandon
reliquus, -a, -um, adj. [[cf. relinquo:, leave]], left over,
    remaining
.  As a noun, plur. the rest
remo:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of re-moveo:, remove]], remote,
    distant

re-moveo:, -e:re, -mo:vi:, -motus [[re-, back, + moveo:, move]],
    remove
re:mus, -i:, m. oar re-perio:, -i:re, repperi:, repertus, find re-porto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[re-, back, + porto:, carry]],
    carry back, bring back, win, gain
re:s, rei:, f. thing, business, matter, deed, event, circumstance
    (Sec. 467).
  quam ob rem, for this reason.
  re:s adversae, adversity.
  re:s fru:menta:ria, grain supplies.
  re:s gestae, exploits.
  re:s milita:ris, science of war.
  re:s pu:blica, the commonwealth.
  re:s secundae, prosperity
re-scindo:, -ere, -scidi:, -scissus [[re-, back, + scindo:,
    cut]], cut off, cut down
re-sisto:, -ere, -stiti:, ——­ [[re-, back, + sisto:, cause to
    stand
]], oppose, resist, with dat. (Sec. 501.14)
re-spondeo:, -e:re, -spondi:, -spo:nsus [[re-, in return, + spondeo:,
    promise]], answer, reply (Sec. 420.a)
re-verto:, -ere, -i:, ——­, or dep. verb re-vertor, -i:, -sus sum
    [[re-, back, + verto:, turn]], turn back, return.  Usually
    active in the perf. system
re-vincio:, -i:re, -vi:nxi:, -vi:nctus [[re-, back,

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+ vincio:,
    bind]], fasten
re:x, re:gis, m. [[cf. rego:, rule]], king Rhe:nus, -i:, m. the Rhine, a river of Germany ri:pa, -ae, f. bank rogo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, ask.  Cf. peto:, postulo:, quaero:  Ro:ma, -ae, f. Rome.  See map Ro:ma:nus, -a, -um, adj. [[Ro:ma, Rome]], Roman, follows its noun. 
    As a noun, m. and f. a Roman
rosa, -ae, f. rose ro:strum, -i:, n. beak of a ship.  In plur., the rostra, the
    speaker’s stand in the Roman Forum
rota, -ae, f. wheel Rubico:, -o:nis, m. the Rubicon, a river in northern Italy.  See map ru:mor, -o:ris, m. report, rumor ru:rsus, adv. [[for reversus, turned back]], again, in turn ru:s, ru:ris (locative abl. ru:ri:, no gen., dat., or abl. plur.), n.
    the country (Sec. 501.36.1).  Cf. ager, patria, terra

S

Sabi:nus, -a, -um, adj. Sabine.  As a noun, m. and f. a Sabine.  The
    Sabines were an ancient people of central Italy.  See map
sacrum, -i:, n. [[sacer, consecrated]], something consecrated,
    sacrifice;
usually in plur., religious rites
saepe, adv., compared saepius, saepissime:, often, frequently saevus, -a, -um, adj. cruel, savage sagitta, -ae, f. arrow salio:, -i:re, -ui:, saltus, jump salu:s, -u:tis, f. safety; health.
  salu:tem di:cere, send greetings
salu:to:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[salu:s, health]], greet, salute salve:, imv. of salveo:, hail, greetings sanguis, -inis, m. blood (Sec. 247.2.a] sa:nita:s, -a:tis, f. [[sa:nus, sound]], health, sanity sapie:ns, -entis, adj. [[part. of sapio:, be wise]], wise,
    sensible

satis, adv. and indecl. noun, enough, sufficient, sufficiently saxum, -i:, n. rock, stone scelus, -eris, n. crime, sin sce:ptrum, -i:, n. scepter schola, -ae, f. school, the higher grades.  Cf. lu:dus scientia, -ae, f. [[scie:ns, knowing]], skill, knowledge, science scindo:, -ere, scidi:, scissus, cut, tear scio:, -i:re, -i:vi:, -i:tus, know (Sec. 420.b).  Cf. cogno:sco:  scri:bo:, -ere, scri:psi:, scri:ptus, write scu:tum, -i:, n. shield, buckler se:, see sui:  se:cum = se:  + cum secundus, -a, -um, adj. [[sequor, follow]], following, next,
    second; favorable, successful
.
  re:s secundae, prosperity
sed, conj. but, on the contrary.
  no:n so:lum ... sed etiam, not only ... but also
se:decim, indecl. numeral adj. sixteen sedeo:, -e:re, se:di:, sessus, sit semper, adv. always, forever sena:tus, -u:s, m. [[cf. senex, old]], council of elders, senate sentio:, -i:re, se:nsi:, se:nsus, feel, know, perceive (Sec. 420.d). 

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    Cf. intellego:, video: 
septem, indecl. numeral adj. seven septimus, -a, -um, numeral adj. seventh sequor, -i:, secu:tus sum, dep. verb, follow (Sec. 493) serpe:ns, -entis, f. [[serpo:, crawl]], serpent, snake sertae, -a:rum, f. plur. wreaths, garlands servitu:s, -u:tis, f. [[servus, slave]], slavery, servitude servo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, save, rescue, keep servus, -i:, m. slave se:se:, emphatic for se:  sex, indecl. numeral adj. six Sextus, -i:, m. Sextus, a Roman first name si:, conj. if si:c, adv. thus, in this way.  Cf. ita, tam Sicilia, -ae, f. Sicily.  See map si:c-ut, just as, as if signifer, -eri:, m. [[signum, standard, + fero:, bear]],
    standard bearer (p. 224)
signum, -i:, n. ensign, standard; signal silva, -ae, f. wood, forest similis, -e, adj., compared similior, simillimus, like, similar
    (Sec. 307)
simul, adv. at the same time simul ac or simul atque, conj. as soon as sine, prep. with abl. without (Sec. 209) singuli:, -ae, -a, distributive numeral adj. one at a time, single
    (Sec. 334)
sinister, -tra, -trum, adj. left Sinuessa, -ae, f. Sinues’sa, a town in Campania.  See map sitis, -is (acc. -im, abl. -i:, no plur.), f. thirst situs, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of sino:, set]], situated, placed,
    lying

socius, soci:, m. comrade, ally so:l, so:lis (no gen. plur.), m. sun soleo:, -e:re, solitus sum, semi-dep. verb, be wont, be accustomed sollicitus, -a, -um, adj. disturbed, anxious so:lum, adv. [[so:lus, alone]], alone, only.
  no:n so:lum ... sed etiam, not only ... but also
so:lus, -a, -um (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), adj. alone, only (Sec. 108) solvo:, -ere, solvi:, solu:tus, loosen, unbind.
  na:vem solvere, set sail
somnus, -i:, m. sleep soror, -o:ris, f. sister spatium, spati:, n. space, distance; time; opportunity specta:culum, -i:, n. [[specto:, look at]], show, spectacle specto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, look at, witness spe:ro:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[spe:s, hope]], hope, expect (Sec.
    420.c)
spe:s, spei:, f. hope (Sec. 273.2) splendide:, adv. [[splendidus]], compared splendidius,
    splendidissime:, splendidly, handsomely
splendidus, -a, -um, adj. brilliant, gorgeous, splendid Stabia:nus, -a, -um, Stabian stabulum, -i:, n. [[cf. sto:, stand]], standing place, stable,
    stall

statim, adv. [[cf. sto:, stand]], on the spot, at once, instantly statua, -ae, f. [[sisto:, place, set]], statue statuo:, -ere, -ui:, -u:tus [[status, station]], decide, determine stilus, -i:, m. iron pencil, style (p. 210) sto:, -a:re, steti:, status, stand

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stra:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of sterno:, spread]], paved (of
    streets)
strepitus, -u:s, m. [[strepo:, make a noise]], noise, din stringo:, -ere, stri:nxi:, strictus, bind tight; draw, unsheathe studeo:, -e:re, -ui:, ——­, give attention to, be eager, with dat. 
    (Sec. 501.14)
studium, studi:, n. [[cf. studeo:, be eager for]], eagerness,
    desire, zeal, devotion

stultus, -a, -um, adj. foolish, stupid Stympha:lis, -idis, adj. f. Stymphalian, of Stympha’lus, a lake in
    southern Greece
Stympha:lus, -i:, m. Stympha’lus, a district of southern Greece with a
    town, mountain, and lake, all of the same name
sua:deo:, -e:re, -si:, -sus, advise, recommend, with subjv. of purpose
    (Sec. 501.41)
sub, prep, with acc. and abl. under, below, up to; at or to the
    foot of

sub-igo:, -ere, -e:gi:, -a:ctus [[sub, under, + ago:, drive]],
    subdue, reduce
subito:, adv. [[subitus, sudden]], suddenly sub-sequor, -i:, -secu:tus sum, dep. verb [[sub, below, + sequor,
    follow]], follow close after, follow up
suc-ce:do:, -ere, -cessi:, -cessus [[sub, below, + ce:do:, go]],
    follow, succeed
sui:, reflexive pron. of himself (herself, itself, themselves)
    (Sec. 480).
  se:cum = se:  + cum.
  se:se:, emphatic form of se: 
sum, esse, fui:, futu:rus, irreg. verb, be; exist (Sec. 494) summus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree, compared superus, superior,
    supre:mus or summus (Sec. 312), supreme, highest; best, greatest.
  in summo:  colle, on the top of the hill
su:mo:, -ere, su:mpsi:, su:mptus, take up; assume, put on.
  su:mere supplicium de:, inflict punishment on
super, prep. with acc. and abl. over, above superbia, -ae, f. [[superbus, proud]], pride, arrogance superbus, -a, -um, adj. proud, haughty superior, comp. of superus supero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[superus, above]], go over; subdue,
    overcome; surpass, excel

super-sum, -esse, -fui:, ——­, be over, survive, with dat. (Sec.
    501.15)
superus, -a, -um, adj., compared superior, supre:mus or summus,
    above, upper (Sec. 312)
supplicium, suppli’ci:, n. [[supplex, kneeling in entreaty]],
    punishment, torture.
  supplicium su:mere de:, inflict punishment on.
  supplicium dare, suffer punishment
surgo:, -ere, surre:xi:, ——­ [[sub, from below, + rego:, straighten]], rise sus-cipio:, -ere, -ce:pi:, -ceptus [[sub, under, + capio:, take]],
    undertake, assume, begin
suspicor, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, dep. verb, suspect, surmise, suppose sus-tineo:, -e:re, -tinui:, -tentus [[sub, under, + teneo:,
    hold]], hold up, bear, sustain, withstand
suus, -a, -um, reflexive possessive adj. and pron., his, her, hers,
    its, their, theirs
(Sec. 98)

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T

T., abbreviation of Titus taberna, -ae, f. shop, stall tabula, -ae, f. tablet for writing ta:lis, -e, adj. such.
  ta:lis ... qua:lis, such ... as
tam, adv. so, such.  Cf. ita, si:c tamen, adv. yet, however, nevertheless tandem, adv. at length, finally tango:, -ere, tetigi:, ta:ctus, touch tantum, adv. [[tantus]], only tantus, -a, -um, adj. so great, such.
  tantus ... quantus, as large as
tardus, -a, -um, adj. slow, late; lazy Tarpe:ia, -ae, f. Tarpeia (pronounced Tar-pe:’ya), the maiden who
    opened the citadel to the Sabines
Tarquinius, Tarqui’ni:, Tarquin, a Roman king.  With the surname
    Superbus, Tarquin the Proud
Tarraci:na, -ae, f. Tarraci’na, a town in Latium.  See map taurus, -i:, m. bull te:ctus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of tego:, cover]], covered,
    protected

te:lum, -i:, n. weapon temere:, adv. rashly, heedlessly tempesta:s, -a:tis, f. [[tempus, time]] storm, tempest templum, -i:, n. temple, shrine tempto, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, try, test; make trial of, attempt tempus, -oris, n. time (Sec. 464.2.b).
  in reliquum tempus, for the future
teneo:, -e:re, tenui:, ——­, hold, keep tergum, -i:, n. back, a:  tergo:, on the rear, tergum vertere, retreat, flee terni:, -ae, -a, distributive numeral adj. three each, by threes
    (Sec. 334)
terra, -ae, f. earth, ground, land.
  orbis terra:rum, the whole world
terror, -o:ris, m. [[cf. terreo:, frighten]], dread, alarm, terror tertius, -a, -um, numeral adj. third Teutone:s, -um, m. the Teutons thea:trum, -i:, n. theater The:bae, -a:rum, f. Thebes, a city of Greece The:ba:ni:, -o:rum, m. Thebans, the people of Thebes thermae, -a:rum, f. plur. baths Thessalia, -ae, f. Thessaly, a district of northern Greece Thra:cia, -ae, f. Thrace, a district north of Greece Tiberius, Tibe’ri:, m. Tiberius, a Roman first name ti:bi:cen, -i:nis, m. [[cf. ti:bia, pipe]], piper, flute player timeo:, -e:re, -ui:, ——­, fear, be afraid of.  Cf. vereor timor, -o:ris, m. [[cf. timeo:, fear]], fear, dread, alarm
    Cf. metus
Ti:ryns, Ti:rynthis, f. Ti’ryns, an ancient town in southern Greece,
    where Hercules served Eurystheus
toga, -ae, f. [[cf. tego:, cover]], toga tormentum, -i:, n. engine of war totie:ns, adv. so often, so many times to:tus, -a, -um, (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), adj. all, the whole,
    entire
(Sec. 108)
tra:-do:, -ere, -didi:, -ditus [[tra:ns, across, + do:, deliver]],
    give up, hand over, surrender, betray
tra:-du:co:, -ere, -du:xi:, -ductus [[tra:ns, across,

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+ du:co:,
    lead]], lead across
traho:, -ere, tra:xi:, tra:ctus, draw, pull, drag.
  multum trahere, protract, prolong much
tra:-icio:, -ere, -ie:ci:, -iectus [[tra:ns, across, + iacio:,
    hurl]], throw across; transfix
tra:-no:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[tra:ns, across, + no:, swim]],
    swim across
tra:ns, prep. with acc. across, over (Sec. 340) tra:ns-eo:, -i:re, -ii:, -itus [[tra:ns, across, + eo:, go]], go
    across, cross
(Sec. 413)
tra:ns-fi:go:, -ere, -fi:xi:, -fi:xus [[tra:ns, through, + fi:go:,
    drive]], transfix
tra:nsitus, ——­ (acc. -um, abl. -u:), m. [[cf. tra:nseo:, cross
    over
]], passage across
tre:s, tria, numeral adj. three (Sec. 479) tri:duum, tri:dui:, n. [[tre:s, three, + die:s, days]], three
    days’ time, three days

tri:ginta:, indecl. numeral adj. thirty triplex, -icis, adj. threefold, triple tri:stis, -e, adj. sad; severe, terrible tri:stitia, -ae, f. [[tri:stis, sad]], sadness, sorrow triumpho:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[triumphus, triumph]], celebrate a
    triumph

triumphus, -i:, m. triumphal procession, triumph.
  triumphum agere, celebrate a triumph
truci:do:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, cut to pieces, slaughter. Cf.
    interficio:, neco:, occi:do: 
tu:, tui:  (plur. vo:s), pers. pron. thou, you (Sec. 480) tuba, -ae, f. trumpet Tullia, -ae, f. Tullia, a Roman name tum, adv. then, at that time turris, -is, f. tower (Sec. 465.2) tu:tus, -a, -um, adj. safe tuus, -a, -um, possessive adj. and pron. your, yours (Sec. 98)

U

ubi, rel. and interrog. adv. where, when u:llus, -a, -um (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), adj. any (Sec. 108) ulterior, -ius, -o:ris, adj. in comp. degree, superl. ultimus,
    farther, more remote (Sec. 315)
ultimus, -a, -um, adj. in superl. degree (see ulterior), farthest
    (Sec. 315)
umbra, -ae, f. shade umerus, -i:, m. shoulder umquam, adv. ever, at any time u:na:, adv. [[u:nus, one]], in the same place, at the same time u:ndecimus, -a, -um, numeral adj. [[u:nus, one, + decimus,
    tenth]], eleventh
undique, adv. from every quarter, on all sides, everywhere u:nus, -a, -um (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), numeral adj. one; alone
    (Sec. 108)
urbs, -is, f. city (Sec. 465.a) urgeo:, -e:re, ursi:, ——­, press upon, crowd, hem in u:rus, -i:, m. wild ox, urus u:sque, adv. all the way, even u:sus, -u:s, m. use, advantage ut, conj. with the subjv. that, in order that, that not (with verbs
    of fearing), so that, to

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(Sec. 350.1)
uter, -tra, -trum (gen. -i:us, dat. -i:), interrog. pron. which of
    two? which?
(Sec. 108)
uterque, utraque, utrumque, indef. pron. each of two, each, both.
    ab utra:que parte, on both sides
u:tilis, -e, adj. [[u:tor, use]], useful utrimque, adv. [[uterque, each of two]], on each side, on either
    hand

u:va, -ae, f. grape, bunch of grapes uxor, -o:ris, f. wife

V

va:gi:na, -ae, sheath, scabbard vagor, -a:ri:, -a:tus sum, dep. verb, wander valeo:, -e:re, -ui:, -itu:rus, be powerful, be well; in the imperative
    as a greeting, farewell.
  plu:rimum vale:re, have the most power
vale:tu:do:, -inis, f. [[valeo:, be well]], health validus, -a, -um, adj. [[cf. valeo:, be strong]], strong, able,
    well

valle:s, -is, f. valley va:llum, -i:, n. rampart, earthworks varius, -a, -um, adj. bright-colored va:sto:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[va:stus, empty]], (make empty),
    devastate, lay waste

vecti:gal, -a:lis, n. tax, tribute vehementer, adv. [[veheme:ns, eager]], compared vehementius,
    vehementissime:, eagerly, vehemently
veho:, -ere, vexi:, vectus, convey, carry.  In the passive often in the
    sense of ride, sail
vel, conj. or.
  vel ... vel, either ... or.  Cf. aut
ve:lo:cita:s, -a:tis, f. [[ve:lo:x, swift]], swiftness ve:lo:x, -o:cis, adj. swift, fleet ve:lum, -i:, n. sail ve:ndo:, -ere, ve:ndidi:, ve:nditus, sell venio:, -i:re, ve:ni:, ventus, come, go ventus, -i:, m. wind verbum, -i:, n. word.
  verba facere pro:, speak in behalf of
vereor, -e:ri:, -itus sum, dep. verb, fear; reverence, respect
    (Sec. 493).  Cf. timeo: 
Vergilius, Vergi’li:, m. Vergil, the poet vergo:, -ere, ——­, ——­, turn, lie ve:ro:, adv. [[ve:rus, true]], in truth, surely; conj. but,
    however
.
  tum ve:ro:, then you may be sure, introducing the climax of a story
verto:, -ere, -ti:, -sus, turn, change.
  tergum vertere, retreat, flee
ve:rus, -a, -um, true, actual vesper, -eri:, m. evening vester, -tra, -trum, possessive adj. and pron. your, yours (Sec. 98) vesti:gium, vesti:’gi:, n. [[cf. vesti:go:, track]], footstep, track,
    trace

vesti:mentum, -i:, n. [[vestis, clothing]], garment vestio:, -i:re, -i:vi:, -i:tus [[vestis, clothing]], clothe, dress vestis, -is, f. clothing, attire, garment, robe vesti:tus, -a, -um, adj. [[part. of vestio:, clothe]], clothed Vesuvius, Vesu’vi, m. Vesuvius, the volcano near Pompeii.  See map vetera:nus, -a, -um, adj. old, veteran veto:, -a:re, -ui:,

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-itus, forbid, prohibit vexo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, trouble, annoy via, -ae, f. way, road, street; way, manner.  Cf. iter via:tor, -o:ris, m. [[via]], traveler victor, -o:ris, m. [[vinco:, conquer]], conqueror, victor.  In
    apposition, with adj. force _ victorious_
victo:ria, -ae, f. [victor, victor], victory vi:cus, -i:, m. village video:, -e:re, vi:di:, vi:sus, see, perceive.  Pass. be seen; seem
    (Sec. 420.d)
vigilia,-ae, f. [[vigil awake]], watch.
  de:  tertia vigilia, about the third watch
vi:ginti:, indecl. numeral adj. twenty vi:licus, -i:, m. [[vi:lla, farm]], steward, overseer of a farm vi:lla, -ae, f. farm, villa vincio:, -i:re, vi:nxi:, vi:nctus, bind, tie,fetter vinco:, -ere, vi:ci:, victus, conquer, defeat, overcome.  Cf. subigo:,
    supero: 
vi:nea, -ae, f. shed (p. 219) vi:num, -i:, n. wine violenter, adv. [[violentus, violent]], compared violentius,
    violentissime:, violently, furiously
vir, viri:, m. man, husband; hero (Sec. 462.c) viri:lis, -e, adj. [[vir, man]], manly virtu:s, -u:tis, f. [[vir, man]], manliness; courage, valor;
    virtue
(Sec. 464.1)
vi:s, (vi:s), f. strength, power, might, violence (Sec. 468) vi:ta, -ae, f. [[cf. vi:vo:, live]], life, vi:tam agere, spend or
    pass life

vi:to, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, shun, avoid vi:vo:, -ere, vi:xi:, ——­, live.  Cf. habito:, incolo:  vi:vus, -a, -um, adj. [[cf. vi:vo:, live]], alive, living vix, adv. scarcely, hardly voco:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus, call, summon, invite.  Cf. appello:,
    no:mino: 
volo:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tu:rus, fly volo:, velle, volui:, ——­, irreg. verb, will, be willing; wish
    (Sec. 497).  Cf. cupio
volu:men, -inis, n. roll, book Vore:nus, -i:, m. Vore’nus, a centurion vo:s, pers. pron.; you (see tu:) (Sec. 480) vo:tum, -i:, n. [[neut. part. of voveo:, vow]], vow, pledge, prayer vo:x, vo:cis, f. [[cf. voco:, call]], voice, cry; word vulnero:, -a:re, -a:vi:, -a:tus [[vulnus, wound]], wound, hurt vulnus, -eris, n. wound, injury vulpe:s, -i:s, f. fox

  [Illustration:  EQUES ROMANUS]

ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY

This vocabulary contains only the words used in the English-Latin exercises.  For details not given here, reference may be made to the Latin-English vocabulary.  The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, after verbs indicate the conjugation.

A

Page 267

a, an, commonly not translated able (be), possum, posse, potui:, ——­(Sec. 495) abode, domicilium, domici’li:, n. about (adv.), circiter about (prep.), de:, with abl. about to, expressed by fut. act. part. abundance, co:pia, -ae, f. across, tra:ns, with acc. active, a:cer, a:cris, a:cre advance, pro:gredior, 3 advantage, u:sus, -u:s, m. advise, moneo:, 2 after (conj.), postquam; often expressed by the perf. part. after (prep.), post, with acc. against, in, contra:, with acc. aid, auxilium, auxi’li:, n. all, omnis, -e; to:tus, -a, -um (Sec. 108) allow, patior, 3 ally, socius, soci:, m. almost, paene; fere:  alone, u:nus, -a, -um; so:lus, -a, -um (Sec. 108) already, iam also, quoque always, semper ambassador, le:ga:tus, -i:, m. among, apud, with acc. ancient, anti:quus, -a, -um and, et; atque (ac); -que and so, itaque Andromeda, Andromeda, -ae, f. angry, i:ra:tus, -a, um animal, animal, -a:lis, n. announce, nu:ntio:, 1 annoying, molestus, -a, -um another, alius, -a, -ud (Sec. 109) any, u:llus, -a, -um (Sec. 108) any one, anything, quisquam, quicquam or quidquam (Sec. 486) appearance, fo:rma, -ae, f. appoint, creo:, 1 approach, adpropinquo:, 1, with dat. are, used as auxiliary, not translated; as a copula, sum (Sec. 494) arise, orior, 4 arm, bracchium, bracchi:, n. armed, arma:tus, -a, -um arms, arma, -o:rum, n. plur. army, exercitus, -u:s, m. around, circum, with acc. arrival, adventus, -us, m. arrow, sagitta, -ae, f. art of war, re:s mi:lita:ris as possible, expressed by quam and superl.. ask, peto:, 3; quaero:, 3; rogo:, 1 assail, oppugno:, 1 at, in, with acc. or abl.;
  with names of towns, locative case or abl. without a preposition

    (Sec. 268);
  time when, abl.
at once, statim at the beginning of summer, inita:  aesta:te Athens, Athe:nae, -a:rum, f. attack, impetus, -us, m. attempt, co:nor, 1; tempto:, 1 away from, a:  or ab, with abl.

B

bad, malus, -a, -um baggage, impedi:menta, -o:rum, n. plur. bank, ri:pa, -ae, f. barbarians, barbari:, -o:rum, m. plur. battle, proelium, proeli:, n.; pugna, -ae. f. be, sum (Sec. 494) be absent, be far, absum (Sec. 494) be afraid, timeo:, 2; vereor, 2 be away, absum (Sec. 494) be in command of, praesum, with dat. (Secs. 494, 426) be informed, certior fi:o:  be off, be distant, absum (Sec. 494) be without, egeo:, with abl. (Sec. 180) beast (wild), fera, -ae, f. beautiful, pulcher, -chra, -chrum because, quia; quod because of, propter, with acc.; or abl. of cause before, heretofore (adv.), antea:  before (prep.), ante, with acc.; pro:, with abl. begin, incipio:, 3 believe, cre:do:,

Page 268

3, with dat. (Sec. 153) belong to, predicate genitive (Sec. 409) best, optimus, superl. of bonus betray, tra:do:, 3 better, melior, comp. of bonus between, inter, with acc. billow, fluctus, -us, m. bird, avis, -is, f. (Sec. 243.1) blood, sanguis, -inis, m. body, corpus, -oris. n. bold, auda:x, -a:cis; fortis, -e boldly, auda:cter; fortiter boldness, auda:cia, -ae, f. booty, praeda, -ae, f. both, each (of two), uterque, utraque, utrumque both ... and, et ... et boy, puer, -eri:, m. brave, fortis, -e bravely, fortiter bridge, po:ns, pontis, m. bright, cla:rus, -a, -um bring back, reporto:, 1 bring upon, i:nfero:, -ferre, -tuli:, -la:tus, with acc. and dat.
    (Sec. 426)
brother, fra:ter, -tris, m. building, aedificium, aedifi’ci:. n. burn, cremo:, 1; incendo:, 3 business, nego:tium, nego:’ti:, n. but, however, autem, sed by, a:, ab, with abl.;
    denoting means, abl. alone;
    sometimes implied in a participle
by night, noctu: 

C

Caesar, Caesar, -aris, m. calamity, calamita:s, -a:tis, f. call, voco:, 1; appello:, 1; no:mino:, 1 call together, convoco:, 1 camp, castra, -o:rum, n. plur. can, could, possum, posse, potui:, ——­ (Sec. 495) capture, capio:, 3; occupo:, 1 care, cu:ra, -ae, f. care for, cu:ro:, 1 careful, attentus, -a, -um carefulness, di:ligentia, -ae, f. carry, fero:, ferre, tuli:, la:tus (Sec. 498); porto:, 1 carry on, gero:, 3 cart, carrus, -i:, m. cause, causa, -ae, f. cavalry, equita:tus, -u:s, m. cease, cesso:, 1 Cepheus, Ce:pheus, -i:, m. certain (a), qui:dam, quaedam, quoddam (quiddam) (Sec. 485) chicken, galli:na, -ae, f. chief, pri:nceps, -cipis, m. children, li:beri:, -o:rum, m. plur. choose, de:ligo:, 3 choose, elect, creo:, 1 citizen, ci:vis, -is, m. and f. (Sec. 243.1) city, urbs, urbis, f. clear, cla:rus, -a, -um cohort, cohors, -rtis, f. come, venio:, 4 command, impero:, 1, with dat. (Sec. 45);
  iubeo:, 2;
  praesum, with dat. (Sec. 426)
commit, committo:, 3 commonwealth, re:s pu:blica, rei:  pu:blicae concerning, de:, with abl. conquer, supero:, 1; vinco:, 3 construct (a ditch), perdu:co:, 3 consul, co:nsul, -ulis, m. contrary to, contra:, with acc. Corinth, Corinthus, -i:, f. Cornelia, Corne:lia, -ae, f. Cornelius, Corne:lius, Corne:’li, m. corselet, lo:ri:ca, -ae, f. cottage, casa, -ae, f. country, as distinguished from the city, ru:s, ru:ris, n.;
  as territory
, fi:ne:s, -ium, m., plur. of fi:nis
courage, virtu:s, -u:tis, f. crime, scelus, -eris, n. cross, tra:nseo:, 4 (Sec. 499) crown, coro:na, -ae, f.

D

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daily, coti:die:  danger, peri:culum, -i:, n. daughter, fi:lia, -ae, f. (Sec. 67) day, die:s, -e:i:, m. daybreak, pri:ma lu:x dear, ca:rus, -a, -um death, mors, mortis, f. deed, re:s, rei:, f. deep, altus, -a, -um defeat, calamita:s, -a:tis, f. defend, de:fendo:, 3 delay (noun), mora, -ae, f. delay (verb), moror, 1 demand, postulo:, 1 dense, de:nsus, -a, -um depart, disce:do:, 3; exeo:, 4; profici:scor, 3 dependent, clie:ns, -entis, m. design, co:nsilium, consi’li:  n. desire, cupio:, 3 destroy, de:leo:, 2 Diana, Dia:na, -ae, f. differ, differo:, differre, distuli:, di:la:tus (Sec. 498) different, dissimilis, -e difficult, difficilis, -e difficulty, difficulta:s, -a:tis, f. diligence, di:ligentia, -ae, f. dinner, ce:na, -ae, f. disaster, calamita:s, -a:tis, f. distant (be), absum, -esse, a:fui:, a:futu:rus (Sec. 494) ditch, fossa, -ae, f. do, ago:, 3; facio:, 3;
  when used as auxiliary, not translated
down from, de:, with abl. drag, traho:, 3 drive, ago:, 3 dwell, habito:, 1; incolo:, 3; vi:vo:, 3 dwelling, aedificium, aedifi’ci:, n.

E

each, quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque) (Sec. 484) each of two, uterque, utraque, utrumque each other, inter with acc. of a reflexive eager, a:cer, a:cris, a:cre; alacer, alacris, alacre eager (be), studeo:, 2 eagerness, studium, studi:, n. eagle, aquila, -ae, f. easily, facile easy, facilis, -e either ... or, aut ... aut empire, imperium, impe’ri:, n. employ, nego:tium do:  encourage, hortor, 1 enemy, hostis, -is, m. and f.; inimi:cus, -i:, m. enough, satis entire, to:tus, -a, -um (Sec. 108) expectation, opi:nio:, -o:nis, f. eye, oculus, -i:, m.

F

faithless, perfidus, -a, -um famous, cla:rus, -a, -um far, longe:  farmer, agricola, -ae, m. farther, ulterior, -ius father, pater, patris, m. fatherland, patria, -ae, f. favor, faveo:, 2 favorable, ido:neus, -a,-um; secundus, -a, -um fear, metus, -u:s, m.; timor, -o:ris, m. fear, be afraid, timeo:, 2 few, pauci:, -ae, -a field, ager, agri:, m. fifteen, qui:ndecim fight, contendo:, 3; pugno:, 1 find, reperio:, 4 finish, co:nficio:, 3 fire, ignis, -is, m. (Sec. 243.1) firmness, co:nstantia, -ae, f. first, pri:mus, -a, -um flee, fugio:, 3 flight, fuga, -ae, f. fly, volo:, 1 foe, see enemy follow close after, subsequor, 3 food, cibus, -i:, m. foot, pe:s, pedis, m. foot-soldier, pedes, -itis, m. for (conj.), enim, nam for (prep.), sign of dat.;
  de:, pro:, with abl.;
  to express purpose
, ad, with gerundive;
  implied in acc. of time and of extent of space

for a long time, diu:  forbid, veto:, 1 forces,

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co:piae, -a:rum, f., plur. of co:pia forest, silva, -ae, f. fort, castellum, -i:, n.; castrum, -i:, n. fortification, mu:nitio:, -o:nis, f. fortify, mu:nio:, 4 fortune, fortu:na, -ae, f. fourth, qua:rtus, -a, -um free, li:ber, -era, -erum free, liberate, li:bero:, 1 frequent, cre:ber, -bra, -brum friend, ami:cus, -i:, m. friendly (adj.), ami:cus, -a, -um friendly (adv.), ami:ce:  friendship, ami:citia, -ae, f. frighten, perterreo:, 2 from, a:  or ab, de:, e:, ex, with abl.
  Often expressed by the separative ablative without a prep.
from each other, inter, with acc. of a reflexive pron. full, ple:nus, -a, -um

G

Galba, Galba, -ae, m.
garland, coro:na, -ae, f.
garrison, praesidium, praesi’di:, n.
gate, porta, -ae, f.
Gaul, Gallia, -ae, f.
Gaul (a), Gallus, -i:, m.
general, impera:tor, -o:ris, m.
Geneva, Gena:va, -ae, f.
gentle, le:nis, -e
German, Germa:nus, -a, -um
Germans (the), Germa:ni:, -o:rum, m. plur
Germany, Germa:nia, -ae, f.
get (dinner), paro:, 1
girl, puella, -ae, f.
give, do:, dare, dedi:, datus
give over, surrender, de:do:, 3; tra:do:, 3
give up, omitto:, 3
go, eo:, 4 (Sec. 499)
go forth, pro:gredior, 3
god, deus, -i:, m. (Sec. 468)
goddess, dea, -ae, f. (Sec. 67)
gold, aurum, -i:, n.
good, bonus, -a, -um
grain, fru:mentum, -i:, n.
grain supply, re:s fru:menta:ria
great, inge:ns, -entis; magnus, -a, -um
greatest, maximus, -a, -um; summus, -a, -um
guard, praesidium, praesi’di:, n.

H

hand, manus, -u:s, f. happy, laetus, -a, -um harbor, portus, -u:s, m. hasten, contendo:, 3; ma:tu:ro:, 1; propero:, 1 hateful, invi:sus, -a, -um haughty, superbus, -a, -um have, habeo:, 2 have no power, nihil possum he, is; hic; iste; ille; or not expressed head, caput, -itis, n. hear, audio:  heart, animus, -i:, m. heavy, gravis, -e Helvetii (the), Helve:tii:, -o:rum, m. plur. hem in, contineo:, 2 hen, galli:na, -ae, f. her, eius; huius; isti:us; illi:us;
  reflexive, suus, -a, -um (Sec. 116)
hide, abdo:, 3 high, altus, -a, -um highest, summus, -a, -um hill, collis, -is, m. himself, sui:.  See self hindrance, impedi:mentum, -i:, n. his, eius; huius; isti:us; illi:us;
  reflexive, suus, -a, -um (Sec. 116)
hither, citerior, -ius (Sec. 315) hold, teneo:, 2 home, domus, -u:s, f. (Sec. 468).
  at home, domi:  (Sec. 267)
hope (noun), spe:s, spei:, f. hope (verb), spe:ro:, 1 horse, equus, -i:, m. horseman, eques, -itis, m. hostage, obses, -idis, m. and f. hostile, inimi:cus, -a, -um hour, ho:ra, -ae, f. house, domicilium, domici’li:, n.; domus, -u:s, f. (Sec. 468) hurl, iacio:, 3

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I

I, ego (Sec. 280); or not expressed if, si:.
  if not, nisi
ill, aeger, -gra, -grum immediately, statim in (of place), in, with abl.;
  (of time or of specification) abl. without prep.
in order that, ut, with subjv.;
  in order that not, lest, ne:, with subjv.
in vain, fru:stra:  industry, di:ligentia, -ae, f. inflict injuries upon, iniu:ria:s i:nfero:  with dat. (Sec. 426) inflict punishment on, supplicium su:mo:  de inform some one, aliquem certio:rem facio:  injure, noceo:, 2, with dat. (Sec. 153) injury, iniu:ria, -ae, f. into, in, with acc. intrust, committo:, 3; mando:, 1 invite, voco:, 1 is, used as auxiliary, not translated;
  as a copula, sum (Sec. 494)
island, i:nsula, -ae, f. it, is; hie; iste; ille; or not expressed Italy, Italia, -ae, f. its, eius; huius; isti:us; illi:us;
  reflexive, suus, -a, -um (Sec. 116)
itself, sui:.  See self

J

join battle, proelium committo:  journey, iter, itineris, n. (Sec. 468) judge (noun), iu:dex, -icis, m. judge (verb), iu:dico:, 1 Julia, Iu:lia, -ae, f. just now, nu:per

K

keep, contineo:, 2; prohibeo, 2; teneo:, 2 keep on doing something, expressed by the impf. indic. kill, interficio:, 3; neco:, 1; occi:do:, 3 king, re:x, re:gis, m. kingdom, re:gnum, -i:, n. know, cogno:sco:, 3, in perf.; scio:, 4

L

labor (noun), labor, -o:ris, m. labor (verb), labo:ro:, 1 lack (noun), inopia, -ae, f. lack (verb), egeo:, 2, with abl. (Sec. 180) lady, domina, -ae, f. lake, lacus, -u:s, m. (Sec. 260.2) land, terra, -ae, f. language, lingua, -ae, f. large, inge:ns, -entis; magnus, -a, -um larger, maior, maius lately, nu:per Latona, La:to:na, -ae, f. law, le:x, le:gis, f. lay waste, va:sto:, 1 lead, du:co, 3 leader, dux, ducis, m. and f. learn, know, cogno:sco:, 3 leave, depart from, disce:do:, 3 leave behind, abandon, relinquo:, 3 left, sinister, -tra, -trum legion, legio:, -o:nis, f. legionaries, legio:na:rii:, -o:rum, m. plur. length, longitu:do:, -inis, f. lest, ne:, with subjv. letter (of the alphabet), littera, -ae, f;
  (an epistle) litterae, -a:rum, f. plur.
lieutenant, le:ga:tus, -i:, m. light, lu:x, lu:cis, f. like (adj.), similis, -e like, love, amo:, 1 line of battle, acie:s, acie:i:, f. little, parvus, -a, -um live, habito:, 1; incolo:, 3; vi:vo:, 3 long, longus, -a, -um long, for a long time, diu:  long for, de:si:dero:, 1 look after, cu:ro:, 1 love, amo:, 1

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M

maid, maid servant, ancilla, -ae,_f._ make, facio:, 3 make war upon, bellum i:nfero:  with dat. (Sec. 426) man, homo:, -inis, m. and f.; vir, viri:, m. man-of-war, na:vis longa many, multi:, -ae, -a, plur. of multus march, iter, itineris, n. (Sec. 468) Mark, Ma:rcus, -i:, m. marriage, ma:trimo:nium, ma:trimo:’ni:, n. master, dominus, -i:, m.; magi:ster, -tri:, m. matter, nego:tium, nego:’ti:, n.; re:s, rei:, f. means, by means of, the abl. messenger, nu:ntius, nu:nti:, m. midnight, media nox mile, mi:lle passuum (Sec. 331.b) miles, mi:lia passuum mind, animus, -i:, m.; me:ns, mentis, f. mine, meus, -a, -um mistress, domina, -ae, f. money, pecu:nia, -ae, f. monster, mo:nstrum, -i:, n. month, me:nsis, -is, m. moon, lu:na, -ae, f. more (adj.), plu:s, plu:ris (Sec. 313); or a comparative.  Adverb,
    magis
most (adj.), plu:rimus, -a, -um;
  superl. degree.  Adverb, maxime:; plu:rimum
mother, ma:ter, ma:tris, f. mountain, mo:ns, montis, m. move, moveo:, 2 moved, commo:tus, -a, -um much (by), multo:  multitude, multitu:do:, -inis. f. my, meus, -a, -um myself, me:, reflexive.  See self

N

name, no:men, -inis, n. nation, ge:ns, gentis, f. near, propinquus, -a, -um nearest, proximus, -a, -um nearly, fere:  neighbor, fi:nitimus, -i:, in. neighboring, fi:initimus, -a, -um neither, neque or nec;
  neither ... nor, neque (nec) ... neque (nec)
never, numquam nevertheless, tamen new, novus, -a, -um next day, postri:die:  eius die:i:  next to, proximus, -a, -um night, nox, noctis, f. nine, novem no, minime:; or repeat verb with a negative (Sec. 210) no, none, nu:llus, -a, -um (Sec. 109) no one, ne:mo:, nu:lli:us nor, neque or nec not, no:n not even, ne:  ... quidem not only ... but also, no:n so:lum ... sed etiam nothing, nihil or nihilum, -i:, n. now, nunc number, numerus, -i:, m.

O

obey, pa:reo:, 2, with dat. (Sec. 153) of, sign of gen.;
  de:, with abl.;
  out of, e:  or ex, with abl.
often, saepe on (of place), in, with abl.;
  (of time) abl. without prep.
on account of, propter, with acc.; or abl. of cause. on all sides, undique once (upon a time), o:lim one, u:nus, -a, -um (Sec. 108) one ... another, alius ... alius (Sec. 110) only (adv.), so:lum; tantum opportune, opportunus, -a, -um opposite, adversus, -a, -um oracle, o:ra:culum, -i:, n. orator, o:ra:tor, -o:ris, m. order, impero:, 1; iubeo:, 2 ornament, o:rna:mentum, -i:, n. other, alius, -a, -ud (Sec. 109) others (the), reliqui:, -o:rum, m. plur. ought, de:beo:, 2 our, noster, -tra, -trum ourselves, no:s, as reflexive object. See self overcome, supero:, 1; vinco:, 3 own (his, her, its, their), suus, -a, -um

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P

part, pars, partis, f. peace, pa:x, pa:cis, f. people, populus, -i:, m. Perseus, Perseus, -i:, m. persuade, persua:deo:, 2, with dat. (Sec. 153) pitch camp, castra po:no:  place (noun), locus, -i:, m. place, arrange, conloco:, 1 place, put, po:no:, 3 place in command, praeficio:, 3, with acc. and dat. (Sec. 426) plan (a), co:nsilium, co:nsi’li:, n. please, placeo:, 2, with dat. (Sec. 154) pleasing, gra:tus, -a, -um plow, aro:, 1 Pompeii, Pompe:ii:, -o:rum, m. plur. possible (as), expressed by quam and superl. powerful (be), valeo:, 2 praise, laudo:, 1 prefer, ma:lo:, ma:lle, ma:lui:, ——­ (Sec. 497) prepare for, paro:, 1, with acc. press hard, premo:, 3 protection, fide:s, fidei:, f. province, pro:vincia, -ae, f. public, pu:blicus, -a, -um Publius, Pu:blius, Pu:bli:, m. punishment, poena, -ae, f.; supplicium, suppli’ci:, n. purpose, for the purpose of, ut, qui:, or quo:, with subjv.;
  ad, with gerund or gerundive;
  causa:, following the genitive of a gerund or gerundive
pursue, i:nsequor, 3

Q

queen, re:gi:na, -ae, f. quickly, celeriter quite, expressed by the comp. degree

R

rampart, va:llum, -i:, n. rear, novissimum agmen reason, causa, -ae, f. receive, accipio:, 3; excipio:, 3 recent, rece:ns, -entis recently, nu:per redoubt, castellum, -i:, n. refuse, recu:so:, 1 remain, maneo:, 2 remaining, reliquus, -a, -um reply, respondeo:, 2 report (noun), fama, -ae, f.; ru:mor, -o:ris, m. report (verb), adfero:; de:fero:; refero:  (Sec. 498) republic, re:s pu:blica require, postulo:, 1 resist, resisto:, 3, with dat. (Sec. 154) rest (the), reliqui:, -o:rum, m. plur. restrain, contineo:, 2 retainer, clie:ns, -entis, m. retreat, pedem refero:; terga verto:  return, redeo:, 4; revertor, 3 revolution, re:s novae Rhine, Rhe:nus, -i:, m. right, dexter, -tra, -trum river, flu:men, -inis, n.; fluvius, fluvi:, m. road, via, -ae, f. Roman, Ro:ma:nus, -a, -um Rome, Ro:ma, -ae, f. row, o:rdo:, -inis, m. rule, rego:, 3 rumor, fa:ma, -ae, f.; ru:mor, -o:ris, m. run, curro:, 3

S

sacrifice, sacrum, -i:, n. safety, salu:s, -u:tis, f. sail, na:vigo:, 1 sailor, nauta, -ae, m. sake, for the sake of, causa:, following a gen. same, i:dem, eadem, idem (Sec. 287) savages, barbari:, -o:rum, m. plur. save, servo:, 1 say, di:co:, 3 school, lu:dus, -i:, m.; schola, -ae, f. scout, explo:ra:tor, -o:ris, m. sea, mare, -is, n. second, secundus, -a, -um

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see, video:, 2 seek, peto:, 3 seem, videor, 2, passive of video:  seize, occupo:, 1; rapio:, 3 self, ipse, -a, -um (Sec. 286); sui:  (Sec. 281) send, mitto:, 3 set fire to, incendo:, 3 set out, profici:scor, 3 seven, septem Sextus, Sextus, -i:, m. she, ea; haec; ista; illa (Sec. 115);
  or not expressed
ship, na:vis, -is, f. (Sec. 243.1) short, brevis, -e shout, cla:mor, -o:ris, m. show, de:mo:nstro:, 1 Sicily, Sicilia, -ae, f. sick, aeger, -gra, -grum side, latus, -eris, n. siege, obsidio:, -o:nis, f. since, cum, with subjv. (Sec. 396);
  the abl. abs. (Sec. 381)
sing, cano:, 3; canto:, 1 sister, soror, -o:ris, f. sit, sedeo:, 2 size, magnitu:do:, -inis, f. skillful, peri:tus, -a, -um slave, servus, -i:, m. slavery, servitiu:s, -u:tis, f. slow, tardus, -a, -um small, parvus, -a, -um snatch, rapio:, 3 so, ita; si:c; tam so great, tantus, -a, -um so that, ut;
  so that not, ut no:n
soldier, mi:les, -itis, m. some, often not expressed;
  quis (qui:), qua (quae), quid (quod); aliqui:, aliqua, aliquod
some one, quis; aliquis (Sec. 487) some ... others, alii:  ... alii:  (Sec. 110) something, quid; aliquid (Sec. 487) son, fi:lius, fi:li:, m. soon, mox space, spatium, spati:, n. spear, pi:lum, -i:, n. spirited, a:cer, a:cris, a:cre; alacer, alacris, alacre spring, fo:ns, fontis, m. spur, calcar, -a:ris, n. stand, sto:, 1 state, ci:vita:s, -a:tis, f. station, conloco:, 1 steadiness, co:nstantia, -ae, f. stone, lapis, -idis, m. storm, oppugno:, 1 story, fa:bula, -ae, f. street, via, -ae, f. strength, vi:s, (vi:s), f. strong, fortis, -e; validus, -a, -um sturdy, validus, -a, -um such, ta:lis, -e suddenly, subito:  suffer punishment, supplicium do:  sufficiently, satis suitable, ido:neus, -a, -um summer, aesta:s, -a:tis, f. sun, so:l, so:lis, m. supplies, commea:tus, -u:s, m. surrender, tra:do:, 3 suspect, suspicor, 1 swift, celer, -eris, -ere; ve:lo:x, -o:cis sword, gladius, gladi:, m.

T

take, capture, capio:, 3 take part in, intersum, -esse, -fui:, -futu:rus, with dat. (Sec. 426) take possession of, occupo:, 1 tall, altus, -a, -um task, opus, operis, n. teach, doceo:, 2 teacher, magister, -tri:, m. tear (noun), lacrima, -ae, f. tell, di:co:, 3; na:rro:, 1 ten, decem terrified, perterritus, -a, -um terrify, perterreo:, 2 than, quam that (conj. after verbs of saying and the like), not expressed that (pron.), is; iste; ille that, in order that, in purpose clauses, ut; after verbs of fearing, ne:  (Secs. 349, 366, 372) that not, lest, in purpose clauses, ne:;
  after verbs of fearing, ut (Secs. 349, 366, 372)
the, not expressed their, gen. plur. of

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is; reflexive, suus, -a, -um (Sec. 116) their own, suus, -a, -um (Sec. 116) then, at that time, tum then, in the next place, deinde, tum there, as expletive, not expressed there, in that place, ibi therefore, itaque they, ii:; hi:; isti:; illi:;
  or not expressed
think, arbitror, 1; exi:stimo:, 1; puto:, 1 third, tertius, -a, -um this, hic, haec, hoc; is, ea, id though, cum. with subjv. (Sec. 396) thousand, mi:lle (Sec. 479) three, tre:s, tria (Sec. 479) through, per, with acc. thy, tuus, -a, -um time, tempus, -oris, n. to, sign of dat.;
  ad, in, with acc.;
  expressing purpose, ut, qui:, with subjv.;
  ad, with gerund or gerundive
to each other, inter, with acc. of a reflexive pron. to-day, hodie:  tooth, de:ns, dentis, m. top of, summus, -a, -um tower, turris, -is, f. (Sec. 243.2) town, oppidum, -i:, n. townsman, oppida:nus, -i:, m. trace, vesti:gium, vesti:’gi:, n. trader, merca:tor, -o:ris, m. train, exerceo:, 2 tree, arbor, -oris, f. tribe, ge:ns, gentis, f. troops, co:piae, -a:rum, f. plur. true, ve:rus, -a, -um trumpet, tuba, -ae, f. try, co:nor, 1; tempto:, 1 twelve, duodecim two, duo, duae, duo (Sec. 479)

U

under, sub, with acc. or abl. undertake, suscipio:, 3 unharmed, incolumis, -e unless, nisi unlike, dissimilis, -e unwilling (be), no:lo:, no:lle, no:lui:, ——­ (Sec. 497) up to, sub, with acc. us, no:s, acc. plur. of ego

V

very, superl. degree; maxime:; ipse, -a, -um (Sec. 285) victor, victor, -o:ris, m. victory, victo:ria, -ae, f. village, vi:cus, -i:, m. violence, vi:s, (vi:s), f. violently, vehementer voice, vo:x, vo:cis, f.

W

wage, gero:, 3 wagon, carrus. -i:, m. wall, mu:rus, -i:, m. want, inopia, -ae, f. war, bellum, -i:, n. watch, vigilia, -ae, f. water, aqua, -ae, f. wave, fluctus, -u:s, m. way, iter, itineris, n. (Sec. 468); via, -ae, f. way, manner, modus, -i:, m. we, no:s, plur. of ego; or not expressed weak, i:nfi:rmus, -a, -um weapons, arma, -o:rum, n. plur.; te:la, -o:rum, n. plur. wear, gero:, 3 weary, de:fessus, -a, -um what, quis (qui:), quae, quid (quod) (Sec. 483) when, ubi; cum (Sec. 396); often expressed by a participle where, ubi which, qui:, quae, quod (Sec. 482);
  which of two, uter, utra, utrum (Sec. 108)
while, expressed by a participle whither, quo:  who (rel.), qui:, quae (Sec. 482); (interrog.) quis (Sec. 483) whole, to:tus, -a, -um (Sec. 108) whose, cuius;
  quo:rum, qua:rum, quo:rum, gen. of qui:, quae, quod, rel.;

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  or of quis, quid, interrog.
why, cu:r wicked, malus, -a, -um wide, la:tus, -a, -um width, la:titu:do:, -inis, f. wild beast, fera, -ae, f. willing (be), volo:, velle, volui:, ——­ (Sec. 497) win (a victory), reporto:, 1 wind, ventus, -i:, m. wine, vi:num, -i:, n. wing, cornu:, -u:s, n. winter, hiems, -emis, f. wisdom, co:nsilium, consi’li:, n. wish, cupio:, 3; volo:, velle, volui:, ——­ (Sec. 497);
  wish not, no:lo:, no:lle, no:lui:, ——­ (Sec. 497)
with, cum, with abl.; sometimes abl. alone withdraw, se:  recipere without, sine, with abl. woman, fe:mina, -ae, f.; mulier, -eris, f. wonderful, mi:rus, -a, -um word, verbum, -i:, n. work, labor, -o:ris, m.; opus, -eris, n. worse, peior, peius, comp. of malus worst, pessimus, -a, -um, superl. of malus wound (noun), vulnus, -eris, n. wound (verb), vulnero:, 1 wreath, coro:na, -ae, f. wretched, miser, -era, -erum wrong, iniu:ria, -ae, f.

Y

year, annus, -i:, m. yes, certe:; ita; ve:ro:; or, more usually, repeat the verb (Sec. 210) yonder (that), ille, -a, -ud you, sing. tu:; plur. vo:s (Sec. 480); or not expressed your, sing. tuus, -a, -um; plur. vester, -tra, -trum (Sec. 98.b)

Z

zeal, studium, studi:, n.

INDEX

The numbers in all cases refer to sections.

a:-declension of nouns, 57, 461
a:-verbs, conjugation of, 488
ablative case, 48, 50
  absolute, 381
  after a comparative, 309
  of accompaniment, 104
  of agent, 181
  of cause, 102
  of description, 444, 445
  of manner, 105
  of means or instrument, 103
  of measure of difference, 317
  of place from which, 179
  of place where, 265
  of separation, 180
  of specification, 398
  of time, 275
accent, 14-16
accompaniment
  abl. of, 104
accusative case, 33
  as subject of the infinitive, 214
  object, 37
  of duration and extent, 336
  of place to which, 263, 266
  predicate, 392
  with prepositions, 340
adjectives, 54, 55
  agreement, 65
  comparison
    regular, 301
    by adverbs, 302
    irregular, 307, 311, 312, 315
  declension of comparatives, 303
  of first and second declensions, 83, 93, 469
  of third declension, 250-257, 471
  with the dative, 143
adverbs, 319
  comparison, 320, 323
  formation
    regular, 320, 321
    irregular, 322, 323
agent
  expressed by the abl. with a: or ab, 181
agreement
  of adjectives, 65, 215.a
  of appositives, 81
  of predicate nouns, 76
  of relative pronouns, 224

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  of verbs, 28
aliquis, 487
alius, 108, 110, 470
alphabet, 1-3
alter, 108, 110
antepenult, 9.3; accent of, 15
apposition, 80, 81
article
  not used in Latin, 22.a

base, 58

cardinal numerals, 327-329, 478 case, 32.2 causal clauses with cum, 395, 396 cause,
  expressed by the abl., 102
characteristic
  subjv. of, 389, 390
comparative
  declension of, 303
comparison
  abl. of, 309
  degrees of, 300
  of adjectives, 300-315
    irregular, 311-315, 473, 475
  of adverbs
    regular, 320-476
    irregular, 323, 477
  positive wanting, 315
  six adjectives in _-lis_, 307
complementary infinitive, 215 compound verbs
  with the dative, 425, 426
concessive clauses with cum, 395, 396 conjugation stems, 184 conjugations
  the four regular, 126, 488-491
  irregular, 494-500
consonants, 2 copula, 21 cum
  conjunction, 395
cum
  preposition, 209

dative case, 43
  of indirect object, 44, 45
  of purpose, or end for which, 437
  with adjectives, 143
  with compound verbs, 426
  with special verbs, 153
dea
  declension of, 67
declension, 23, 32
degree of difference
  expressed by the abl., 317
demonstrative adjectives and pronouns, 112-115, 290-292, 481
deponent verbs, 338, 339, 493
descriptive ablative and genitive, 441-445
descriptive relative clause
  with the subjv., 389, 390
deus
  declension of, 468
difference, measure of, 316, 317
diphthongs, 6
direct statements, 414
distributive numerals, 327.3, 334
domi: 
  locative, 267
domus
  declension of, 468
duo
  declension of, 479
duration of time, expressed by the acc., 336

e:-declension of nouns, 272, 273, 467 e:-verbs, conjugation of, 489 e-verbs, conjugation of, 490 ego
  declension of, 280, 480
enclitics, 16 eo: 
  conjugation of, 499
extent of space
  expressed by the acc., 336

fearing
  subjv. after verbs of, 370-372
fero: 
  conjugation of, 498
fifth or e:-declension, 272, 273, 467 fi:lia
  declension of, 67
fi:lius
  declension of, 87-89
finite verb
  defined, 173
fi:o: 
  conjugation of, 500
first conjugation, 488 first or a:-declension, 57, 461 fourth conjugation, 491 fourth or u-declension, 259, 260, 466 from
  how expressed, 178-181
future participle
  formation of, 374.c
future perfect
  formation of
    active, 187.3
    passive, 202
future tense
  formation of, 137, 156

gender
  in English and in Latin, 60
  in the first declension, 61
  in the second declension, 72
  in the third declension, 247
  in the fourth declension, 260
  in the fifth declension, 272
general observations on declension, 74
genitive case
  English equivalents of, 33

Page 278

  of description, 443, 445
  of nouns in _-ius_ and _-ium_, 87
  partitive, 331
  possessive, 38, 409
gerund
  a verbal noun, 402, 403
gerundive
  a verbal adjective, 404
  with ad to express purpose, 407

hic
  declension and use of, 290, 291
how to read Latin, 17

i
  consonant, 3
i-stems of nouns, 231, 241-244 i:-verbs
  conjugation of, 491
i:dem
  declension of, 287, 481
ie:ns
  declension of, 472
ille
  declension and use of, 290-293, 481
imperative
  formation of, 161, 175
    irregular, 161.2
  in commands, 161
imperfect indicative, formation and use of, 133, 134, 165.1 imperfect subjunctive, 354 indefinite pronouns and adjectives, 296, 297, 484-487 independent clauses, 219 indirect object, 44, 45 indirect questions, 430-432 indirect statements, 414-419 infinitive
  as object, 213
  as subject, 216
  complementary, 215
  definition of, 173
  does not express purpose, 352
  formation of, 126, 174, 205, 206
  in indirect statements, 415-410
  used as in English, 213-216
inflection
  defined, 23
instrument
  abl. of, 100.b, 103
intensive pronoun
  ipse, declension and use of, 285, 286, 481
interrogative pronouns and adjectives, 225-227, 483 intransitive verbs,
  defined, 20.a
  with the dative, 153
io:-verbs of the third conj., 492 ipse
  declension and use of, 285, 481
irregular adjectives, 108 irregular comparison
  of adjectives, 307 311, 312
  of adverbs, 323
irregular nouns, 67, 246, 468 irregular verbs, 494-500 is
  declension and use of, 113-116
iste
  declension and use of, 290, 292, 481
iter
  declension of, 468

Latin word order, 68
locative case, 267

magis and maxime: 
  comparison by, 302
ma:lo: 
  conjugation of, 4.97
manner
  abl. of, 105
means
  abl. of, 103
measure of difference
  abl. of, 316, 317
mi:lle,
  declension of, 479
  construction with, 331.a,b
moods, defined, 121

-ne, enclitic
  in questions, 210
ne:, conj., that not, lest
  with negative clauses of purpose, 350.II
  with verbs of fearing, 370
nine irregular adjectives, 108-110 no:lo: 
  conjugation of, 497
nominative case, 35, 36 no:nne
  in questions, 210
no:s
  declension of, 280, 480
nouns, 19. 2
  first declension, 57, 461
  second declension, 71-74,87-92,462
  third declension, 230-247, 463-465
  fourth declension, 259, 260, 466
  fifth declension, 272, 273, 467
num, in questions, 210 number, 24 numerals, 327-334, 478, 479

o-declension of nouns, 71-74, 87-92, 462 object, 20
  direct, 37
  indirect, 44, 45
order of words, 68 ordinal numerals, 327. 2, 478

Page 279

participial stem, 201.2
participles, defined, 203
  agreement of, 204
  formation,
    of present, 374.b
    of perfect, 201
    of future, 374.c,d
  of deponent verbs, 375
  tenses of, 376
  translated by a clause, 377
partitive genitive, 330, 331
passive voice
  defined, 163
  formation of, 164, 202
penult, 9.3
  accent of, 15
perfect indicative
  formation,
    in the active, 185, 186
    in the passive, 202
  meaning of, 190
  definite, 190
  indefinite, 190
  distinguished from the imperfect, 190
perfect infinitive
  active, 195
  passive, 205
perfect passive participle, 201
perfect stem, 185
perfect subjunctive
  active, 361
  passive, 362
person, 122
personal endings
  active, 122
  passive, 164
personal pronouns, 280, 480
place
  where, whither, whence, 263-265
  names of towns and domus and ru:s, 266-268
pluperfect indicative
  active, 187.2
  passive, 202
pluperfect subjunctive
  active, 361
  passive, 363
plu:s
  declension of, 313
possessive pronouns, 97, 98
possum
  conjugation of, 495
predicate
  defined, 19
predicate adjective
  defined, 55
predicate noun, 75, 76
prepositions
  with the abl., 209
  with the acc., 340
present indicative, 128, 130, 147
present stem, 126.a
present subjunctive, 344
primary tenses, 356
principal parts, 183
pronouns
  classification of, 278
  defined, 19.2.a
  demonstrative, 481
  indefinite, 297, 484-487
  intensive, 285, 286, 481
  interrogative, 483
  personal, 480
  possessive, 97, 98
  reflexive, 281
  relative, 220, 221
pronunciation, 4-7
pro:sum
  conjugation of, 496
purpose
  dative of, 436, 437
  expressed by the gerund or gerundive with ad, 407
  not expressed by the infinitive, 352
  subjunctive of, 348-350, 365-367

quality
  gen. or abl. of, 441-445
quam
  with a comparative, 308
quantity, 11-13
questions
  direct, 210
  indirect, 430-432
qui: 
  declension and use of, 220,221, 482
qui:dam
  declension of, 485
quis
  declension and use of, 225-227, 483
quisquam
  declension of, 486
quisque
  declension of, 484

reflexive pronouns, 281 relative clauses of characteristic or description, 389, 390 relative clauses of purpose, 348, 349 relative pronouns, 220, 221 result clauses, 384-387 reviews, 502-528 ru:s
  constructions of, 266

se: 
  distinguished from ipse, 285.a
second conjugation, 489 second or o-declension, 71-93, 462 sentences
  simple, complex, compound, 219
separation
  abl. of, 180
separative ablative, 178-181 sequence of tenses, 356-358 space
  extent of, expressed by the acc., 336
specification

Page 280

  abl. of, 398
stems
  of nouns, 230
  of verbs, 184
subject
  defined, 19.2
  of the infinitive, 213, 214
subjunctive
  formation of the present, 344
  of the imperfect, 354
  of the perfect, 361, 362
  of the pluperfect, 361.c, 363
subjunctive constructions
  characteristic or description, 389, 390
  indirect questions, 430-432
  purpose, 349, 366, 372
  result, 385, 386
  time, cause, or concession, with cum, 395, 396
subjunctive ideas, 346 subjunctive tenses, 342, 343 subordinate clauses, 219 sui: 
  declension of, 281, 480
sum
  conjugation of, 494
suus
  use of, 98.c, 116
syllables, 8
  division of, 9
  quantity of, 13
syntax
  rules of, 501

temporal clauses with cum, 395, 396
tense
  defined, 120
tense signs
  imperfect, 133
  future, 137, 156
  pluperfect active, 187.2
  future perfect active, 187.3
tenses
  primary and secondary, 356
  sequence of, 357, 358
third conjugation, 490, 492
third declension of nouns
  classes, 231, 463
  consonant stems, 232-238, 464
  gender, 247
  i-stems, 241-244, 465
  irregular nouns, 246
time
  abl. of, 275
time
  acc. of, 336
towns
  rules for names of, 266, 267, 268
transitive verb, 20.a
tre:s
  declension of, 479
tu: 
  declension of, 280, 480
tuus
  compared with vester, 98. b

u-declension of nouns, 259, 260, 466 ultima, 9. 3

verbs
  agreement of, 28
  conjugation of, 126, 488-491
  deponent, 338, 339, 493
  irregular, 494-500
  personal endings of, 122, 164
  principal parts of, 183
vester
  compared with tuus, 98.b
vi:s
  declension of, 468
vocabularies
  English-Latin, pp. 332-343
  Latin-English, pp. 299-331
  special, pp. 283-298
vocative case, 56.a
  of nouns in _-us_ of the second declension, 73.b
  of proper nouns in _-ius_ and of fi:lius, 88
voice
  defined, 163
volo: 
  conjugation of, 497
vo:s
  declension of, 280, 480
vowels
  sounds of, 5, 6
  quantity of, 12