New Latin Grammar eBook

New Latin Grammar by Charles Edwin Bennett

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Section Page

Start of eBook1
PART II.1
PART III.1
PART IV.1
PART V.1
PART VI.2
PART I.8
PART II.12
PART III.77
PART IV.79
PART V.83
PART VI.168
QUANTITY OF VOWELS AND SYLLABLES169
INDEX OF THE SOURCES OF THE ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES CITED IN THE SYNTAX.[63]176
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES182
INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS183
C.184
I.184
L.185
V.186
FOOTNOTES213

Page 1

PART II.

Inflections.

    Chapter I.—­Declension.

          A. Nouns.  Sec. 10

  Gender of Nouns Sec. 13
  Number Sec. 16
  Cases Sec. 17
  The Five Declensions Sec. 18
  First Declension Sec. 20
  Second Declension Sec. 23
  Third Declension Sec. 28
  Fourth Declension Sec. 48
  Fifth Declension Sec. 51
  Defective Nouns Sec. 54

          B. Adjectives.  Sec. 62

  Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions Sec. 63
  Adjectives of the Third Declension Sec. 67
  Comparison of Adjectives Sec. 71
  Formation and Comparison of Adverbs Sec. 76
  Numerals Sec. 78

          C. Pronouns.  Sec. 82

  Personal Pronouns Sec. 84
  Reflexive Pronouns Sec. 85
  Possessive Pronouns Sec. 86
  Demonstrative Pronouns Sec. 87
  The Intensive Pronoun Sec. 88
  The Relative Pronoun Sec. 89
  Interrogative Pronouns Sec. 90
  Indefinite Pronouns Sec. 91
  Pronominal Adjectives Sec. 92

    Chapter ii.—­Conjugation.  Sec. 93

  Verb Stems Sec. 97
  The Four Conjugations Sec. 98
  Conjugation of Sum Sec. 100
  First Conjugation Sec. 101
  Second Conjugation Sec. 103
  Third Conjugation Sec. 105
  Fourth Conjugation Sec. 107
  Verbs in _-io_ of the Third Conjugation Sec. 109
  Deponent Verbs Sec. 112
  Semi-Deponents Sec. 114
  Periphrastic Conjugation Sec. 115
  Peculiarities of Conjugation Sec. 116
  Formation of the Verb Stems Sec. 117
  List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts Sec. 120
  Irregular Verbs Sec. 124
  Defective Verbs Sec. 133
  Impersonal Verbs Sec. 138

PART III.

Particles.  Sec. 139

  Adverbs Sec. 140
  Prepositions Sec. 141
  Interjections Sec. 145

PART IV.

Word formation.

  I. Derivatives.  Sec. 146

  Nouns Sec. 147
  Adjectives Sec. 150
  Verbs Sec. 155
  Adverbs Sec. 157

  II.  Compounds.  Sec. 158

  Examples of Compounds Sec. 159

PART V.

Syntax.

    Chapter I.—­Sentences.

  Classification of Sentences Sec. 161
  Form of Interrogative Sentences Sec. 162
  Subject and Predicate Sec. 163
  Simple and Compound Sentences Sec. 164

    CHAPTER II.—­Syntax of Nouns.

  Subject Sec. 166
  Predicate Nouns Sec. 167
  Appositives Sec. 169
  The Nominative Sec. 170
  The Accusative Sec. 172
  The Dative Sec. 186
  The Genitive Sec. 194
  The Ablative Sec. 213
  The Locative Sec. 232

Page 2

    CHAPTER III.—­Syntax of Adjectives.

  Agreement of Adjectives Sec. 234
  Adjectives used Substantively Sec. 236
  Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs Sec. 239
  Comparatives and Superlatives Sec. 240
  Other Peculiarities Sec. 241

    CHAPTER IV.—­Syntax of Pronouns.

  Personal Pronouns Sec. 242
  Possessive Pronouns Sec. 243
  Reflexive Pronouns Sec. 244
  Reciprocal Pronouns Sec. 245
  Demonstrative Pronouns Sec. 246
  Relative Pronouns Sec. 250
  Indefinite Pronouns Sec. 252
  Pronominal Adjectives Sec. 253

    CHAPTER V.—­Syntax of Verbs.

Agreement of Verbs Sec. 254 Voices Sec. 256 Tenses —­ Of the Indicative Sec. 257 —­ Of the Subjunctive Sec. 266 —­ Of the Infinitive Sec. 270 Moods —­ In Independent Sentences Sec. 271 —­ —­ Volitive Subjunctive Sec. 273 —­ —­ Optative Subjunctive Sec. 279 —­ —­ Potential Subjunctive Sec. 280 —­ —­ Imperative Sec. 281 —­ In Dependent Clauses —­ —­ Clauses of Purpose Sec. 282 —­ —­ Clauses of Characteristic Sec. 283 —­ —­ Clauses of Result Sec. 284 —­ —­ Causal Clauses Sec. 285 —­ —­ Temporal Clauses —­ —­ —­ Introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, etc.  Sec. 287 —­ —­ —­ Cum-Clauses Sec. 288 —­ —­ —­ Introduced by Antequam and Priusquam Sec. 291 —­ —­ —­ Introduced by Dum, Donec, Quoad Sec. 293 —­ —­ Substantive Clauses Sec. 294 —­ —­ —­ Developed from the Volitive Sec. 295 —­ —­ —­ Developed from the Optative Sec. 296 —­ —­ —­ Of Result Sec. 297 —­ —­ —­ After non dubito, etc.  Sec. 298 —­ —­ —­ Introduced by Quod Sec. 299 —­ —­ —­ Indirect Questions Sec. 300 —­ —­ Conditional Sentences Sec. 301 —­ —­ Use of Si, Nisi, Sin Sec. 306 —­ —­ Conditional Clauses of Comparison Sec. 307 —­ —­ Concessive Clauses Sec. 308 —­ —­ Adversative Clauses with Quamvis, Quamquam, etc.  Sec. 309 —­ —­ Clauses of Wish and Proviso Sec. 310 —­ —­ Relative Clauses Sec. 311 —­ —­ Indirect Discourse Sec. 313 —­ —­ —­ Moods in Indirect Discourse Sec. 314 —­ —­ —­ Tenses in Indirect Discourse Sec. 317 —­ —­ —­ Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse Sec. 319 —­ —­ Implied Indirect Discourse Sec. 323 —­ —­ Subjunctive by Attraction Sec. 324 Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb Sec. 325 —­ Infinitive Sec. 326 —­ Participles Sec. 336 —­ Gerund Sec. 338 —­ Supine Sec. 340

    CHAPTER VI.—­Particles.

  Cooerdinate Conjunctions Sec. 341
  Adverbs Sec. 347

    CHAPTER VII.—­Word-Order and Sentence-Structure.

  Word-Order Sec. 348
  Sentence-Structure Sec. 351

    CHAPTER VIII.—­Hints on Latin Style.  Sec. 352

  Nouns Sec. 353
  Adjectives Sec. 354
  Pronouns Sec. 355
  Verbs Sec. 356
  The Cases Sec. 357

PART VI.

Page 3

PROSODY.  Sec. 360

  Quantity of Vowels and Syllables Sec. 362
  Verse-Structure Sec. 366
  The Dactylic Hexameter Sec. 368
  The Dactylic Pentameter Sec. 369
  Iambic Measures Sec. 370

SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.

    I. Roman Calendar Sec. 371
   II.  Roman Names Sec. 373
  III.  Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric Sec. 374

* * * * *

  Index to the Illustrative Examples Cited in the Syntax
  Index to the Principal Parts of Latin Verbs
  General Index
  Footnotes

* * * * *

INTRODUCTION.

THE LATIN LANGUAGE.

1.  The Indo-European Family of Languages.—­Latin belongs to one group of a large family of languages, known as Indo-European.[1] This Indo-European family of languages embraces the following groups: 

ASIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

a. The Sanskrit, spoken in ancient India.  Of this there were several stages, the oldest of which is the Vedic, or language of the Vedic Hymns.  These Hymns are the oldest literary productions known to us among all the branches of the Indo-European family.  A conservative estimate places them as far back as 1500 B.C.  Some scholars have even set them more than a thousand years earlier than this, i.e. anterior to 2500 B.C.

The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be spoken in India, and is represented to-day by a large number of dialects descended from the ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by millions of people.

b. The Iranian, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related to the Sanskrit.  There were two main branches of the Iranian group, viz. the Old Persian and the Avestan.  The Old Persian was the official language of the court, and appears in a number of so-called cuneiform[2] inscriptions, the earliest of which date from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.).  The other branch of the Iranian, the Avestan,[3] is the language of the Avesta or sacred books of the Parsees, the followers of Zoroaster, founder of the religion of the fire-worshippers.  Portions of these sacred books may have been composed as early as 1000 B.C.

Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian speech.  It has naturally been much modified by time, particularly through the introduction of many words from the Arabic.

c. The Armenian, spoken in Armenia, the district near the Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains.  This is closely related to the Iranian, and was formerly classified under that group.  It is now recognized as entitled to independent rank.  The earliest literary productions of the Armenian language date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era.  To this period belong the translation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian Chronicle.  The Armenian is still a living language, though spoken in widely separated districts, owing to the scattered locations in which the Armenians are found to-day.

Page 4

d. The Tokharian.  This language, only recently discovered and identified as Indo-European, was spoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea (modern Turkestan).  While in some respects closely related to the three Asiatic branches of the Indo-European family already considered, in others it shows close relationship to the European members of the family.  The literature of the Tokharian, so far as it has been brought to light, consists mainly of translations from the Sanskrit sacred writings, and dates from the seventh century of our era.

EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

e. The Greek.  The Greeks had apparently long been settled in Greece and Asia Minor as far back as 1500 B.C.  Probably they arrived in these districts much earlier.  The earliest literary productions are the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer, which very likely go back to the ninth century B.C.  From the sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous.  Modern Greek, when we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably similar to the classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.

f. The Italic Group. The Italic Group embraces the Umbrian, spoken in the northern part of the Italian peninsula (in ancient Umbria); the Latin, spoken in the central part (in Latium); the Oscan, spoken in the southern part (in Samnium, Campania, Lucania, etc.).  Besides these, there were a number of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc.  Of all these (barring the Latin), there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions.  Latin literature begins shortly after 250 B.C. in the works of Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Plautus, although a few brief inscriptions are found belonging to a much earlier period.

g. The Celtic. In the earliest historical times of which we have any record, the Celts occupied extensive portions of northern Italy, as well as certain areas in central Europe; but after the second century B.C., they are found only in Gaul and the British Isles.  Among the chief languages belonging to the Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul; the Breton, still spoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the Irish, which is still extensively spoken in Ireland among the common people, the Welsh; and the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders.

h. The Teutonic. The Teutonic group is very extensive.  Its earliest representative is the Gothic, preserved for us in the translation of the scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375 A.D.).  Other languages belonging to this group are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and from which are descended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish; German; Dutch; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the modern English.

Page 5

i. The Balto-Slavic. The languages of this group belong to eastern Europe.  The Baltic division of the group embraces the Lithuanian and Lettic, spoken to-day by the people living on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea.  The earliest literary productions of these languages date from the sixteenth century.  The Slavic division comprises a large number of languages, the most important of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the Serbian, the Bohemian, the Polish.  All of these were late in developing a literature, the earliest to do so being the Old Bulgarian, in which we find a translation of the Bible dating from the ninth century.

j. The Albanian, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece, Italy, and Sicily.  This is most nearly related to the Balto-Slavic group, and is characterized by the very large proportion of words borrowed from Latin, Turkish, Greek, and Slavic.  Its literature does not begin till the seventeenth century.

2.  Home of the Indo-European Family.—­Despite the many outward differences of the various languages of the foregoing groups, a careful examination of their structure and vocabulary demonstrates their intimate relationship and proves overwhelmingly their descent from a common parent.  We must believe, therefore, that at one time there existed a homogeneous clan or tribe of people speaking a language from which all the above enumerated languages are descended.  The precise location of the home of this ancient tribe cannot be determined.  For a long time it was assumed that it was in central Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains, but this view has long been rejected as untenable.  It arose from the exaggerated importance attached for a long while to Sanskrit.  The great antiquity of the earliest literary remains of the Sanskrit (the Vedic Hymns) suggested that the inhabitants of India were geographically close to the original seat of the Indo-European Family.  Hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau to the north.  To-day it is thought that central or southeastern Europe is much more likely to have been the cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech, though anything like a logical demonstration of so difficult a problem can hardly be expected.

As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the Indo-European languages have sprung, we can only speculate.  It probably was not large, and very likely formed a compact racial and linguistic unit for centuries, possibly for thousands of years.

The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the various individual languages began their separate existence, is likewise shrouded in obscurity.  When we consider that the separate existence of the Sanskrit may antedate 2500 B.C., it may well be believed that people speaking the Indo-European parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C., or possibly earlier.

3.  Stages in the Development of the Latin Language.—­The earliest remains of the Latin language are found in certain very archaic inscriptions.  The oldest of these belong to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C.  Roman literature does not begin till several centuries later, viz. shortly after the middle of the third century B.C.  We may recognize the following clearly marked periods of the language and literature: 

Page 6

a. The Preliterary Period, from the earliest times down to 240 B.C., when Livius Andronicus brought out his first play.  For this period our knowledge of Latin depends almost exclusively upon the scanty inscriptions that have survived from this remote time.  Few of these are of any length.

b. The Archaic Period, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to Cicero (81 B.C.).  Even in this age the language had already become highly developed as a medium of expression.  In the hands of certain gifted writers it had even become a vehicle of power and beauty.  In its simplicity, however, it naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days.  To this period belong: 

  Livius Andronicus, about 275-204 B.C. (Translation of Homer’s Odyssey;
      Tragedies). 
  Plautus, about 250-184 B.C. (Comedies). 
  Naevius, about 270-199 B.C. ("Punic War”; Comedies). 
  Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ("Annals”; Tragedies). 
  Terence, about 190-159 B.C. (Comedies). 
  Lucilius, 180-103 B.C. (Satires). 
  Pacuvius, 220-about 130 B.C. (Tragedies). 
  Accius, 170-about 85 B.C. (Tragedies).

c. The Golden Age, from Cicero (81 B.C.) to the death of Augustus (14 A.D.).  In this period the language, especially in the hands of Cicero, reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection.  Its vocabulary, however, has not yet attained its greatest fullness and range.  Traces of the diction of the Archaic Period are often noticed, especially in the poets, who naturally sought their effects by reverting to the speech of olden times.  Literature reached its culmination in this epoch, especially in the great poets of the Augustan Age.  The following writers belong here: 

  Lucretius, about 95-55 B.C. (Poem on Epicurean Philosophy). 
  Catullus, 87-about 54 B.C. (Poet). 
  Cicero, 106-43 B.C. (Orations; Rhetorical Works; Philosophical Works;
      Letters). 
  Caesar, 102-44 B.C. (Commentaries on Gallic and Civil Wars),
  Sallust, 86-36 B.C. (Historian). 
  Nepos, about 100-about 30 B.C. (Historian). 
  Virgil, 70-19 B.C. ("Aeneid”; “Georgics”; “Bucolics"). 
  Horace, 65-8 B.C. (Odes; Satires, Epistles). 
  Tibullus, about 54-19 B.C. (Poet). 
  Propertius, about 50-about 15 B.C. (Poet). 
  Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. ("Metamorphoses” and other poems). 
  Livy. 59 B.C.-17 A.D. (Historian).

d. The Silver Latinity, from the death of Augustus (14 A.D.) to the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 A.D.), This period is marked by a certain reaction against the excessive precision of the previous age.  It had become the practice to pay too much attention to standardized forms of expression, and to leave too little play to the individual writer.  In the healthy reaction against this formalism, greater freedom of expression now manifests itself.  We note also the introduction of idioms from the colloquial language, along with many poetical words and usages.  The following authors deserve mention: 

Page 7

  Phaedrus, flourished about 40 A.D. (Fables in Verse)
  Velleius Paterculus, flourished about 30 A.D. (Historian). 
  Lucan, 39-65 A.D. (Poem on the Civil War). 
  Seneca, about 1-65 A.D. (Tragedies; Philosophical Works). 
  Pliny the Elder, 23-79 A.D. ("Natural History"). 
  Pliny the Younger, 62-about 115 A.D. ("Letters"). 
  Martial, about 45-about 104 A.D. (Epigrams). 
  Quintilian, about 35-about 100 A.D. (Treatise on Oratory and Education). 
  Tacitus, about 55-about 118 A.D. (Historian). 
  Juvenal, about 55-about 135 A.D. (Satirist). 
  Suetonius, about 73-about 118 A.D. ("Lives of the Twelve Caesars"). 
  Minucius Felix, flourished about 160 A.D. (First Christian Apologist). 
  Apuleius, 125-about 200 A.D. ("Metamorphoses,” or “Golden Ass").

e. The Archaizing Period. This period is characterized by a conscious imitation of the Archaic Period of the second and first centuries B.C.; it overlaps the preceding period, and is of importance from a linguistic rather than from a literary point of view.  Of writers who manifest the archaizing tendency most conspicuously may be mentioned Fronto, from whose hand we have a collection of letters addressed to the Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; also Aulus Gellius, author of the “Attic Nights.”  Both of these writers flourished in the second half of the second century A.D.

f. The Period of the Decline, from 180 to the close of literary activity in the sixth century A.D.  This period is characterized by rapid and radical alterations in the language.  The features of the conversational idiom of the lower strata of society invade the literature, while in the remote provinces, such as Gaul, Spain, Africa, the language suffers from the incorporation of local peculiarities.  Representative writers of this period are: 

  Tertullian, about 160-about 240 A.D. (Christian Writer). 
  Cyprian, about 200-258 A.D. (Christian Writer). 
  Lactantius, flourished about 300 A.D. (Defense of Christianity). 
  Ausonius, about 310-about 395 A.D. (Poet). 
  Jerome, 340-420 A.D. (Translator of the Scriptures). 
  Ambrose, about 340-397 (Christian Father). 
  Augustine, 354-430 (Christian Father—­“City of God"). 
  Prudentius, flourished 400 A.D. (Christian Poet). 
  Claudian, flourished 400 A.D. (Poet). 
  Boethius, about 480-524 A.D. ("Consolation of Philosophy “).

4.  Subsequent History of the Latin Language.—­After the sixth century A.D.  Latin divides into two entirely different streams.  One of these is the literary language maintained in courts, in the Church, and among scholars.  This was no longer the language of people in general, and as time went on, became more and more artificial.  The other stream is the colloquial idiom of the common people, which developed ultimately in the provinces into the modern so-called Romance idioms.  These are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Provencal (spoken in Provence, i.e. southeastern France), the Rhaeto-Romance (spoken in the Canton of the Grisons in Switzerland), and the Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and adjacent districts.  All these Romance languages bear the same relation to the Latin as the different groups of the Indo-European family of languages bear to the parent speech.

Page 8

* * * * *

PART I.

* * * * *

SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.

* * * * *

THE ALPHABET.

1.  The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w.

1.  K occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words; y and z were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign words—­chiefly Greek.

2.  With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the former, j and v for the latter.  Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.

2. 1.  The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y.  The other letters are Consonants.  The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui.

2.  Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants.

3.  The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch.  Of these,—­

  a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,[4] i.e. sounded without voice or
  vibration of the vocal cords.

  b) b, d, g are voiced,[5] i.e. sounded with vibration of the vocal
  cords.

c) ph, th, ch are aspirates.  These are confined almost exclusively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + h, c + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-house, block-house.

4.  The Mutes admit of classification also as

Labials,                        p, b, ph. 
Dentals (or Linguals),          t, d, th. 
Gutturals (or Palatals),        c, k, q, g, ch.

5.  The Liquids are l, r.  These sounds were voiced.

6.  The Nasals are m, n.  These were voiced.  Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a guttural mute also had another sound,—­that of ng in sing,—­the so-called n adulterinum; as,—­

  anceps, double, pronounced angceps.

7.  The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h.  These were voiceless.

8.  The Semivowels are j and v.  These were voiced.

9.  Double Consonants are x and z.  Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain.  See Sec. 3, 3.

10.  The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sounds:—­

VOICELESS.      VOICED.      ASPIRATES.
p,            b,           ph,       (Labials). 
Mutes,             t,            d,           th,       (Dentals).
c, k, q,         g,           ch,       (Gutturals). 
Liquids,                       l, r,
Nasals,                        m, n,
f,                                   (Labial). 
Spirants,          s,                                   (Dental).
h,                                   (Guttural). 
Semivowels,                    j, v.

a.  The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of
classification in the above table.

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SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

3.  The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization; i.e., roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 A.D.

1.  Vowels.

a as in father; a as in the first syllable aha; e as in they; e as in met; i as in machine; i as in pin; o as in note; o as in obey, melody; u as in rude; u as in put; y like French u, German ue.

2.  Diphthongs.

ae like ai in eu with its two elements, e and u,
aisle; pronounced in rapid succession;
oe like oi in oil; ui occurs almost exclusively in
ei as in rein; cui and huic.  These words may
au like ow in how; be pronounced as though written

          
                                            kwee and wheek.

3.  Consonants.

b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that
bs, bt are pronounced ps, pt.

c is always pronounced as k.

t is always a plain t, never with the sound of sh as in Eng.
oration.

  g always as in get; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of
  gw, as in anguis, languidus.

  j has the sound of y as in yet.

  r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue.

  s always voiceless as in sin; in suadeo, suavis, suesco, and in
  compounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of sw.

  v like w.

  x always like ks; never like Eng. gz or z.

  z uncertain in sound; possibly like Eng. zd, possibly like z.  The
  latter sound is recommended.

  The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed
  Eng. p, c, t—­so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter
  sounds suffice.

  Doubled letters, like ll, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both
  members of the combination are distinctly articulated.

SYLLABLES.

4.  There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs.

In the division of words into syllables,—­

1.  A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit, pe-rit, a-dest.

2.  Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta, mis-sus.

3.  Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated, and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding vowel; as, ma-gis-tri, dig-nus, mon-strum, sis-te-re.

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4.  An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consist of a mute followed by l or r (pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.).  In such cases both consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel; as, a-gri, vo-lu-cris, pa-tris, ma-tris.  Yet if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound, the two consonants are separated; as, ab-rumpo, ad-latus.

5.  The double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel; as, ax-is, tex-i.

QUANTITY.

5.  A. Quantity of Vowels.

A vowel is long or short according to the length of time required for its pronunciation.  No absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin vowels.  This knowledge must be gained, in large measure, by experience; but the following principles are of aid:—­

1.  A vowel is long,[6]—­

  a) before nf or ns; as, infans, inferior, consumo, censeo, insum.

  b) when the result of contraction; as, nilum for nihilum.

2.  A vowel is short,—­

  a) before nt, nd; as, amant, amandus.  A few exceptions occur in compounds
  whose first member has a long vowel; as, nondum (non dum).

  b) before another vowel, or h; as, meus, traho.  Some exceptions occur,
  chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek; as, Aeneas.

B. Quantity of Syllables.

Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length of time required for their pronunciation.

1.  A syllable is long,[7]—­

  a) if it contains a long vowel; as, mater, regnum, dius.

  b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.

  c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two consonants
  (except a mute with l or r); as, axis, gaza, resto.

2.  A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant; as, mea, amat.

3.  Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with l or r, i.e. by pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.; as, agri, volucris.[8] Such syllables are called common.  In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet.

NOTE.—­These distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely natural.  Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable requires more time for its pronunciation; while a syllable containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes less time to pronounce it.  In case of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes no more time than a single consonant.  Yet by separating the two elements (as ag-ri) the poets were able to use such syllables as long.

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ACCENT.

6. 1.  Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, tegit, mo’rem.

2.  Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the antepenult (second from the last); as, ama’vi, amantis, miserum.

3.  When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to words, if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally or as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented; as, misero’que, hominisque.  But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has been added, it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent on the antepenult.  Thus, portaque; but miseraque.

4.  Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting the accent; as, tanto’n, isti’c, illu’c.

5.  In utra’que, each, and plera’que, most, -que is not properly an enclitic; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of their other cases,—­uterque, utrumque, plerumque.

VOWEL CHANGES.[9]

7.. 1.  In Compounds,

  a) e before a single consonant becomes i; as,—­

    colligo for con-lego.

  b) a before a single consonant becomes i:  as,—­

    adigo for ad-ago.

  c) a before two consonants becomes e; as,—­

    expers for ex-pars.

  d) ae becomes i; as,—­

    conquiro for con-quaero.

  e) au becomes u, sometimes o; as,—­

concludo    for con-claudo;
explodo     for ex-plaudo.

2.  Contraction.  Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long vowel.  The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed; as,—­

tres for tre-es; copia for co-opia; malo for ma(v)elo; cogo for co-ago; amasti for ama(v)isti; como for co-emo; debeo for de(h)abeo; junior for ju(v)enior. nil for nihil;

3.  Parasitic Vowels.  In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes develops; as,—­

  vinculum for earlier vinclum.

So periculum, saeculum.

4.  Syncope.  Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as,—­

  ardor for aridor (compare aridus);
  valde for valide (compare validus).

CONSONANT CHANGES[10]

8. 1.  Rhotacism.  An original s between vowels became r; as,—­

  arbos, Gen. arboris (for arbosis);
  genus, Gen. generis (for genesis);
  dirimo (for dis-emo).

2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss; as,—­

pensum for pend-tum; versum for vert-tum; miles for milet-s; sessus for sedtus; passus for pattus.

3.  Final consonants were often omitted; as,—­

  cor for cord;
  lac for lact.

4.  Assimilation of Consonants.  Consonants are often assimilated to a following sound.  Thus:  accurro (adc-); aggero (adg-); assero (ads-); allatus (adl-); apporto (adp-); attuli (adt-); arrideo (adr-); affero (adf-); occurro (obc-); suppono (subp-); offero (obf-); corruo (comr-); collatus (coml-); etc.

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5.  Partial Assimilation.  Sometimes the assimilation is only partial.  Thus:—­

  a) b before s or t becomes p; as,—­

    scripsi (scrib-si), scriptum (scrib-tum).

  b) g before s or t becomes c; as,—­

    actus (ag-tus).

  c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n; as,—­

    eundem (eum-dem); princeps (prim-ceps).

PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

9.  Many words have variable orthography.

1.  Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language.  Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevailing forms almost down to the Augustan age; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult, etc.  So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubido, etc. down to about the same era; later, optimus, maximus, libet, libido, etc.

2.  In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language.  Examples are exspecto, expecto; exsisto, existo; epistula, epistola; adulescens, adolescens; paulus, paullus; cottidie, cotidie; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, which often made a concession to the etymology in the spelling; as,—­

ad-gero or aggero; ad-sero or assero;
ad-licio or allicio; in-latus or illatus;
ad-rogans or arrogans; sub-moveo or summoveo;

                                          and many others.

3.  Compounds of jacio were usually written eicio, deicio, adicio, obicio, etc., but were probably pronounced as though written adjicio, objicio, etc.

4.  Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uus, -uum preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom; -uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age; as, antiquos, antiquom; saevos; perpetuos; equos; servos.  Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont, -quontur; -vont, -vontur; -uont, -uontur, for the same period; as, relinquont, loquontur; vivont, metuont.

The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts.

* * * * *

PART II.

* * * * *

INFLECTIONS.

* * * * *

10.  The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in English, viz.  Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has no article.

11.  Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form to express modifications of meaning.  In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declension; in case of verbs, Conjugation.

* * * * *

CHAPTER I.—­Declension.

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A. NOUNS.

12.  A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or quality; as, Caesar, Caesar; Roma, Rome; penna, feather; virtus, courage.

1.  Nouns are either Proper or Common.  Proper nouns are permanent names of persons or places; as, Caesar, Roma.  Other nouns are Common:  as, penna, virtus.

2.  Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.

  a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects; as, mons,
  mountain; pes, foot; dies, day; mens, mind.

  Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legio,
  legion; comitatus, retinue.

  b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, constantia, steadfastness;
  paupertas, poverty.

GENDER OF NOUNS.

13.  There are three Genders,—­Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter.  Gender in Latin is either natural or grammatical.

Natural Gender.

14.  The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex.  Natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons; and these are—­

1.  Masculine, if they denote males; as,—­

  nauta, sailor; agricola, farmer.

2.  Feminine, if they denote females; as,—­

  mater, mother; regina, queen.

Grammatical Gender.

15.  Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular.  By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the Nominative Singular.  The following are the general principles for determining grammatical gender:—­

A.  Gender determined by Signification.

1.  Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months are Masculine; as,—­

  Sequana, Seine; Eurus, east wind; Aprilis, April.

2.  Names of Trees, and such names of Towns and Islands as end in -us, are Feminine; as,—­

  quercus, oak; Corinthus, Corinth; Rhodus, Rhodes.

Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see B, below); as,—­

  Delphi, n.; Leuctra, n.; Tibur, n.; Carthago, f.

3.  Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as,—­

  nihil, nothing; nefas, wrong; amare, to love.

NOTE.—­Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia (the river), f.

B.  Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular.

The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative
Singular.[11]

NOTE 1.—­Common Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes Masculine, sometimes Feminine.  Thus, sacerdos may mean either priest or priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly.  So also civis, citizen; parens, parent; etc.  The gender of such nouns is said to be common.

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NOTE 2.—­Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, anser, m., goose or gander.  So vulpes, f., fox; aquila, f., eagle.

NUMBER.

16.  The Latin has two Numbers,—­the Singular and Plural.  The Singular denotes one object, the Plural, more than one.

CASES.

17.  There are six Cases in Latin:—­

Nominative, Case of Subject;
Genitive, Objective with of, or Possessive;
Dative, Objective with to or for;
Accusative, Case of Direct Object;
Vocative, Case of Address;
Ablative, Objective with by, from, in,

          
                      with.

1.  LOCATIVE.  Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words.

2.  OBLIQUE CASES.  The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases.

3.  STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS.  The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.[12] Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-.  But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured.  The apparent case-ending thus resulting is called a termination.

THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.

18.  There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows:—­

DECLENSION.      FINAL LETTER OF STEM.    GEN.  TERMINATION. 
First           a                       -ae
Second          o                       -i
Third           i / Some consonant      -is
Fourth          u                       -us
Fifth           e                       -ei / -ei

Cases alike in Form.

19. 1.  The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension.

2.  The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.

3.  In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in -a.

4.  In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like the Nominative.

* * * * *

FIRST DECLENSION.

a-Stems.

20.  Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regularly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -a, weakened from -a, and are of the Feminine Gender.  They are declined as follows:—­

Porta, gate; stem, porta-.

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SINGULAR. 
CASES.                  MEANINGS.             TERMINATIONS.
Nom.  porta      a gate (as subject)         -a
Gen.  portae     of a gate                   -ae
Dat.  portae     to or for a gate          -ae
Acc.  portam     a gate (as object)          -am
Voc.  porta      O gate!                     -a
Abl.  porta      with, by, from, in a gate   -a
PLURAL.
Nom.  portae     gates (as subject)          -ae
Gen.  portarum   of gates                    -arum
Dat.  portis     to or for gates           -is
Acc.  portas     gates (as object)           -as
Voc.  portae     O gates!                    -ae
Abl.  portis     with, by, from, in gates    -is

1.  The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either a gate or the gate; and in the Plural, gates or the gates.

Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension.

21. 1.  EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER.  Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, nauta, sailor; agricola, farmer; also, Hadria, Adriatic Sea.

2.  Rare Case-Endings,—­

a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -as is preserved in the combination pater familias, father of a family; also in mater familias, filius familias, filia familias.  But the regular form of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in these expressions; as, pater familiae.

  b) In poetry a Genitive in -ai also occurs; as, aulai.

  c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as, Romae, at Rome.

  d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -arum sometimes occurs; as,
  Dardanidum instead of Dardanidarum.  This termination -um is not a
  contraction of -arum, but represents an entirely different case-ending.

e) Instead of the regular ending -is, we usually find -abus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, and filia, daughter, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus, god, and filius, son.  A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity; as, libertabus (from liberta, freedwoman), equabus (mares), to avoid confusion with libertis (from libertus, freedman) and equis (from equus, horse).

Greek Nouns.

22.  These end in -e (Feminine); -as and -es (Masculine).  In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension.  In the Singular they are declined as follows:—­

Archias,           Epitome,           Cometes, comet.
Archias.         epitome.
Nom.  Archias            epitome            cometes
Gen.  Archiae            epitomes           cometae
Dat.  Archiae            epitomae           cometae
Acc.  Archiam (or -an)   epitomen           cometen
Voc.  Archia             epitome            comete (or -a)
Abl.  Archia             epitome            comete (or -a)

1.  But most Greek nouns in -e become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are declined like porta; as, grammatica, grammar; musica, music; rhetorica, rhetoric.

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2.  Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.

* * * * *

SECOND DECLENSION.

o-Stems.

23.  Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine; -um, Neuter.  Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculine was -os; and -um of the Neuters -om.  So also in the Accusative.

Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows:—­

Hortus, garden; Bellum, war;
stem, horto-. stem, bello-. 
SINGULAR. 
TERMINATION.  TERMINATION.
Nom. hortus -us bellum -um
Gen. horti -i belli -i
Dat. horto -o bello -o
Acc. hortum -um bellum -um
Voc. horte -e bellum -um
Abl. horto -o bello -o

PLURAL.
Nom.  horti        -i      bella        -a
Gen.  hortorum     -orum   bellorum     -orum
Dat.  hortis       -is     bellis       -is
Acc.  hortos       -os     bella        -a
Voc.  horti        -i      bella        -a
Abl.  hortis       -is     bellis       -is

Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows:—­

Puer, boy;     Ager, field;  Vir, man;
stem, puero-     stem, agro-     stem, viro-
SINGULAR.                          TERMINATION.
Nom.  puer             ager            vir               Wanting
Gen.  pueri            agri            viri            -i
Dat.  puero            agro            viro            -o
Acc.  puerum           agrum           virum           -um
Voc.  puer             ager            vir               Wanting
Abl.  puero            agro            viro            -o
PLURAL.
Nom.  pueri            agri            viri            -i
Gen.  puerorum         agrorum         virorum         -orum
Dat.  pueris           agris           viris           -is
Acc.  pueros           agros           viros           -os
Voc.  pueri            agri            viri            -i
Abl.  pueris           agris           viris           -is

1.  Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular.

In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further modified by the development of e before r.

2.  The following nouns in -er are declined like puer:  adulter, adulterer; gener, son-in-law; Liber, Bacchus; socer, father-in-law; vesper, evening; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger.

Nouns in _-vus_, _-vum_, _-quus_.

24.  Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin,—­an earlier and a later,—­as follows:—­

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   Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and Cicero).
          Servos, m., Aevom, n., Equos, m.,
          slave. age. horse
                        SINGULAR.
  Nom. servos aevom equos
  Gen. servi aevi equi
  Dat. servo aevo equo
  Acc. servom aevom equom
  Voc. serve aevom eque
  Abl. servo aevo equo

Later inflection (after Cicero).
SINGULAR.
Nom.  servus          aevum           equus
Gen.  servi           aevi            equi
Dat.  servo           aevo            equo
Act.  servum          aevum           equum
Voc.  serve           aevum           eque
Abl.  servo           aevo            equo

1.  The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform.

Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension.

25. 1.  Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -i (instead of -ii), and the Vocative Singular in -i (for -ie); as Vergili, of Virgil, or O Virgil (instead of Vergilii, Vergilie).  In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short.  Nouns in -ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -ai, -ei, as Pompejus, Pompei.

2.  Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -i (instead of -ii); as,—­

Nom.  ingenium        filius
Gen.  ingeni          fili

These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short.

3.  Filius forms the Vocative Singular in -i (for -ie); viz. fili, O son!

4.  Deus, god, lacks the Vocative Singular.  The Plural is inflected as follows:—­

Nom. di (dei) Gen. deorum (deum) Dat. dis (deis) Acc. deos Voc. di (dei) Abl. dis (deis)

5.  The Locative Singular ends in -i; as, Corinthi, at Corinth.

6.  The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -orum,—­

  a) in words denoting money and measure; as, talentum, of talents;
  modium, of pecks; sestertium, of sesterces.

  b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum.

  c) sometimes in other words; as, liberum, of the children; socium, of
  the allies
.

Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension.

26. 1.  The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception:—­

  a) Names of towns, islands, trees—­according to the general rule laid
  down in Sec. 15, 2; also some names of countries; as Aegyptus, Egypt.

  b) Five special words,—­

Page 18

alvus, belly; carbasus, flax; colus, distaff; humus, ground; vannus, winnowing-fan.

  c) A few Greek Feminines; as,—­

    atomus, atom;
    diphthongus, diphthong.

2.  The following nouns in -us are Neuter:—­

  pelagus, sea;
  virus, poison;
  vulgus, crowd.

Greek Nouns of the Second Declension.

27.  These end in -os, -os, Masculine or Feminine; and -on, Neuter.  They are mainly proper names, and are declined as follows:—­

          Barbitos, m.  Androgeos, m., Ilion, n.,
          and f., Androgeos. Troy.
          lyre.
  Nom. barbitos Androgeos Ilion
  Gen. barbiti Androgeo, -i Ilii
  Dat. barbito Androgeo Ilio
  Acc. barbiton Androgeo, -on Ilion
  Voc. barbite Androgeos Ilion
  Abl. barbito Androgeo Ilio

1.  Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um instead of -on; as, Delum, Delos.

2.  The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular.

3.  For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be consulted.

* * * * *

THIRD DECLENSION.

28.  Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -i, -o, -y, -c, -l, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x.  The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of Stems,—­

    I. Pure Consonant-Stems. 
   II. i-Stems. 
  III.  Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the
        inflection of i-Stems. 
   IV.  A very few stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong. 
    V. Irregular Nouns.

I. Consonant-Stems.

29. 1.  In these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique cases, so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized.

2.  Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant.

A.  Mute-Stems.

30.  Mute-Stems may end,—­

1.  In a Labial (p); as, princep-s.

2.  In a Guttural (g or c); as, remex (remeg-s); dux (duc-s).

3.  In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); miles (milet-s).

1.  STEMS IN A LABIAL MUTE (p).

31.  Princeps, m., chief.

SINGULAR.        TERMINATION.
Nom.  princeps        -s
Gen.  principis       -is
Dat.  principi        -i
Acc.  principem       -em
Voc.  princeps        -s
Abl.  principe        -e
PLURAL.
Nom.  principes       -es
Gen.  principum       -um
Dat.  principibus     -ibus
Acc.  principes       -es
Voc.  principes       -es
Abl.  principibus     -ibus

2.  STEMS IN A GUTTURAL MUTE (g, c).

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32.  In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thus producing -x.

Remex, m., rower.               Dux, c., leader. 
SINGULAR.        PLURAL.          SINGULAR.        PLURAL.
Nom.  remex           remiges         dux             duces
Gen.  remigis         remigum         ducis           ducum
Dat.  remigi          remigibus       duci            ducibus
Acc.  remigem         remiges         ducem           duces
Voc.  remex           remiges         dux             duces
Abl.  remige          remigibus       duce            ducibus

3.  STEMS IN A DENTAL MUTE (d, t).

33.  In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nominative Singular before the ending -s.

Lapis, m., stone.             Miles, m., soldier. 
SINGULAR.        PLURAL.          SINGULAR.        PLURAL.
Nom.  lapis           lapides         miles           milites
Gen.  lapidis         lapidum         militis         militum
Dat.  lapidi          lapidibus       militi          militibus
Acc.  lapidem         lapides         militem         milites
Voc.  lapis           lapides         miles           milites
Abl.  lapide          lapidibus       milite          militibus

B.  Liquid Stems.

34.  These end in -l or -r.

Vigil, m.,      Victor, m.,     Aequor, n.,
watchman.     conqueror.    sea.
SINGULAR.
Nom.  vigil           victor          aequor
Gen.  vigilis         victoris        aequoris
Dat.  vigili          victori         aequori
Acc.  vigilem         victorem        aequor
Voc.  vigil           victor          aequor
Abl.  vigile          victore         aequore
PLURAL.
Nom.  vigiles         victores        aequora
Gen.  vigilum         victorum        aequorum
Dat.  vigilibus       victoribus      aequoribus
Acc.  vigiles         victores        aequora
Voc.  vigiles         victores        aequora
Abl.  vigilibus       victoribus      aequoribus

1.  Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nominative and Vocative Singular without termination.

2.  The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension.

C.  Nasal Stems.

35.  These end in -n,[13] which often disappears in the Nom.  Sing.

Leo, m., lion.                Nomen, n., name
SINGULAR.        PLURAL.          SINGULAR.        PLURAL.
Nom.  leo             leones          nomen           nomina
Gen.  leonis          leonum          nominis         nominum
Dat.  leoni           leonibus        nomini          nominibus
Acc.  leonem          leones          nomen           nomina
Voc.  leo             leones          nomen           nomina
Abl.  leone           leonibus        nomine          nominibus

D. s-Stems.

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36.  Mos, m.  Genus, n., Honor, m.,
          custom. race. honor.

SINGULAR.
Nom.  mos             genus           honor
Gen.  moris           generis         honoris
Dat.  mori            generi          honori
Acc.  morem           genus           honorem
Voc.  mos             genus           honor
Abl.  more            genere          honore
PLURAL.
Nom.  mores           genera          honores
Gen.  morum           generum         honorum
Dat.  moribus         generibus       honoribus
Acc.  mores           genera          honores
Voc.  mores           genera          honores
Abl.  moribus         generibus       honoribus

1.  Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the oblique cases.  In many words (honor, color, and the like) the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative, displacing the earlier s, though the forms honos, colos, etc., also occur, particularly in early Latin and in poetry.

II. i-Stems.

A.  Masculine and Feminine i-Stems.

37.  These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singular, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural.  Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular in -i, and the Accusative Plural in -is; but these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -es, the endings of Consonant-Stems.

38.  Tussis, f., Ignis, m., Hostis, c.,
          cough; stem, fire; stem, enemy; stem,
          tussi-. igni-. hosti-.

SINGULAR.                          TERMINATION.
Nom.  tussis          ignis           hostis          -is
Gen.  tussis          ignis           hostis          -is
Dat.  tussi           igni            hosti           -i
Acc.  tussim          ignem           hostem          -im, -em
Voc.  tussis          ignis           hostis          -is
Abl.  tussi           igni or e       hoste           -i, -e
PLURAL.
Nom.  tusses          ignes           hostes          -es
Gen.  tussium         ignium          hostium         -ium
Dat.  tussibus        ignibus         hostibus        -ibus
Acc.  tussis or -es   ignis or -es    hostis or -es   -is, -es
Voc.  tusses          ignes           hostes          -es
Abl.  tussibus        ignibus         hostibus        -ibus

1.  To the same class belong—­

apis, bee. cratis, hurdle. +*securis, axe.
auris, ear. febris, _fever_. sementis, _sowing_.
avis, _bird_. orbis, _circle_. +
sitis, thirst.
axis, axle. ovis, sheep. torris, brand.
buris, _plough-beam_. pelvis, _basin_. +turris, tower.
clavis, key. puppis, stern. trudis, pole.
collis, hill. restis, rope. vectis, lever.
and many others.

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Words marked with a star regularly have Acc. -im; those marked with a + regularly have Abl. -i.  Of the others, many at times show -im and -i.  Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -i.

2.  Not all nouns in -is are i-Stems.  Some are genuine consonant-stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, notably, canis, dog; juvenis, youth.[14]

3.  Some genuine i-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular; as, pars, part, for par(ti)s; anas, duck, for ana(ti)s; so also mors, death; dos, dowry; nox, night; sors, lot; mens, mind; ars, art; gens, tribe; and some others.

B.  Neuter i-Stems.

39.  These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar.  They always have -i in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine i-Stems.

Sedile,         Animal,         Calcar,
seat;         animal;       spur;
stem, sedili-.  stem,           stem,
animali-.       calcari-.
SINGULAR.                          TERMINATION.
Nom.  sedile          animal          calcar          -e or wanting
Gen.  sedilis         animalis        calcaris        -is
Dat.  sedili          animali         calcari         -i
Acc.  sedile          animal          calcar          -e or wanting
Voc.  sedile          animal          calcar          -e or wanting
Abl.  sedili          animali         calcari         -i
PLURAL.
Nom.  sedilia         animalia        calcaria        -ia
Gen.  sedilium        animalium       calcarium       -ium
Dat.  sedilibus       animalibus      calcaribus      -ibus
Acc.  sedilia         animalia        calcaria        -ia
Voc.  sedilia         animalia        calcaria        -ia
Abl.  sedilibus       animalibus      calcaribus      -ibus

1.  In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e.

2.  Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e; as, Soracte, Mt.  Soracte; so also sometimes mare, sea.

III.  Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of i-Stems.

40.  Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted themselves to the inflection of i-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural, and -is in the Accusative Plural.  Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singular, or -i in the Ablative Singular.  The following words are examples of this class:—­

Page 22

Caedes, f.,     Arx, f.,        Linter, f.,
slaughter;    citadel;      skiff;
stem, caed-.    stem, arc-.     stem, lintr-.
SINGULAR.
Nom.  caedes          arx             linter
Gen.  caedis          arcis           lintris
Dat.  caedi           arci            lintri
Acc.  caedem          arcem           lintrem
Voc.  caedes          arx             linter
Abl.  caede           arce            lintre
PLURAL.
Nom.  caedes          arces           lintres
Gen.  caedium         arcium          lintrium
Dat.  caedibus        arcibus         lintribus
Acc.  caedes, -is     arces, -is      lintres, -is
Voc.  caedes          arces           lintres
Abl.  caedibus        arcibus         lintribus

1.  The following classes of nouns belong here:—­

  a) Nouns in -es, with Genitive in -is; as, nubes, aedes, clades, etc.

  b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants; as,
  urbs, mons, stirps, lanx.

  c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs as, cliens, cohors.

  d) Uter, venter; fur, lis, mas, mus, nix; and the Plurals fauces,
  penates, Optimates, Samnites, Quirites.

  e) Sometimes nouns in -tas with Genitive -tatis; as, civitas, aetas. 
  Civitas usually has civitatium.

IV.  Stems in _-i_, _-u_, and Diphthongs.

41.  Vis, f., Sus, c., Bos, c., ox, Juppiter, m.,
          force; swine; cow; Jupiter;
          stem, vi-. stem, su-. stem, bou-. stem, Jou-.

SINGULAR.
Nom.  vis             sus             bos             Juppiter
Gen.  ——­            suis            bovis           Jovis
Dat.  ——­            sui             bovi            Jovi
Acc.  vim             suem            bovem           Jovem
Voc.  vis             sus             bos             Juppiter
Abl.  vi              sue             bove            Jove
PLURAL.
Nom.  vires           sues            boves
Gen.  virium          suum            bovum, boum
Dat.  viribus         suibus, subus   bobus, bubus
Acc.  vires           sues            boves
Voc.  vires           sues            boves
Abl.  viribus         suibus, subus   bobus, bubus

1.  Notice that the oblique cases of sus have u in the root syllable.

2.  Grus is declined like sus, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus.

3.  Juppiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-i, etc.

Navis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over to the i-stems (Sec. 37).  Its ablative often ends in -i.

V. Irregular Nouns.

42.  Senex, m., Caro, f., Os, n.,
          old man. flesh. bone.

Page 23

SINGULAR.
Nom.  senex           caro            os
Gen.  senis           carnis          ossis
Dat.  seni            carni           ossi
Acc.  senem           carnem          os
Voc.  senex           caro            os
Abl.  sene            carne           osse
PLURAL.
Nom.  senes           carnes          ossa
Gen.  senum           carnium         ossium
Dat.  senibus         carnibus        ossibus
Acc.  senes           carnes          ossa
Voc.  senes           carnes          ossa
Abl.  senibus         carnibus        ossibus

1.  Iter, itineris, n., way, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem itiner-.

2.  Supellex, supellectilis, f., furniture, is confined to the Singular.  The oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-.  The ablative has both -i and -e.

3.  Jecur, n., liver, forms its oblique cases from two stems,—­jecor- and jecinor-.  Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris.

4.  Femur, n., thigh, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-, but sometimes from the stem femin-.  Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis.

General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension.

43. 1.  Nouns in -o, -or, -os, -er, -es are Masculine.

2.  Nouns in -as, -es, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -do, -go (Genitive -inis); -io (abstract and collective), -us (Genitive -atis or -udis) are Feminine.

3.  Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -o, -l, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -us are Neuter.

Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension.

44.  Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines.

1.  Nouns in -o.

  a.  Feminine:  caro, flesh.

2.  Nouns in -or.

  a.  Feminine:  arbor, tree.

  b.  Neuter:  aequor, sea; cor, heart; marmor, marble.

3.  Nouns in -os.

  a.  Feminine:  dos, dowry.

  b.  Neuter:  os (oris), mouth.

4.  Nouns in -er.

  a.  Feminine:  linter, skiff.

  b.  Neuter:  cadaver, corpse; iter, way; tuber, tumor; uber, udder
  Also botanical names in -er; as, acer, maple.

5.  Nouns in -es.

  a.  Feminine:  seges, crop.

45.  Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines.

1.  Nouns in -as.

  a.  Masculine:  vas, bondsman.

  b.  Neuter:  vas, vessel.

2.  Nouns in -es.

  a.  Masculine:  aries, ram; paries, wall; pes, foot.

3.  Nouns in -is.

  a.  Masculine:  all nouns in -nis and -guis; as, amnis, river; ignis,
  fire; panis, bread; sanguis, blood; unguis, nail.

  Also—­

axis, axle. piscis, fish. collis, hill. postis, post. fascis, bundle. pulvis, dust. lapis, stone. orbis, circle. mensis, month. sentis, brier.

4.  Nouns in -x.

Page 24

  a.  Masculine:  apex, peak; codex, tree-trunk; grex, flock; imbrex,
  tile; pollex, thumb; vertex, summit; calix, cup.

5.  Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant.

  a.  Masculine:  dens, tooth; fons, fountain; mons, mountain; pons,
  bridge.

6.  Nouns in -do.

  a.  Masculine:  cardo, hinge; ordo, order.

46.  Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters.

1.  Nouns in -l.

  a.  Masculine:  sol, sun; sal, salt.

2.  Nouns in -n.

  a.  Masculine:  pecten, comb.

3.  Nouns in -ur.

  a.  Masculine:  vultur, vulture.

4.  Nouns in -us.

  a.  Masculine:  lepus, hare.

Greek Nouns of the Third Declension.

47.  The following are the chief peculiarities of these:—­

1.  The ending -a in the Accusative Singular; as, aethera, aether; Salamina, Salamis.

2.  The ending -es in the Nominative Plural; as, Phryges, Phrygians.

3.  The ending -as in the Accusative Plural; as, Phrygas, Phrygians.

4.  Proper names in -as (Genitive -antis) have -a in the Vocative Singular; as, Atlas (Atlantis), Vocative Atla, Atlas.

5.  Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -is instead of -ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural; as, poematis, poems.

6.  Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.).  But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension; as, Orphei, Orpheo, etc.

7.  Proper names in -es, like Pericles, form the Genitive Singular sometimes in -is, sometimes in -i, as, Periclis or Pericli.

8.  Feminine proper names in -o have -us in the Genitive, but -o in the other oblique cases; as,—­

Nom.  Dido            Acc.  Dido
Gen.  Didus           Voc.  Dido
Dat.  Dido            Abl.  Dido

9.  The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns.

* * * * *

FOURTH DECLENSION.

u-Stems.

48.  Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Masculine, and -u Neuter.  They are declined as follows:—­

Fructus, m., fruit.              Cornu, n., horn. 
SINGULAR.        PLURAL.          SINGULAR.        PLURAL.
Nom.  fructus         fructus         cornu           cornua
Gen.  fructus         fructuum        cornus          cornuum
Dat.  fructui         fructibus       cornu           cornibus
Acc.  fructum         fructus         cornu           cornua
Voc.  fructus         fructus         cornu           cornua
Abl.  fructu          fructibus       cornu           cornibus

Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension.

Page 25

49. 1.  Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -i, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second Declension; as, senati, ornati.  This is usually the case in Plautus and Terence.

2.  Nouns in -us sometimes have -u in the Dative Singular, instead of -ui; as, fructu (for fructui).

3.  The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative Plural of artus (Plural), limbs; tribus, tribe; and in dis-syllables in -cus; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus.  But with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus.

4.  Domus, house, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has also the following forms of the Second:—­

domi (locative), at home; domo, from home; domum, homewards, to one’s home; domos, homewards, to their (etc.) homes

5.  The only Neuters of this declension in common use are:  cornu, horn; genu, knee; and veru, spit.

Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.

50.  The following nouns in -us are Feminine:  acus, needle; domus, house; manus, hand; porticus, colonnade; tribus, tribe; Idus (Plural), Ides; also names of trees (Sec. 15, 2).

* * * * *

FIFTH DECLENSION.

e-Stems.

51.  Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -es, and are declined as follows:—­

Dies, m., day.                Res, f., thing. 
SINGULAR.        PLURAL.          SINGULAR.        PLURAL.
Nom.  dies            dies            res             res
Gen.  diei            dierum          rei             rerum
Dat.  diei            diebus          rei             rebus
Acc.  diem            dies            rem             res
Voc.  dies            dies            res             res
Abl.  die             diebus          re              rebus

Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension.

52. 1.  The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -ei, instead of -ei, when a consonant precedes; as, spei, rei, fidei.

2.  A Genitive ending -i (for -ei) is found in plebi (from plebes = plebs) in the expressions tribunus plebi, tribune of the people, and plebi scitum, decree of the people; sometimes also in other words.

3.  A Genitive and Dative form in -e sometimes occurs; as, acie.

4.  With the exception of dies and res, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in the Plural.  But acies, series, species, spes, and a few others are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural.

Gender in the Fifth Declension.

53.  Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except dies, day, and meridies, mid-day.  But dies is sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an appointed day.

Page 26

* * * * *

DEFECTIVE NOUNS.

54.  Here belong—­

  1.  Nouns used in the Singular only.

  2.  Nouns used in the Plural only.

  3.  Nouns used only in certain cases.

  4.  Indeclinable Nouns.

Nouns used in the Singular only.

55.  Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only.  Thus:—­

1.  Proper names; as, Cicero, Cicero; Italia, Italy.

2.  Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk.

3.  Abstract nouns; as, ignorantia, ignorance; bonitas, goodness.

4.  But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural.  Thus:—­

  a) Proper names,—­to denote different members of a family, or specimens
  of a type; as, Cicerones, the Ciceros; Catones, men like Cato.

  b) Names of materials,—­to denote objects made of the material, or
  different kinds of the substance; as, aera, bronzes (i.e. bronze
  figures); ligna, woods.

  c) Abstract nouns,—­to denote instances of the quality; as, ignorantiae,
  cases of ignorance.

Nouns used in the Plural only.

56.  Here belong—­

1.  Many geographical names; as, Thebae, Thebes; Leuctra, Leuctra; Pompeji, Pompeii.

2.  Many names of festivals; as, Megalesia, the Megalesian festival.

3.  Many special words, of which the following are the most important:—­

angustiae, narrow pass. manes, spirits of the
arma,
weapons_. dead_.
deliciae, delight. moenia, city walls.
divitiae, riches. minae, threats
Idus, Ides. nuptiae, marriage.
indutiae, truce. posteri, descendants.
insidiae, ambush. reliquiae, remainder.
majores, ancestors. tenebrae, darkness.

          
                                                      verbera, blows.

Also in classical prose regularly—­

cervices, neck.               nares, nose.
fides, lyre.                  viscera, viscera.

Nouns used only in Certain Cases.

57. 1.  Used in only One Case.  Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular as, jussu, by the order; injussu, without the order; natu, by birth.

2.  Used in Two Cases.

  a.  Fors (chance), Nom.  Sing.; forte, Abl.  Sing.

  b.  Spontis (free-will), Gen. Sing.; sponte, Abl.  Sing.

3.  Used in Three Cases.  Nemo, no one (Nom.), has also the Dat. nemini and the Acc. neminem.  The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases of nullus; viz. nullius and nullo.

Page 27

4.  Impetus has the Nom., Acc., and Abl.  Sing., and the Nom. and Acc.  Plu.; viz. impetus, impetum, impetu, impetus.

5. a.  Preci, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing.

  b.  Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat.  Sing.

6.  Opis, dapis, and frugis,—­all lack the Nom.  Sing.

7.  Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.:  as, cor, lux, sol, aes, os (oris), rus, sal, tus.

Indeclinable Nouns.

58.  Here belong—­

fas, n., right.               nefas, n., impiety.
instar, n., likeness.         nihil, n., nothing.
mane, n., morning.            secus, n., sex.

1.  With the exception of mane (which may serve also as Ablative, in the morning), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular.

Heteroclites.

59.  These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another.  Thus:—­

1.  Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the Plural is of another; as,—­

  vas, vasis (vessel); Plu., vasa, vasoroum, vasis, etc.
  jugerum, jugeri (acre); Plu., jugera, jugerum, jugeribus, etc.

2.  Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have certain special forms belonging to another.  Thus:—­

  a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and
  Acc. of the Fifth; as, materies, materiem, material, as well as
  materia, materiam.

  b) Fames, hunger, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. fame
  of the Fifth.

  c) Requies, requietis, rest, regularly of the Third Declension, takes
  an Acc. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requietem.

  d) Besides plebs, plebis, common people, of the Third Declension, we
  find plebes, plebei (also plebi, see Sec. 52, 2), of the Fifth.

Heterogeneous Nouns.

60.  Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender.  Thus:—­

1.  Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,—­one Masc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, shield; carrus, carrum, cart.

2.  Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural; as,—­

SINGULAR.  PLURAL.
balneum, n., bath; balneae, f., bath-house.
epulum, n., feast; epulae, f., feast.
frenum, n., bridle; freni, m.(rarely frena, n.), bridle.
jocus, m., jest; joca, n. (also joci, m.), jests.
locus, m., place; loca, n., places; loci, m., passages
or topics in an author
.
rastrum, n., rake; rastri, m.; rastra, n., rakes.

a.  Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case
of the first two examples above.

Page 28

Plurals with Change of Meaning.

61.  The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in the Plural:—­

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. aedes, temple; aedes, house. auxilium, help; auxilia, auxiliary troops. carcer, prison; carceres, stalls for racing-chariot. castrum, fort; castra, camp. copia, abundance; copiae, troops, resources. finis, end; fines, borders, territory. fortuna, fortune; fortunae, possessions, wealth. gratia, favor, gratiae, thanks. gratitude; impedimentum, impedimenta, baggage. hindrance; littera, letter (of the litterae, epistle; literature. alphabet); mos, habit, custom; mores, character. opera, help, service; operae, laborers. (ops) opis, help; opes, resources. pars, part; partes, party; role. sal, salt; sales, wit.

* * * * *

B. ADJECTIVES.

62.  Adjectives denote quality.  They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes,—­

1.  Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

2.  Adjectives of the Third Declension.

* * * * *

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.

63.  In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum.  Thus, Masculine like hortus:—­

Bonus, good.

SINGULAR. 
MASCULINE.       FEMININE.        NEUTER.
Nom.  bonus           bona            bonum
Gen.  boni            bonae           boni
Dat.  bono            bonae           bono
Acc.  bonum           bonam           bonum
Voc.  bone            bona            bonum
Abl.  bono            bona            bono
PLURAL.
Nom.  boni            bonae           bona
Gen.  bonorum         bonarum         bonorum
Dat.  bonis           bonis           bonis
Acc.  bonos           bonas           bona
Voc.  boni            bonae           bona
Abl.  bonis           bonis           bonis

1.  The Gen. Sing.  Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in -ii (not in -i as in case of Nouns; see Sec. 25, 1; 2).  So also the Voc.  Sing. of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in i.  Thus eximius forms Gen. eximii; Voc. eximie.

2.  Distributives (see Sec. 78, 1, c) regularly form the Gen. Plu.  Masc. and Neut. in -um instead of -orum (compare Sec. 25, 6); as, denum centenum; but always singulorum.

64.  Masculine like puer:—­

Tener, tender.

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SINGULAR. 
MASCULINE.       FEMININE        NEUTER.
Nom.  tener           tenera          tenerum
Gen.  teneri          tenerae         teneri
Dat.  tenero          tenerae         tenero
Acc.  tenerum         teneram         tenerum
Voc.  tener           tenera          tenerum
Abl.  tenero          tenera          tenero
PLURAL.
Nom.  teneri          tenerae         tenera
Gen.  tenerorum       tenerarum       tenerorum
Dat.  teneris         teneris         teneris
Acc.  teneros         teneras         tenera
Voc.  teneri          tenerae         tenera
Abl.  teneris         teneris         teneris

65.  Masculine like ager:—­

Sacer, sacred.

SINGULAR. 
MASCULINE.       FEMININE.        NEUTER.
Nom.  sacer           sacra           sacrum
Gen.  sacri           sacrae          sacri
Dat.  sacro           sacrae          sacro
Acc.  sacrum          sacram          sacrum
Voc.  sacer           sacra           sacrum
Abl.  sacro           sacra           sacro
PLURAL.
Nom.  sacri           sacrae          sacra
Gen.  sacrorum        sacrarum        sacrorum
Dat.  sacris          sacris          sacris
Acc.  sacros          sacras          sacra
Voc.  sacri           sacrae          sacra
Abl.  sacris          sacris          sacris

1.  Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer.  The following however, are declined like tener:  asper, rough; lacer, torn; liber, free; miser, wretched; prosper, prosperous; compounds in -fer and -ger; sometimes dexter, right.

2.  Satur, full, is declined:  satur, satura, saturum.

Nine Irregular Adjectives.

66.  Here belong—­

  alius, another; alter, the other;
  ullus, any; nullus, none;
  uter, which? (of two); neuter, neither;
  solus, alone; totus, whole;
                unus, one, alone.

They are declined as follows:—­

SINGULAR. 
MASCULINE.       FEMININE.        NEUTER.
Nom.  alius           alia            aliud
Gen.  alterius        alterius        alterius[15]
Dat.  alii            alii            alii
Acc.  alium           aliam           aliud
Voc.  ——­            ——­            ——­
Abl.  alio            alia            alio
Nom. alter altera alterum Gen. alterius alterius alterius Dat. alteri alteri[16] alteri Acc. alterum alteram alterum Voc. ——­ ——­ ——­ Abl. altero altera altero
Nom. uter utra

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utrum Gen. utrius utrius utrius Dat. utri utri utri Acc. utrum utram utrum Voc. ——­ ——­ ——­ Abl. utro utra utro
Nom. totus tota totum Gen. totius totius totius Dat. toti toti toti Acc. totum totam totum Voc. ——­ ——­ ——­ Abl. toto tota toto

1.  All these words lack the Vocative.  The Plural is regular.

2.  Neuter is declined like uter.

* * * * *

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.

67.  These fall into three classes,—­

1.  Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular,—­one for each gender.

2.  Adjectives of two terminations.

3.  Adjectives of one termination.

a.  With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in Sec. 70, 1, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of i-stems; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -i, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -is (as well as -es) in the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in -ia in Neuters.

Adjectives of Three Terminations.

68.  These are declined as follows:—­

Acer, sharp.

SINGULAR. 
MASCULINE.       FEMININE.        NEUTER.
Nom.  acer            acris           acre
Gen.  acris           acris           acris
Dat.  acri            acri            acri
Acc.  acrem           acrem           acre
Voc.  acer            acris           acre
Abl.  acri            acri            acri
PLURAL.
Nom.  acres           acres           acria
Gen.  acrium          acrium          acrium
Dat,  acribus         acribus         acribus
Acc.  acres, -is      acres, -is      acria
Voc.  acres           acres           acria
Abl.  acribus         acribus         acribus

1.  Like acer are declined alacer, lively; campester, level; celeber, famous; equester, equestrian; paluster, marshy; pedester, pedestrian; puter, rotten; saluber, wholesome; silvester, woody; terrester, terrestrial; volucer, winged; also names of months in -ber, as September.

2.  Celer, celeris, celere, swift, retains the e before r, but lacks the Genitive Plural.

3.  In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Feminine form is sometimes used for the Masculine.  This is regularly true of salubris, silvestris, and terrestris.  In case of the other words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry.

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Adjectives of Two Terminations.

69.  These are declined as follows:—­

Fortis, strong. Fortior, stronger.
SINGULAR. 
M. AND F. NEUT.  M. AND F. NEUT.
Nom. fortis forte fortior fortius
Gen. fortis fortis fortioris fortioris
Dat. forti forti fortiori fortiori
Acc. fortem forte fortiorem fortius
Voc. fortis forte fortior fortius
Abl. forti forti fortiore fortiore

PLURAL.
Nom.  fortes          fortia          fortiores       fortiora
Gen.  fortium         fortium         fortiorum       fortiorum
Dat.  fortibus        fortibus        fortioribus     fortioribus
Acc.  fortes, -is     fortia          fortiores, -is  fortiora
Voc.  fortes          fortia          fortiores       fortiora
Abl.  fortibus        fortibus        fortioribus     fortioribus

1.  Fortior is the Comparative of fortis.  All Comparatives are regularly declined in the same way.  The Acc.  Plu. in -is is rare.

Adjectives of One Termination.

70.  Felix, happy..  Prudens, prudent.

SINGULAR. 
M. AND F.       NEUT.            M. AND F.       NEUT.
Nom.  felix           felix           prudens         prudens
Gen.  felicis         felicis         prudentis       prudentis
Dat.  felici          felici          prudenti        prudenti
Acc.  felicem         felix           prudentem       prudens
Voc.  felix           felix           prudens         prudens
Abl.  felici          felici          prudenti        prudenti
PLURAL.
Nom.  felices         felicia         prudentes       prudentia
Gen.  felicium        felicium        prudentium      prudentium
Dat.  felicibus       felicibus       prudentibus     prudentibus
Acc.  felices, -is    felicia         prudentes, -is  prudentia
Voc.  felices         felicia         prudentes       prudentia
Abl.  felicibus       felicibus       prudentibus     prudentibus

Vetus, old.  Plus, more.

SINGULAR. 
M. AND F.       NEUT.            M. AND F.       NEUT.
Nom.  vetus           vetus           ——­            plus
Gen.  veteris         veteris         ——­            pluris
Dat.  veteri          veteri          ——­            ——­
Acc.  veterem         vetus           ——­            plus
Voc.  vetus           vetus           ——­            ——­
Abl.  vetere          vetere          ——­            plure
PLURAL.
Nom.  veteres         vetera          plures          plura
Gen.  veterum         veterum         plurium         plurium

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Dat. veteribus veteribus pluribus pluribus Acc. veteres vetera plures, -is plura Voc. veteres vetera ——­ ——­ Abl. veteribus veteribus pluribus pluribus

1.  It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant-Stem; i.e.  Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -es only.  In the same way are declined compos, controlling; dives, rich; particeps, sharing; pauper, poor; princeps, chief; sospes, safe; superstes, surviving.  Yet dives always has Neut.  Plu. ditia.

2.  Inops, needy, and memor, mindful, have Ablative Singular inopi, memori, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum.

3.  Participles in -ans and -ens follow the declension of i-stems.  But they do not have -i the Ablative, except when employed as adjectives; when used as participles or as substantives, they have -e; as,—­

  a sapienti viro, by a wise man; but
  a sapiente, by a philosopher.
  Tarquinio regnante, under the reign of Tarquin.

4.  Plus, in the Singular, is always a noun.

5.  In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives,—­

  a) usually retain the adjective declension; as,—­

    aequalis, contemporary, Abl. aequali.
    consularis, ex-consul, Abl. consulari

  So names of Months; as, Aprili, April; Decembri, December.

  b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular;
  as, Celere, Celer; Juvenale, Juvenal.

  c) Patrials in -as, -atis and -is, -itis, when designating places
  regularly have -i; as, in Arpinati, on the estate at Arpinum, yet -e,
  when used of persons; as, ab Arpinate, by an Arpinatian.

6.  A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frugi, frugal; nequam, worthless.

7.  In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form the Gen. Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venientum, of those coming.

* * * * *

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

71. 1.  There are three degrees of Comparison,—­the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

2.  The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel; as,—­

  altus, high, altior, higher, altissimus, highest,
                                                  very high.
  fortis, brave, fortior, fortissimus.
  felix, fortunate, felicior, felicissimus.

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So also Participles, when used as Adjectives; as,—­

doctus, learned,          doctior,            doctissimus.
egens, needy,             egentior,           egentissimus.

3.  Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the Nominative of the Positive.  The Comparative is regular.  Thus:—­

asper, rough, asperior, asperrimus. pulcher, beautiful, pulchrior, pulcherrimus. acer, sharp, acrior, acerrimus. celer, swift, celerior, celerrimus.

  a.  Notice maturus, maturior, maturissimus or maturrimus.

4.  Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel.  The Comparative is regular.  Thus:—­

facilis, easy, facilior, facillimus. difficilis, diffcult, difficilior, difficillimus. similis, like, similior, simillimus. dissimilis, unlike, dissimilior, dissimillimus. humilis, low, humilior, humillimus.

5.  Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative and Superlative as though from forms in -dicens, -ficens, -volens.  Thus:—­

maledicus, slanderous,    maledicentior,      maledicentissimus.
magnificus, magnificent,  magnificentior,     magnificentissimus.
benevolus, kindly,        benevolentior,      benevolentissimus.

  a.  Positives in -dicens and -volens occur in early Latin; as maledicens,
  benevolens.

6.  Dives has the Comparative divitior or ditior; Superlative divitissimus or ditissimus.

Irregular Comparison.

72.  Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; viz.—­

bonus, good, melior, optimus. malus, bad, pejor, pessimus. parvus, small, minor, minimus. magnus, large, major, maximus. multus, much, plus, plurimus, frugi, thrifty, frugalior, frugalissimus, nequam, worthless, nequior, nequissimus.

Defective Comparison.

73. 1.  Positive lacking entirely,—­

(Cf. prae, in front prior, former_, primus, first of_.) (Cf. citra, this side citerior, on this citimus, near. of_.) side_, (Cf. ultra, beyond.) ulterior, farther, ultimus, farthest.  (Cf. intra, within.) interior, inner, intimus, inmost (Cf. prope, near.) propior, nearer, proximus, nearest.  (Cf. de, down.) deterior, inferior, deterrimus, worst.  (Cf. archaic potis, potior, preferable, potissimus, chiefest possible.)

2.  Positive occurring only in special cases,—­

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postero die, anno, posterior, later, postremus, latest, etc. the following last_. day_, etc., postumus, late-born, posteri, posthumous. descendants, exteri, exterior, outer extremus, extimus, foreigners, outermost. nationes exterae, foreign nations, inferi, gods of the inferior, lower_, infimus, imus, lower world_, lowest.  Mare Inferum, Mediterranean Sea, superi, gods superior, higher_, supremus, last. above_, summus, highest.  Mare Superum, Adriatic Sea,

3.  Comparative lacking.

vetus, old, ——­[17] veterrimus. fidus, faithful, ——­ fidissimus. novus, new, ——­[18] novissimus,[19] last. sacer, sacred, ——­ sacerrimus. falsus, false, ——­ falsissimus.

Also in some other words less frequently used.

4.  Superlative lacking.

alacer, lively, alacrior, ——­ ingens, great, ingentior, ——­ salutaris, wholesome, salutarior, ——­ juvenis, young, junior, ——­[20] senex, old, senior. ——­[21]

  a.  The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -alis, -ilis,
  -ilis, -bilis, and in a few others.

Comparison by Magis and Maxime.

74.  Many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (more) and maxime (most).  Here belong—­

1.  Many adjectives ending in -alis, -aris, -idus, -ilis, -icus, imus, inus, -orus.

2.  Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idoneus, adapted; arduus, steep; necessarius, necessary.

  a.  Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule.  The first
  u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant.

Adjectives not admitting Comparison.

75.  Here belong—­

1.  Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do not admit of comparison; as, hodiernus, of to-day; annuus, annual; mortalis, mortal.

2.  Some special words; as, mirus, gnarus, merus; and a few others.

* * * * *

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

76.  Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives, and depend upon them for their comparison.

Page 35

1.  Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -i of the Genitive Singular to -e; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive Singular to -iter; as,—­

carus, care, dearly; pulcher, pulchre, beautifully; acer, acriter, fiercely; levis, leviter, lightly.

  a.  But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead of -iter),
  to form the Adverb; as,—­

sapiens,    sapienter, wisely;
sollers,    sollerter, skillfully.

Note audax, audacter, boldly.

2.  The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accusative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective; while the Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -i of the Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -e.  Thus—­

(carus) care, dearly, carius, carissime. (pulcher) pulchre, beautifully, pulchrius, pulcherrime. (acer) acriter, fiercely, acrius, acerrime. (levis) leviter, lightly, levius, levissime. (sapiens) sapienter, wisely, sapientius, sapientissime. (audax) audacter, boldly, audacius, audacissime.

Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation.

77. 1., well, melius, optime.
  male, ill, pejus, pessime.
  magnopere, greatly, magis, maxime.
  multum, much, plus, plurimum.
  non multum, little, minus, minime.
  parum,
  diu, long, diutius, diutissime.
  nequiter, worthlessly, nequius, nequissime.
  saepe, often, saepius, saepissime.
  mature, betimes, maturius, maturrime.
          
                                        maturissime.
  prope, near, propius, proxime.
  nuper, recently, ——­ nuperrime.
  ——­ potius, rather, potissimum,
          
                                        especially.
  ——­ prius, previously, primum, first.
                            before,
  secus, otherwise, setius, less.

2.  A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an Adverb in -o, instead of -e; as,—­

crebro, frequently; falso, falsely;
continuo, subito, suddenly;
immediately;
raro, rarely, and a few
others.

a. cito, quickly, has -o.

3.  A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the Positive of the Adverb; as,—­

Page 36

multum, much;   paulum,           facile,
little;         easily.

4.  A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive in -iter; as,—­

  firmus, firmiter, firmly; humanus, humaniter, humanly;
  largus, largiter, copiously; alius, aliter, otherwise.

  a. violentus has violenter.

5.  Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of which are -tus and -tim; as, antiquitus, anciently; paulatim, gradually.

* * * * *

NUMERALS.

78.  Numerals may be divided into—­

I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising—­

a. Cardinals; as, unus, one; duo, two; etc.

b. Ordinals; as, primus, first; secundus, second; etc.

c. Distributives; as, singuli, one by one; bini, two by two; etc.

II.  Numeral Adverbs; as, semel, once; bis, twice; etc.

79.  TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

CARDINALS.                  ORDINALS.
1.  unus, una, unum            primus, first
2.  duo, duae, duo             secundus, second
3.  tres, tria                 tertius, third
4.  quattuor                   quartus, fourth
5.  quinque                    quintus, fifth
6.  sex                        sextus
7.  septem                     septimus
8.  octo                       octavus
9.  novem                      nonus
10.  decem                      decimus
11.  undecim                    undecimus
12.  duodecim                   duodecimus
13.  tredecim                   tertius decimus
14.  quattuordecim              quartus decimus
15.  quindecim                  quintus decimus
16.  sedecim,                   sextus decimus
sexdecim
17.  septendecim                septimus decimus
18.  duodeviginti               duodevicesimus
19.  undeviginti                undevicesimus
20.  viginti                    vicesimus
21.  viginti unus,              vicesimus primus,
unus et viginti            unus et vicesimus
22.  viginti duo,               vicesimus secundus,
duo et viginti             alter et vicesimus
30.  triginta                   tricesimus
40.  quadraginta                quadragesimus
50.  quinquaginta               quinquagesimus
60.  sexaginta                  sexagesimus
70.  septuaginta                septuagesimus
80.  octoginta                  octogesimus
90.  nonaginta                  nonagesimus
100.  centum                     centesimus
101.  centum unus,               centesimus primus,
centum et unus             centesimus et primus
200.  ducenti, -ae, -a           ducentesimus
300.  trecenti                   trecentesimus
400.  quadringenti               quadringentesimus
500.  quingenti                  quingentesimus
600.  sescenti                   sescentesimus

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700. septingenti septingentesimus 800. octingenti octingentesimus 900. nongenti nongentesimus 1,000. mille millesimus 2,000. duo milia bis millesimus 100,000. centum milia centies millesimus 1,000,000. decies centena milia decies centies millesimus
DISTRIBUTIVES.              ADVERBS.
1.  singuli, one by one      semel, once
2.  bini, two by two         bis
3.  terni (trini)              ter
4.  quaterni                   quater
5.  quini                      quinquies
6.  seni                       sexies
7.  septeni                    septies
8.  octoni                     octies
9.  noveni                     novies
10.  deni                       decies
11.  undeni                     undecies
12.  duodeni                    duodecies
13.  terni deni                 terdecies
14.  quaterni deni              quaterdecies
15.  quini deni                 quinquies decies
16.  seni deni                  sexies decies
17.  septeni deni               septies decies
18.  duodeviceni                octies decies
19.  undeviceni                 novies decies
20.  viceni                     vicies
21.  viceni singuli,            vicies semel
singuli et viceni
22.  viceni bini,               vicies bis
bini et viceni
30.  triceni                    tricies
40.  quadrageni                 quadragies
50.  quinquageni                quinquagies
60.  sexageni                   sexagies
70.  septuageni                 septuagies
80.  octogeni                   octogies
90.  nonageni                   nonagies
100.  centeni                    centies
101.  centeni singuli,           centies semel
centeni et singuli
200.  duceni                     ducenties
300.  treceni                    trecenties
400.  quadringeni                quadringenties
500.  quingeni                   quingenties
600.  sesceni                    sescenties
700.  septingeni                 septingenties
800.  octingeni                  octingenties
900.  nongeni                    nongenties
1,000.  singula milia              milies
2,000.  bina milia                 bis milies
100,000.  centena milia              centies milies
1,000,000.  decies centena milia       decies centies milies

NOTE.—­ -ensimus and -iens are often written in the numerals instead of -esimus and -ies.

Declension of the Cardinals.

80. 1.  The declension of unus has already been given under Sec. 66.

2.  Duo is declined as follows:—­

Nom. duo duae duo Gen. duorum duarum duorum Dat. duobus duabus duobus Acc. duos, duo duas duo Abl. duobus duabus duobus

  a.  So ambo, both, except that its final o is long.

3.  Tres is declined,—­

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Nom. tres tria Gen. trium trium Dat. tribus tribus Acc. tres (tris) tria Abl. tribus tribus

4.  The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of bonus.

5.  Mille is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable.  In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive of the objects enumerated; Sec. 201, 1), and is declined,—­

Nom.  milia       Acc.  milia
Gen.  milium      Voc.  milia
Dat.  milibus     Abl.  milibus

Thus mille homines, a thousand men; but duo milia hominum, two thousand men, literally two thousands of men.

  a.  Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction; as, mille
  hominum.

6.  Other Cardinals are indeclinable.  Ordinals and Distributives are declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals.

81. 1.  The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with the larger or the smaller numeral first.  In the latter case, et is used.  Thus:—­

    triginta sex or sex et triginta, thirty-six.

2.  The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed by subtraction; as,—­

    duodeviginti, eighteen (but also octodecim);

    undequadraginta, thirty-nine (but also triginta novem or novem et
    triginta).

3.  Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first; the others follow without et; as,—­

    centum viginti septem, one hundred and twenty-seven.

    anno octingentesimo octogesimo secundo, in the year 882.

Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit or one of the tens; as,—­

    centum et septem, one hundred and seven;

    centum et quadraginta, one hundred and forty.

4.  The Distributives are used—­

  a) To denote so much each, so many apiece; as,—­

    bina talenta eis dedit, he gave them two talents each.

  b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but Singular in
  meaning, are employed in a Plural sense; as,—­

    binae litterae, two epistles.

  But in such cases, uni (not singuli) is regularly employed for one, and
  trini (not terni) for three; as,—­

    unae litterae, one epistle; trinae litterae, three epistles.

  c) In multiplication; as,—­

    bis bina sunt quattuor, twice two are four.

  d) Often in poetry, instead of the cardinals; as,—­

    bina hastilia, two spears.

* * * * *

C. PRONOUNS.

82.  A Pronoun is a word that indicates something without naming it.

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83.  There are the following classes of pronouns:—­

I.  Personal.                 V.  Intensive. 
II.   Reflexive.               VI.   Relative. 
III.   Possessive.             VII.   Interrogative. 
IV.   Demonstrative.         VIII.   Indefinite.

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

84.  These correspond to the English I, you, he, she, it, etc., and are declined as follows:—­

First Person.  Second Person.  Third Person.

SINGULAR.
Nom. ego, I tu, thou is, he; ea, she; id,
it
Gen. mei tui (For declension see Sec. 87.)
Dat. mihi[22] tibi[22]
Acc. me te
Voc. ——­ tu
Abl. me te

PLURAL.
Nom.  nos, we         vos, you
Gen.  nostrum, nostri   vestrum, vestri
Dat.  nobis             vobis
Acc.  nos               vos
Voc.  ——­              vos
Abl.  nobis             vobis

1.  A Dative Singular mi occurs in poetry.

2.  Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as, egomet, I myself; tibimet, to you yourself; tu has tute and tutemet (written also tutimet).

3.  In early Latin, med and ted occur as Accusative and Ablative forms.

* * * * *

II.  REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

85.  These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand; like myself, yourself, in ‘I see myself,’ etc.  They are declined as follows:—­

First Person.         Second Person.        Third Person.
Supplied by oblique     Supplied by oblique
cases of ego.           cases of tu.
Gen.  mei, of myself        tui, of thyself       sui
Dat.  mihi, to myself       tibi, to thyself      sibi[22]
Acc.  me, myself            te, thyself           se or sese
Voc.  ——­                    ——­                    ——­
Abl.  me, with myself,      te, with thyself,     se or sese
etc.                    etc.

1.  The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for all genders and for both numbers.  Thus sui may mean, of himself, herself, itself, or of themselves; and so with the other forms.

2.  All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a reciprocal force; as,—­

    inter se pugnant, they fight with each other.

3.  In early Latin, sed occurs as Accusative and Ablative.

* * * * *

III.  POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

86.  These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are inflected as such.  They are—­

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First Person. Second Person. meus, -a, -um, my; tuus, -a, -um, thy; noster, nostra, nostrum, vester, vestra, vestrum, our; your;

Third Person.
suus, -a, -um, his, her, its, their.

1.  Suus is exclusively Reflexive; as,—­

pater liberos suos amat, the father loves his children.

Otherwise, his, her, its are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singular of is, viz. ejus; and their by the Genitive Plural, eorum, earum.

2.  The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mi.

3.  The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis.  This is particularly common in case of suo, sua; as, suopte, suapte.

* * * * *

IV.  DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

87.  These point out an object as here or there, or as previously mentioned.  They are—­

hic, this (where I am); iste, that (where you are); ille, that (something distinct from the speaker); is, that (weaker than ille); idem, the same.

Hic, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons respectively.

Hic, this. 
SINGULAR                          PLURAL. 
MASCULINE.   FEMININE.   NEUTER.     MASCULINE.   FEMININE.   NEUTER.
Nom.  hic         haec       hoc        hi          hae        haec
Gen.  hujus[23]   hujus      hujus      horum       harum      horum
Dat.  huic        huic       huic       his         his        his
Acc.  hunc        hanc       hoc        hos         has        haec
Abl.  hoc         hac        hoc        his         his        his
Iste, that, that of yours.
SINGULAR.                           PLURAL. 
MASCULINE.   FEMININE.   NEUTER.     MASCULINE.   FEMININE.   NEUTER.
Nom.  iste        ista       istud[24]  isti        istae      ista[24]
Gen.  istius      istius     istius     istorum     istarum    istorum
Dat.  isti        isti       isti       istis       istis      istis
Acc.  istum       istam      istud      istos       istas      ista[24]
Abl.  isto        ista       isto       istis       istis      istis

Ille (archaic olle), that, that one, he, is declined like iste.[25]

Is, he, this, that
SINGULAR PLURAL. 
MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  NEUTER.  MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  NEUTER.
Nom. is ea id ei, ii, eae ea
(i)
Gen. ejus ejus ejus eorum earum eorum
Dat. ei ei ei eis, iis eis, iis eis, iis
Acc. eum eam id eos eas ea
Abl. eo ea eo eis, iis eis, iis eis, iis

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Idem, the same
SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 
MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  NEUTER.  MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  NEUTER.
Nom. idem eadem idem eidem, eaedem eadem
iidem
Gen. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eorundem earundem eorundem
Dat. eidem eidem eidem eisdem eisdem eisdem
Acc. eundem eandem idem eosdem easdem eadem
Abl. eodem eadem eodem eisdem eisdem eisdem

The Nom.  Plu.  Masc. also has idem, and the Dat.  Abl.  Plu. isdem or iisdem

* * * * *

V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.

88.  The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse.  It corresponds to the English myself, etc., in ‘I myself, he himself.

SINGULAR                          PLURAL. 
MASCULINE.   FEMININE.   NEUTER.     MASCULINE.   FEMININE.   NEUTER.
Nom.  ipse        ipsa       ipsum      ipsi        ipsae      ipsa
Gen.  ipsius      ipsius     ipsius     ipsorum     ipsarum    ipsorum
Dat.  ipsi        ipsi       ipsi       ipsis       ipsis      ipsis
Acc.  ipsum       ipsam      ipsum      ipsos       ipsas      ipsa
Abl.  ipso        ipsa       ipso       ipsis       ipsis      ipsis

* * * * *

VI.  THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

89.  The Relative Pronoun is qui, who.  It is declined:—­

SINGULAR                          PLURAL. 
MASCULINE.   FEMININE.   NEUTER.     MASCULINE.   FEMININE.   NEUTER.
Nom.  qui         quae       quod       qui         quae       quae
Gen.  cujus       cujus      cujus      quorum      quarum     quorum
Dat.  cui         cui        cui        quibus[26]  quibus     quibus
Acc.  quem        quam       quod       quos        quas       quae
Abl.  quo[27]     qua[27]    quo        quibus[26]  quibus     quibus

* * * * *

VII.  INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

90.  The Interrogative Pronouns are quis, who? (substantive) and qui, what? what kind of? (adjective).

1.  Quis, who?

                    SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 
          MASC.  AND FEM.  NEUTER
  Nom. quis quid The rare Plural
  Gen. cujus cujus follows the declension
  Dat. cui cui of the Relative Pronoun.
  Acc. quem quid
  Abl. quo quo

2.  Qui, what? what kind of? is declined precisely like the Relative Pronoun; viz. qui, quae, quod, etc.

  a.  An old Ablative qui occurs, in the sense of how? why?

  b.  Qui is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions.

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  c.  Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective. 
  But in such cases quis homo = what man? whereas qui homo = what sort
  of man?

  d.  Quis and qui may be strengthened by adding -nam.  Thus:—­

Substantive:     quisnam, who, pray? quidnam, what, pray?
Adjective:       quinam, quaenam, quodnam, of what kind, pray?

* * * * *

VIII.  INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

91.  These have the general force of some one, any one.

      SUBSTANTIVES.  ADJECTIVES. 
  M. AND F. NEUT.  MASC.  FEM.  NEUT.
  quis, quid, qui, quae, qua, quod,
  any one, anything. any.
  aliquis, aliquid, aliqui, aliqua, aliquod,
       some one, any.
       something.
  quisquam, quidquam, quisquam, quidquam,
  any one, anything. any (rare)
  quispiam, quidpiam, quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam,
  any one, anything. any.
  quisque, quidque, quisque, quaeque, quodque,
         each. each.
  quivis, quaevis, quidvis, quivis, quaevis, quodvis,
  quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet quilibet, quaelibet, quodlibet,
  any one (anything) any you wish
        you wish
  quidam, quaedam, quiddam, quidam, quaedam, quoddam,
  a certain person, or a certain
         thing.

1.  In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined.  Thus:  Genitive Singular alicujus, cujuslibet, etc.

2.  Note that aliqui has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Feminine, also in the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter.  Qui has both qua and quae in these same cases.

3.  Quidam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam; Genitive Plural quorundam, quarundam; the m being assimilated to n before d.

4.  Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliqui substantively.

5.  In combination with ne, si, nisi, num, either quis or qui may stand as a Substantive.  Thus:  si quis or si qui.

6.  Ecquis, any one, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has interrogative force.  It has both substantive and adjective forms,—­substantive, ecquis, ecquid; adjective, ecqui, ecquae and ecqua, ecquod.

7.  Quisquam is not used in the Plural.

8.  There are two Indefinite Relatives,—­quicumque and quisquis, whoever.  Quicumque declines only the first part; quisquis declines both but has only quisquis, quidquid, quoquo, in common use.

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* * * * *

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

92.  The following adjectives, also, frequently have pronominal force:—­

1. alius, another; alter, the other;
    uter, which of two? (interr.); neuter, neither;
    whichever of two (rel.);
    unus, one; nullus, no one (in oblique
                                         cases)

2.  The compounds,—­

uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two; utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whoever of two; uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, either one you please; utervis, utravis, utrumvis, either one you please; alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other.

In these, uter alone is declined.  The rest of the word remains unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both parts; as,—­

  Nom. alteruter altera utra alterum utrum
  Gen. alterius utrius, etc.

* * * * *

CHAPTER II.—­Conjugation.

93.  A Verb is a word which asserts something; as, est, he is; amat, he loves.  The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation.

94.  Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person:—­

1.  Two Voices,—­Active and Passive.

2.  Three Moods,—­Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.

3.  Six Tenses,—­

Present, Perfect,
Imperfect, Pluperfect,
Future, Future

          
                        Perfect.

But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect; while the
Imperative employs only the Present and Future.

4.  Two Numbers,—­Singular and Plural.

5.  Three Persons,—­First, Second, and Third.

95.  These make up the so-called Finite Verb.  Besides this, we have the following Noun and Adjective Forms:—­

1.  Noun Forms,—­Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine.

2.  Adjective Forms,—­Participles (including the Gerundive).

96.  The Personal Endings of the Verb are,—­

Active.  Passive.
Sing. 1. -o; -m; -i (Perf.  Ind.); -r.
2. -s; -sti (Perf Ind.); -ris, -re;
-to or wanting (Impv.); -re, -tor (Impv.).
3. -t; -to (Impv.); -tur; -tor (Impv.).
Plu. 1. -mus; -mur.
2. -tis; -stis (Perf.  Ind.); -mini.
-te, -tote (Impv.);
3. -nt; -erunt (Perf Ind.); -ntur; -ntor (Impv.).
-nto (Impv.);

VERB STEMS.

97.  Conjugation consists in appending certain endings to the Stem.  We distinguish three different stems in a fully inflected verb,—­

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I. Present Stem, from which are formed—­
1.  Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative,
2.  Present and Imperfect Subjunctive,
3.  The Imperative,
4.  The Present Infinitive,
— (Active and Passive.)
5.  The Present Active Participle, the Gerund, and Gerundive. 
II.  Perfect Stem, from which are formed—­
1.  Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative,
2.  Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,
3.  Perfect Infinitive,
— (Active.)
III.  Participial Stem, from which are formed—­
1.  Perfect Participle,
2.  Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative,
3.  Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,
4.  Perfect Infinitive,
— (Passive.)

Apparently from the same stem, though really of different origin, are the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive Active and Passive.

THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

98.  There are in Latin four regular Conjugations, distinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows:—­

INFINITIVE   DISTINGUISHING
CONJUGATION.   TERMINATION.       VOWEL. 
I.      -are            a
II.      -ere            e
III.      -ere            e
IV.      -ire            i

99.  PRINCIPAL PARTS.  The Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle[28] constitute the Principal Parts of a Latin verb,—­so called because they contain the different stems, from which the full conjugation of the verb may be derived.

* * * * *

CONJUGATION OF SUM.

100.  The irregular verb sum is so important for the conjugation of all other verbs that its inflection is given at the outset.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.         PRES.  INF.         PERF.  IND.      FUT.  PARTIC.[29]
sum               esse              fui             futurus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. 
SINGULAR.                              PLURAL.
sum, I am,                         sumus, we are,
es, thou art,                      estis, you are,
est, he is;                        sunt, they are.
IMPERFECT.
eram, I was,                       eramus, we were,
eras, thou wast,                   eratis, you were,
erat, he was;                      erant, they were.
FUTURE.
ero, I shall be,                   erimus, we shall be,
eris, thou wilt be,                eritis, you will be,
erit, he will be;                  erunt, they will be.
                                PERFECT.

fui, I have been, I was, fuimus, we have been, we were,
fuisti, thou hast been, thou fuistis, you have been_, you
wast
, were_,
fuit, he has been, he was; fuerunt, fuere,

                                                                          they have been, they were.

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PLUPERFECT.
fueram, I had been,                fueramus, we had been,
fueras, thou hadst been,           fueratis, you had been,
fuerat, he had been;               fuerant, they had been.
FUTURE PERFECT.
fuero, I shall have been,          fuerimus, we shall have been,
fueris, thou wilt have been,       fueritis, you will have been,
fuerit, he will have been;         fuerint, they will have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE.[30]

PRESENT. 
SINGULAR.                              PLURAL.
sim, may I be,                     simus, let us be,
sis, mayst thou be,                sitis, be ye, may you be,
sit, let him be, may he be;      sint, let them be.
IMPERFECT.
essem,[31] I should be,            essemus, we should be,
esses,[31] thou wouldst be,        essetis, you would be,
esset,[31] he would be;            essent,[31] they would be.
PERFECT.
fuerim, I may have been,           fuerimus, we may have been,
fueris, thou mayst have been,      fueritis, you may have been,
fuerit, he may have been;          fuerint, they may have been.
                              PLUPERFECT.

fuissem, I should have been, fuissemus, we should have been.
fuisses, thou wouldst have been, fuissetis, you would have been,
fuisset, he would have been; fuissent, they would have been.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres.  es, be thou;              este, be ye,
Fut.   esto, thou shalt be,      estote, ye shall be,
esto, he shall be;        sunto, they shall be.
            INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE.

Pres. esse, to be.
Perf. fuisse, to have been.
Fut. futurus esse,[32] to be Fut._ futurus,[33] about to be.

                  about to be_.

* * * * *

FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION.

101.  Active Voice.—­Amo, I love.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.        PRES.  INF.        PERF.  IND.      PERF.  PASS.  PARTIC.
amo             amare            amavi              amatus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. 
SINGULAR.                             PLURAL.
amo, I love,                       amamus, we love,
amas, you love,                    amatis, you love,
amat, he loves;                    amant, they love.
IMPERFECT.
amabam, I was loving,[34]          amabamus, we were loving,
amabas, you were loving,           amabatis, you were loving,
amabat, he was loving;             amabant, they were loving

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FUTURE.
amabo, I shall love,               amabimus, we shall love,
amabis, you will love,             amabitis, you will love,
amabit, he will love;              amabunt, they will love.

PERFECT.
amavi, I have loved, I loved, amavimus, we have loved, we
loved
,
amavisti, you have loved, you amavistis, you have loved_, you
loved
loved_,
amavit, he has loved, he loved; amaverunt, -ere, they have
loved
, they loved.

PLUPERFECT.
amaveram, I had loved,             amaveramus, we had loved,
amaveras, you had loved,           amaveratis, you had loved,
amaverat, he had loved;            amaverant, they had loved.

FUTURE PERFECT.
amavero, I shall have loved, amaverimus, we shall have
loved
,
amaveris, you will have loved, amaveritis, you will have
loved
,
amaverit, he will have loved; amaverint, they will have
loved
.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
amem, may I love,                  amemus, let us love,
ames, may you love,                ametis, may you love,
amet, let him love;                ament, let them love.
IMPERFECT.
amarem, I should love,             amaremus, we should love,
amares, you would love,            amaretis, you would love,
amaret, he would love;             amarent, they would love.
PERFECT.
amaverim, I may have loved,        amaverimus, we may have loved,
amaveris, you may have loved,      amaveritis, you may have loved,
amaverit, he may have loved;       amaverint, they may have loved.

PLUPERFECT.
amavissem, I should have loved, amavissemus, we should have
loved
,
amavisses, you would have loved, amavissetis, you would have
loved
,
amavisset, he would have loved; amavissent, they would have
loved
.

                              IMPERATIVE.

Pres. ama, love thou; amate, love ye.
Fut. amato, thou shalt love, amatote, ye shall love,

                  amato, he shall love; amanto, they shall love.

            INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE.

Pres. amare, to love. Pres. amans,[35] loving.
Perf. amavisse, to have loved. (Gen. amantis.)
Fut. amaturus esse, to be Fut._ amaturus, about to love.

                  about to love_

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              GERUND.  SUPINE.

Gen. amandi, of loving,
Dat. amando, for loving,
Acc. amandum, loving, Acc. amatum, to love,
Abl. amando, by loving. Abl. amatu, to love, be

          
                                                                                  loved
.

102.  Passive Voice.—­Amor, I am loved.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.               PRES.  INF.               PERF.  IND.
amor                   amari                 amatus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I am loved.
SINGULAR.                            PLURAL.
amor                                    amamur
amaris                                  amamini
amatur                                  amantur
IMPERFECT
I was loved.
amabar                                  amabamur
amabaris, or -re                      amabamini
amabatur                                amabantur
FUTURE.
I shall be loved.
amabor                                  amabimur
amaberis, or -re                      amabimini
amabitur                                amabuntur
PERFECT
I have been loved, or I was loved.
amatus (-a, -um) sum[36]                amati (-ae, -a) sumus
amatus es                               amati estis
amatus est                              amati sunt
PLUPERFECT.
I had been loved.
amatus eram[36]                         amati eramus
amatus eras                             amati eratis
amatus erat                             amati erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have been loved.
amatus ero[36]                          amati erimus
amatus eris                             amati eritis
amatus erit                             amati erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
May I be loved, let him be loved.
amer                                    amemur
ameris, or -re                        amemini
ametur                                  amentur

IMPERFECT.

I should be loved, he would be loved.
amarer                                  amaremur
amareris, or -re                      amaremini
amaretur                                amarentur

PERFECT.

I may have been loved.
amatus sim[37]                          amati simus
amatus sis                              amati sitis
amatus sit                              amati sint

PLUPERFECT.

I should have been loved, he would have been loved.
amatus essem[37]                        amati essemus
amatus esses                            amati essetis
amatus esset                            amati essent

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. amare,[38] be thou amamini, be ye loved._
loved_;
Fut. amator, thou shalt be
loved
,
amator, he shall be amantor, they shall be loved_.
loved_;

Page 48

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE.
Pres. amari, to be loved.
Perf. amatus esse, to have been Perfect._ amatus, loved,
loved_. having been loved.
Fut. amatum iri, to be about Gerundive._ amandus, to be
to be loved
. loved_, deserving to
be loved.

* * * * *

SECOND (OR E-) CONJUGATION.

103.  Active voice.—­Moneo, I advise.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.        PRES.  INF.        PERF.  IND.      PERF.  PASS.  PARTIC.
moneo           monere            monui             monitus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I advise.

SINGULAR.                             PLURAL.
moneo                                   monemus
mones                                   monetis
monet                                   monent
IMPERFECT.
I was advising, or I advised.
monebam                                 monebamus
monebas                                 monebatis
monebat                                 monebant
FUTURE.
I shall advise.
monebo                                  monebimus
monebis                                 monebitis
monebit                                 monebunt
PERFECT.
I have advised, or I advised.
monui                                   monuimus
monuisti                                monuistis
monuit                                  monuerunt, or -ere
PLUPERFECT.
I had advised.
monueram                                monueramus
monueras                                monueratis
monuerat                                monuerant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have advised.
monuero                                 monuerimus
monueris                                monueritis
monuerit                                monuerint

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.

May I advise, let him advise.
moneam                                  moneamus
moneas                                  moneatis
moneat                                  moneant
IMPERFECT.
I should advise, he would advise.
monerem                                 moneremus
moneres                                 moneretis
moneret                                 monerent
PERFECT.
I may have advised.
monuerim                                monuerimus
monueris                                monueritis
monuerit                                monuerint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have advised, he would have advised.
monuissem                               monuissemus
monuisses                               monuissetis
monuisset                               monuissent

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. mone, advise thou; monete, advise ye.
Fut. moneto, thou shall monetote, ye shall advise_,
advise_,
moneto, he shall advise; monento, they shall advise.

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INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE.
Pres. monere, to advise. Pres. monens, advising.
Perf. monuisse, to have (Gen. monentis.)
advised
.
Fut. moniturus esse, to be Fut._ moniturus, about to
about to advise
. advise_.

              GERUND.  SUPINE.

Gen. monendi, of advising,
Dat. monendo, for advising,
Acc. monendum, advising, Acc. monitum, to advise,
Abl. monendo, by advising. Abl. monitu, to advise,

          
                                                                                        be advised.

104.  Passive voice.—­Moneor, I am advised.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.               PRES.  INF.               PERF.  IND.
moneor                  moneri               monitus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I am advised.

SINGULAR.                             PLURAL.
moneor                                  monemur
moneris                                 monemini
monetur                                 monentur
IMPERFECT.
I was advised.
monebar                                 monebamur
monebaris, or -re                     monebamini
monebatur                               monebantur
FUTURE.
I shall be advised.
monebor                                 monebimur
moneberis, or -re                     monebimini
monebitur                               monebuntur
PERFECT.
I have been advised, I was advised.
monitus sum                             moniti sumus
monitus es                              moniti estis
monitus est                             moniti sunt
PLUPERFECT.
I had been advised.
monitus eram                            moniti eramus
monitus eras                            moniti eratis
monitus erat                            moniti erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have been advised.
monitus ero                             moniti erimus
monitus eris                            moniti eritis
monitus erit                            moniti erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
May I be advised, let him be advised.
monear                                  moneamur
monearis, or -re                      moneamini
moneatur                                moneantur
IMPERFECT.
I should be advised, he would be advised.
monerer                                 moneremur
monereris, or -re                     moneremini
moneretur                               monerentur
PERFECT.
I may have been advised.

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monitus sim moniti simus monitus sis moniti sitis monitus sit moniti sint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have been advised, he would have been advised.
monitus essem                           moniti essemus
monitus esses                           moniti essetis
monitus esset                           moniti essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.  monere, be thou advised;  monemini, be ye advised.
Fut.   monetor, thou shalt be
advised,
monetor, he shall be       monentor, they shall be
advised_.                   advised_.

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE.
Pres. moneri, to be advised. Perfect. monitus, advised,
having been advised.
Perf. monitus esse, to have
been advised

Fut. monitum iri, to be about Gerundive._ monendus, to be
to be advised.
advised_, deserving to
be advised.

* * * * *

THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION.

105.  Active Voice.—­Rego, I rule.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.        PRES.  INF.        PERF.  IND.      PERF.  PASS.  PARTIC.
rego            regere            rexi               rectus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I rule

SINGULAR.                             PLURAL.
rego                                    regimus
regis                                   regitis
regit                                   regunt
IMPERFECT.
I was ruling, or I ruled.
regebam                                 regebamus
regebas                                 regebatis
regebat                                 regebant
FUTURE.
I shall rule.
regam                                   regemus
reges                                   regetis
reget                                   regent
PERFECT.
I have ruled, or I ruled
rexi                                    reximus
rexisti                                 rexistis
rexit                                   rexerunt, or -ere
PLUPERFECT.
I had ruled.
rexeram                                 rexeramus
rexeras                                 rexeratis
rexerat                                 rexerant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have ruled.
rexero                                  rexerimus
rexeris                                 rexeritis
rexerit                                 rexerint

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
May I rule, let him rule.
regam                                   regamus
regas                                   regatis
regat                                   regant
IMPERFECT.
I should rule, he would rule.
regerem                                 regeremus

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regeres regeretis regeret regerent
PERFECT.
I may have ruled.
rexerim                                 rexerimus
rexeris                                 rexeritis
rexerit                                 rexerint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have ruled, he would have ruled.
rexissem                                rexissemus
rexisses                                rexissetis
rexisset                                rexissent
IMPERATIVE.
rege, rule thou;                   regite, rule ye.
regito, thou shall rule,           regitote, ye shall rule,
regito, he shall rule;             regunto, they shall rule.
INFINITIVE.                          PARTICIPLE.
regere, to rule.                   Pres.     regens, ruling.
rexisse, to have ruled.                        (Gen. regentis.)
recturus esse, to be about to       Fut._      recturus, about to
rule                                            rule_.
              GERUND.  SUPINE.

regendi, of ruling,
regendo, for ruling,
regendum, ruling, Acc. rectum, to rule,
regendo, by ruling. Abl. rectu, to rule, be

          
                                                                                        ruled
.

106.  Passive Voice.—­Regor, I am ruled.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.               PRES.  INF.               PERF.  IND.
regor                    regi                 rectus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I am ruled.

SINGULAR.                             PLURAL.
regor                                   regimur
regeris                                 regimini
regitur                                 reguntur
IMPERFECT.
I was ruled.
regebar                                 regebamur
regebaris, or -re                     regebamini
regebatur                               regebantur
FUTURE.
I shall be ruled.
regar                                   regemur
regeris, or -re                       regemini
regetur                                 regentur
PERFECT.
I have been ruled, or I was ruled.
rectus sum                              recti sumus
rectus es                               recti estis
rectus est                              recti sunt
PLUPERFECT.
I had been ruled.
rectus eram                             recti eramus
rectus eras                             recti eratis
rectus erat                             recti erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have been ruled
rectus ero                              recti erimus
rectus eris                             recti eritis
rectus erit                             recti erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE.

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PRESENT.
May I be ruled, let him be ruled.
regar                                   regamur
regaris, or -re                       regamini
regatur                                 regantur
IMPERFECT.
I should be ruled, he would be ruled.
regerer                                 regeremur
regereris, or -re                     regeremini
regeretur                               regerentur
PERFECT.
I may have been ruled.
rectus sim                              recti simus
rectus sis                              recti sitis
rectus sit                              recti sint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have been ruled, he would have been ruled.
rectus essem                            recti essemus
rectus esses                            recti essetis
rectus esset                            recti essent

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. regere, be thou ruled; regimini, be ye ruled.
Fut. regitor, thou shalt be
ruled
,
regitor, he shall be reguntor, they shall be ruled_.
ruled_;

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE.
Pres. regi, to be ruled. Perfect. rectus, ruled,
having been ruled.
Perf. rectus esse, to have been Gerundive._ regendus, to be
ruled
. ruled_, deserving to
be ruled
.
Fut. rectum iri, to be about
to be ruled
.

* * * * *

FOURTH (OR I-) CONJUGATION.

107.  Active voice.—­Audio, I hear.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.        PRES.  INF.        PERF.  IND.      PERF.  PASS.  PARTIC.
audio           audire           audivi             auditus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I hear.

SINGULAR.                             PLURAL.
audio                       audimus
audis                       auditis
audit                       audiunt
IMPERFECT.
I was hearing, or I heard.
audiebam                    audiebamus
audiebas                    audiebatis
audiebat                    audiebant
FUTURE.
I shall hear.
audiam                                  audiemus
audies                                  audietis
audiet                                  audient
PERFECT.
I have heard, or I heard.
audivi                                  audivimus
audivisti                               audivistis
audivit                                 audiverunt, or -ere
PLUPERFECT.
I had heard.
audiveram                               audiveramus
audiveras                               audiveratis
audiverat                               audiverant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have heard.
audivero                                audiverimus
audiveris                               audiveritis
audiverit                               audiverint

SUBJUNCTIVE.

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PRESENT.
May I hear, let him hear.
audiam                                  audiamus
audias                                  audiatis
audiat                                  audiant
IMPERFECT.
I should hear, he would hear.
audirem                                 audiremus
audires                                 audiretis
audiret                                 audirent
PERFECT.
I may have heard.
audiverim                               audiverimus
audiveris                               audiveritis
audiverit                               audiverint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have heard, he would have heard.
audivissem                              audivissemus
audivisses                              audivissetis
audivisset                              audivissent
                              IMPERATIVE.

Pres. audi, hear thou; audite, hear ye.
Fut. audito, thou shalt hear, auditote, ye shall hear,

                  audito, he shall hear; audiunto, they shall hear.

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE.
Pres. audire, to hear. Pres. audiens, hearing.
Perf. audivisse, to have (Gen. audientis.)
heard
.
Fut. auditurus esse, to be Fut._ auditurus, about to
about to hear
. hear_.

              GERUND.  SUPINE

Gen. audiendi, of hearing,
Dat. audiendo, for hearing,
Acc. audiendum, hearing, Acc. auditum, to hear,
Abl. audiendo, by hearing. Abl. auditu, to hear, be

          
                                                                                        heard
.

108.  Passive Voice.—­Audior, I am heard.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.               PRES.  INF.               PERF.  IND.
audior                  audiri               auditus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
I am heard.

SINGULAR.                             PLURAL.
audior                                  audimur
audiris                                 audimini
auditur                                 audiuntur
IMPERFECT.
I was heard.
audiebar                                audiebamur
audiebaris, or -re                    audiebamini
audiebatur                              audiebantur
FUTURE.
I shall be heard.
audiar                                  audiemur
audieris, or -re                      audiemini
audietur                                audientur
PERFECT.
I have been heard, or I was heard.

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auditus sum auditi sumus auditus es auditi estis auditus est auditi sunt
PLUPERFECT.
I had been heard.
auditus eram                            auditi eramus
auditus eras                            auditi eratis
auditus erat                            auditi erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have been heard.
auditus ero                             auditi erimus
auditus eris                            auditi eritis
auditus erit                            auditi erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.

May I be heard, let him be heard.
audiar                                  audiamur
audiaris, or -re                      audiamini
audiatur                                audiantur
IMPERFECT.
I should be heard, he would be heard.
audirer                                 audiremur
audireris, or -re                     audiremini
audiretur                               audirentur
PERFECT.
I may have been heard.
auditus sim                             auditi simus
auditus sis                             auditi sitis
auditus sit                             auditi sint

PLUPERFECT.

I should have been heard, he would have been heard.
auditus essem                           auditi essemus
auditus esses                           auditi essetis
auditus esset                           auditi essent

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. audire, be thou heard; audimini, be ye heard.
Fut. auditor, thou shalt be
heard
,
auditor, he shall be audiuntor, they shall be heard_.
heard_;

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE.
Pres. audiri, to be heard. Perfect. auditus, heard,
having been heard
Perf. auditus esse, to have Gerundive._ audiendus, to be
been heard
. heard_, deserving to
be heard

Fut. auditum iri, to be about
to be heard
.

* * * * *

VERBS IN -IO OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION.

109. 1.  Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation take the endings of the Fourth Conjugation wherever the latter endings have two successive vowels.  This occurs only in the Present System.

2.  Here belong—­

  a) capio, to take; cupio, to desire; facio, to make; fodio, to
  dig
; fugio, to flee; jacio, to throw; pario, to bear; quatio, to
  shake
; rapio, to seize; sapio, to taste.

b) Compounds of lacio and specio (both ante-classical); as, allicio,
entice; conspicio, behold.

c) The deponents gradior, to go; morior, to die, patior, to suffer.

Page 55

110.  Active voice.—­Capio, I take.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.        PRES.  INF.        PERF.  IND.      PERF.  PASS.  PARTIC.
capio,           capere,           cepi,             captus.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

SINGULAR.                             PLURAL.
capio, capis, capit;                 capimus, capitis, capiunt.

IMPERFECT.
capiebam, -iebas, -iebat; capiebamus, -iebatis, -iebant.

FUTURE.
capiam, -ies, -iet; capiemus, -ietis, -ient.

PERFECT.
cepi, -isti, -it; cepimus, -istis, -erunt or -ere.

PLUPERFECT.
ceperam, -eras, -erat; ceperamus, -eratis, -erant.

FUTURE PERFECT.
cepero, -eris, -erit; ceperimus, -eritis, -erint.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
capiam, -ias, -iat; capiamus, -iatis, -iant.

IMPERFECT.
caperem, -eres, -eret; caperemus, -eretis, -erent.

PERFECT.
ceperim, -eris, -erit; ceperimus, -eritis, -erint.

PLUPERFECT.
cepissem, -isses, -isset; cepissemus, -issetis, -issent.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres.  cape;                                   capite.
Fut.   capito,                                 capitote,
capito;                                 capiunto.
            INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE.

Pres. capere Pres. capiens.
Perf. cepisse.
Fut. capturus esse. Fut. capturus.

              GERUND.  SUPINE.

Gen. capiendi,
Dat. capiendo,
Acc. capiendum, Acc. captum,
Abl. capiendo. Abl. captu.

111.  Passive Voice.—­Capior, I am taken.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
PRES.  IND.               PRES.  INF.               PERF.  IND.
capior,                  capi,                captus sum.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

SINGULAR.                             PLURAL.
capior, caperis, capitur;            capimur, capimini, capiuntur.

IMPERFECT.
capiebar, -iebaris, -iebatur; capiebamur, -iebamini, -iebantur.

FUTURE.
capiar, -ieris, -ietur; capiemur, -iemini, -ientur.

PERFECT.
captus sum, es, est; capti sumus, estis, sunt.

PLUPERFECT.
captus eram, eras, erat; capti eramus, eratis, erant.

FUTURE PERFECT.
captus ero, eris, erit; capti erimus, eritis, erunt.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.
capiar, -iaris, -iatur; capiamur, -iamini, -iantur.

IMPERFECT.
caperer, -ereris, -eretur; caperemur, -eremini, -erentur.

Page 56

PERFECT.
captus sim, sis, sit; capti simus, sitis, sint.

PLUPERFECT.
captus essem, esses, esset; capti essemus, essetis, essent.

                              IMPERATIVE.

Pres. capere; capimini.
Fut. capitor,

                  capitor; capiuntor.

            INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE.

Pres. capi.
Perf. captus esse. Perfect. captus.
Fut. captum iri. Gerundive. capiendus.

* * * * *

DEPONENT VERBS.

112.  Deponent Verbs have in the main Passive forms with Active or Neuter meaning.  But—­

a.  They have the following Active forms:  Future Infinitive, Present and
Future Participles, Gerund, and Supine.

b.  They have the following Passive meanings:  always in the Gerundive, and
sometimes in the Perfect Passive Participle; as—­

sequendus, to be followed; adeptus, attained.

113.  Paradigms of Deponent Verbs are—­

I. Conj. miror, mirari, miratus sum, admire
II.  Conj. vereor, vereri, veritus sum, fear
III.  Conj. sequor, sequi, secutus sum, follow
IV.  Conj. largior, largiri, largitus sum, give
III. (in -ior) patior, pati, passus sum, suffer.

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
I. II.  III.  IV.  III (in
-ior)
Pres. miror vereor sequor largior patior
miraris vereris sequeris largiris pateris
miratur veretur sequitur largitur patitur
miramur veremur sequimur largimur patimur
miramini veremini sequimini largimini patimini
mirantur verentur sequuntur largiuntur patiuntur
Impf. mirabar verebar sequebar largiebar patiebar
Fut. mirabor verebor sequar largiar patiar
Perf. miratus sum veritus sum secutus sum largitus sum passus sum
Plup. miratus veritus secutus largitus passus
eram eram eram eram eram
F.P. miratus ero veritus ero secutus ero largitus ero passus ero

                              SUBJUNCTIVE.

Pres. mirer verear sequar largiar patiar
Impf. mirarer vererer sequerer largirer paterer
Perf. miratus sim veritus sim secutus sim largitus sim passus sim
Plup. miratus veritus sectutus largitus passus

                  essem essem essem essem essem

Page 57

IMPERATIVE.
Pres.  mirare,      verere,      sequere,     largire,      patere,
etc.         etc.         etc.         etc.          etc.
Fut.   mirator,     veretor,     sequitor,    largitor,     patitor,
etc.         etc.         etc.         etc.          etc.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.  mirari       vereri       sequi        largiri       pati
Perf.  miratus      veritus      secutus      largitus      passus
esse         esse         esse         esse          esse
Fut.   miraturus    veriturus    secuturus    largiturus    passurus
esse         esse         esse         esse          esse
PARTICIPLES.
Pres.  mirans       verens       sequens      largiens      patiens
Fut.   miraturus    veriturus    secuturus    largiturus    passurus
Perf.  miratus      veritus      secutus      largitus      passus
Ger.   mirandus     verendus     sequendus    largiendus    patiendus
GERUND.
mirandi      verendi      sequendi     largiendi     patiendi
mirando,     verendo,     sequendo,    largiendo,    patiendo,
etc.         etc.         etc.         etc.          etc.
SUPINE.
miratum,     veritum,     secutum,     largitum,     passum,
-tu          -tu          -tu          -tu           -su

* * * * *

SEMI-DEPONENTS.

114. 1.  Semi-Deponents are verbs which have the Present System in the Active Voice, but the Perfect System in the Passive without change of meaning.  Here belong—­

audeo, audere, ausus sum, to dare. gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum, to rejoice. soleo, solere, solitus sum, to be wont. fido, fidere, fisus sum, to trust.

2.  The following verbs have a Perfect Passive Participle with Active meaning:—­

adolesco, grow up; adultus, having grown up, cenare, dine; cenatus, having dined. placere, please; placitus, having pleased, agreeable. prandere, lunch; pransus, having lunched. potare, drink; potus, having drunk. jurare, swear; juratus, having sworn.

  a.  Juratus is used in a passive sense also.

3.  Revertor and devertor both regularly form their Perfect in the Active Voice; viz.—­

  revertor, reverti (Inf.), reverti (Perf.), to return.
  devertor, deverti (Inf.), deverti (Perf.), to turn aside.

* * * * *

PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.

115.  There are two Periphrastic Conjugations,—­the Active and the Passive.  The Active is formed by combining the Future Active Participle with the auxiliary sum, the Passive by combining the Gerundive with the same auxiliary.

Page 58

Active Periphrastic Conjugation.

                            INDICATIVE MOOD.

Pres. amaturus (-a, -um) sum, I am about to love.
Inf. amaturus eram, I was about to love.
Fut. amaturus ero, I shall be about to love.
Perf. amaturus fui, I have been (was) about to love.
Plup. amaturus fueram, I had been about to love.
Fut.  P. amaturus fuero, I shall have been about to love.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.     amaturus sim, may I be about to love.
Imp.      amaturus essem, I should be about to love.
Perf.     amaturus fuerim, I may have been about to love.
Plup.     amaturus fuissem, I should have been about to love.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.     amaturus esse, to be about to love.
Perf.     amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love.

Passive Periphrastic Conjugation.

                              INDICATIVE.

Pres. amandus (-a, -um) sum, I am to be loved, must be loved.
Imp. amandus eram, I was to be loved.
Fut. amandus ero, I shall deserve to be loved.
Perf. amandus fui, I was to be loved.
Plup. amandus fueram, I had deserved to be loved.
Fut.  P. amandus fuero, I shall have deserved to be loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.     amandus sim, may I deserve to be loved.
Imp.      amandus essem, I should deserve to be loved.
Perf.     amandus fuerim, I may have deserved to be loved.
Plup.     amendus fuissem, I should have deserved to be loved.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.     amandus esse, to deserve to be loved.
Perf.     amantus fuisse, to have deserved to be loved.

* * * * *

PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION.

116. 1.  Perfects in -avi, -evi, and -ivi, with the forms derived from them, often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning with r or s.  So also novi (from nosco) and the compounds of movi (from moveo).  Thus:—­

amavisti amasti delevisti delesti amavisse amasse delevisse delesse amaverunt amarunt deleverunt delerunt amaverim amarim deleverim delerim amaveram amaram deleveram deleram amavero amaro delevero delero novisti nosti noverim norim novisse nosse noveram noram audivisti audisti audivisse audisse

2.  In the Gerund and Gerundive of the Third and Fourth Conjugations, the endings -undus, -undi, often occur instead of -endus and -endi, as faciundus, faciundi.

Page 59

3.  Dico, duco, facio, form the Imperatives, dic, duc, fac.  But compounds of facio form the Imperative in -fice, as confice.  Compounds of dico, duco, accent the ultima; as, edu’c, edi’c.

4.  Archaic and Poetic forms:—­

  a.  The ending -ier in the Present Infinitive Passive; as, amarier,
  monerier, dicier, for amari, moneri, dici.

  b.  The ending -ibam for -iebam in Imperfects of the Fourth Conjugation,
  and -ibo for -iam in Futures; as, scibam, scibo, for sciebam, sciam.

  c.  Instead of the fuller forms, in such words as dixisti, scripsistis,
  surrexisse, we sometimes find dixti, scripstis, surrexe, etc.

  d.  The endings -im, -is, etc. (for -am, -as, etc.) occur in a few
  Subjunctive forms; as, edim (eat), duint, perduint.

5.  In the Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitive, the auxiliary esse is often omitted; as, acturum for acturum esse; ejectus for ejectus esse.

* * * * *

FORMATION OF THE VERB STEMS.

Formation of the Present Stem.

117.  Many verbs employ the simple Verb Stem for the Present Stem;[39] as, dicere, amare, monere, audire.  Others modify the Verb Stem to form the Present, as follows:—­

1.  By appending the vowels, a, e, i; as,—­

Present Stem   Verb Stem
juvare,      juva-         juv-.
augere,      auge-         aug-.
vincire,     vinci-        vinc-.

2.  By adding i, as capio, Present Stem capi- (Verb Stem cap-).

3.  By the insertion of n (m before labial-mutes) before the final consonant of the Verb Stem; as, fundo (Stem fud-), rumpo (Stem rup-).

4.  By appending -n to the Verb Stem; as,—­

cern-o pell-o (for pel-no).

5.  By appending t to the Verb Stem; as,—­

flect-o.

6.  By appending sc to the Verb Stem; as,—­

cresc-o. scisc-o.

7.  By Reduplication, that is, by prefixing the initial consonant of the Verb Stem with i; as,—­

gi-gn-o (root gen-), si-st-o (root sta-).

Formation of the Perfect Stem.

118.  The Perfect Stem is formed from the Verb Stem—­

1.  By adding v (in case of Vowel Stems); as,—­

  amav-i, delev-i, audiv-i.

2.  By adding u (in case of some Consonant Stems); as,—­

  strepu-i, genu-i, alu-i.

3.  By adding s (in case of most Consonant Stems); as,—­

carp-o, Perfect carps-i. scrib-o, " scrips-i (for scrib-si). rid-eo, " ris-i (for rid-si). sent-io, " sens-i (for sent-si). dic-o, " dix-i (i.e. dic-si).

  a.  Note that before the ending -si a Dental Mute (t, d) is lost; a
  Guttural Mute (c, g) unites with s to form x; while the Labial b is
  changed to p.

Page 60

4.  Without addition.  Of this formation there are three types:—­

  a) The Verb Stem is reduplicated by prefixing the initial consonant with
  the following vowel or e; as,—­

curro,     Perfect  cu-curri.
posco,        "     po-posci.
pello,        "     pe-puli.

NOTE 1.—­Compounds, with the exception of do, sto, sisto, disco, posco, omit the reduplication.  Thus:  com-puli, but re-poposci.

NOTE 2.—­Verbs beginning with sp or st retain both consonants in the reduplication, but drop s from the stem; as, spondeo, spo-pondi; sto, steti.

  b) The short vowel of the Verb Stem is lengthened; as, lego, legi; ago,
  egi.  Note that a by this process becomes e.

  c) The vowel of the Verb Stem is unchanged; as, verto, verti; minuo,
  minui.

Formation of the Participial Stem.

119.  The Perfect Passive Participle, from which the Participial Stem is derived by dropping -us, is formed:—­

1.  By adding -tus (sometimes to the Present Stem, sometimes to the Verb Stem); as,—­

ama-re, Participle ama-tus. dele-re, " dele-tus, audi-re, " audi-tus, leg-ere, " lec-tus, scrib-ere, " scrip-tus, senti-re, " sen-sus (for sent-tus). caed-ere, " cae-sus (for caed-tus).

  a.  Note that g, before t, becomes c (see Sec. 8, 5); b becomes p; while dt
  or tt becomes ss, which is then often simplified to s (Sec. 8, 2).

2.  After the analogy of Participles like sensus and caesus, where -sus arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tus is added to other Verb Stems; as,—­

lab-i,       Participle  lap-sus.
fig-ere,         "       fi-xus.

  a.  The same consonant changes occur in appending this ending -sus to the
  stem as in the case of the Perfect ending -si (see Sec. 118, 3, a).

3.  A few Verbs form the Participle in -itus; as,—­

doma-re,         dom-itus.
mone-re,         mon-itus.

4.  The Future Active Participle is usually identical in its stem with the Perfect Passive Participle; as, ama-tus, amaturus; moni-tus, moniturus.  But—­

juva-re, Perf.  Partic. jutus, has Fut.  Act.  Partic. juvaturus.[40] lava-re, " " lautus, " " " lavaturus. par-ere, " " partus, " " " pariturus. ru-ere, " " rutus, " " " ruiturus. seca-re, " " sectus, " " " secaturus. fru-i, " " fructus, " " " fruiturus. mor-i, " " mortuus, " " " moriturus. ori-ri, " " ortus, " " " oriturus.

* * * * *

LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS, WITH PRINCIPAL PARTS.

First (A-) Conjugation.

Page 61

120.  I. PERFECT IN -VI.

amo amare amavi amatus love

All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model.

poto potare potavi potus (Sec. 114, drink
2)

II.  PERFECT IN -UI.

crepo crepare crepui crepiturus rattle
cubo cubare cubui cubiturus lie down
domo domare domui domitus tame
frico fricare fricui frictus and rub
fricatus
mico micare micui ——­ glitter
dimico dimicare dimicavi dimicatum fight
(est)[41]
ex-plico explicare explicavi explicatus unfold
(-ui) (-itus)
im-plico implicare implicavi implicatus entwine
(-ui) (-itus)
seco secare secui sectus cut
sono sonare sonui sonaturus sound
tono tonare tonui ——­ thunder
veto vetare vetui vetitus forbid

III.  PERFECT IN -I WITH LENGTHENING OF THE STEM VOWEL.

juvo        juvare      juvi        jutus            help
lavo        lavare      lavi        lautus           wash

IV.  PERFECT REDUPLICATED.

  sto stare steti staturus

V. DEPONENTS.

  These are all regular, and follow miror, mirari, miratus sum.

Second (E-) Conjugation.

121.  I. PERFECT IN -VI.

deleo delere delevi deletus destroy fleo flere flevi fletus weep, lament com-pleo[42] complere complevi completus fill up aboleo abolere abolevi abolitus destroy cieo[43] ciere civi citus set in motion

II.  PERFECT IN -UI.

a.  Type -eo, -ere, -ui, -itus.

arceo       arcere      arcui                        keep off
coerceo   coercere    coercui     coercitus        hold in check
exerceo   exercere    exercui     exercitus        practise
caleo       calere      calui       caliturus        be warm
careo       carere      carui       cariturus        be without
doleo       dolere      dolui       doliturus        grieve
habeo       habere      habui       habitus          have
debeo     debere      debui       debitus          owe
praebeo   praebere    praebui     praebitus        offer
jaceo       jacere      jacui       jaciturus        lie
mereo       merere      merui       meritus          earn, deserve
moneo       monere      monui       monitus          advise

Page 62

noceo nocere nocui nocitum (est) injure pareo parere parui pariturus obey placeo placere placui placiturus please taceo tacere tacui taciturus be silent terreo terrere terrui territus frighten valeo valere valui valiturus be strong
NOTE 1.—­The following lack the Participial Stem:—­
egeo        egere       egui        ——­             want
emineo      eminere     eminui      ——­             stand forth
floreo      florere     florui      ——­             bloom
horreo      horrere     horrui      ——­             bristle
lateo       latere      latui       ——­             lurk
niteo       nitere      nitui       ——­             gleam
oleo        olere       olui        ——­             smell
palleo      pallere     pallui      ——­             be pale
pateo       patere      patui       ——­             lie open
rubeo       rubere      rubui       ——­             be red
sileo       silere      silui       ——­             be silent
splendeo    splendere   splendui    ——­             gleam
studeo      studere     studui      ——­             study
stupeo      stupere     stupui      ——­             be amazed
timeo       timere      timui       ——­             fear
torpeo      torpere     torpui      ——­             be dull
vigeo       vigere      vigui       ——­             flourish
vireo       virere      virui       ——­             be green
and others.
      NOTE 2.—­The following are used only in the Present System:—­

aveo avere ——­ ——­ wish
frigeo frigere ——­ ——­ be cold
immineo imminere ——­ ——­ overhang
maereo maerere ——­ ——­ mourn
polleo pollere ——­ ——­ be strong

                                        and others.

b.  Type -eo, -ere, -ui, -tus (-sus).

censeo censere censui census estimate
doceo docere docui doctus teach
misceo miscere miscui mixtus mix
teneo tenere tenui ——­ hold
So contineo and sustineo; but—­
retineo retinere retinui retentus retain
obtineo obtinere obtinui obtentus maintain
torreo torrere torrui tostus bake

III.  PERFECT IN -SI.

Page 63

augeo augere auxi auctus increase torqueo torquere torsi tortus twist indulgeo indulgere indulsi ——­ indulge luceo lucere luxi ——­ be light lugeo lugere luxi ——­ mourn jubeo jubere jussi jussus order per-mulceo permulcere permulsi permulsus soothe rideo ridere risi risum (est) laugh suadeo suadere suasi suasum (est) advise abs-tergeo abstergere abstersi abstersus wipe off ardeo ardere arsi arsurus burn haereo haerere haesi haesurus stick maneo manere mansi mansurus stay algeo algere alsi ——­ be cold fulgeo fulgere fulsi ——­ gleam urgeo urgere ursi ——­ press

IV.  PERFECT IN -I WITH REDUPLICATION.

mordeo mordere momordi morsus bite spondeo spondere spopondi sponsus promise tondeo tondere totondi tonsus shear pendeo pendere pependi ——­ hang

V. PERFECT IN -I WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

caveo cavere cavi cauturus take care faveo favere favi fauturus favor foveo fovere fovi fotus cherish moveo movere movi motus move paveo pavere pavi ——­ fear sedeo sedere sedi sessurus sit video videre vidi visus see voveo vovere vovi votus vow

VI.  PERFECT IN -I WITHOUT EITHER REDUPLICATION OR LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

ferveo fervere (fervi, ——­ boil
ferbui)
prandeo prandere prandi pransus (Sec. 114,_lunch_
2)
strideo stridere stridi ——­ creak

VII.  DEPONENTS.

liceor      liceri      licitus sum      bid
polliceor  polliceri  pollicitus sum   promise
mereor      mereri      meritus sum      earn
misereor    misereri    miseritus sum    pity
vereor      vereri      veritus sum      fear
fateor      fateri      fassus sum       confess
confiteor  confiteri  confessus sum    confess
reor        reri        ratus sum        think
medeor      mederi      ——­             heal
tueor       tueri       ——­             protect

Third (Consonant) Conjugation.

122.  I. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN A CONSONANT.

Page 64

1.  Perfect in -si.

a.  Type -o, -ere, -si, -tus.

carpo carpere carpsi carptus pluck
sculpo sculpere sculpsi sculptus chisel
repo repere repsi ——­ creep
serpo serpere serpsi ——­ crawl
scribo scribere scripsi scriptus write
nubo nubere nupsi nupta (woman marry
only)
rego regere rexi rectus govern
tego tegere texi tectus cover
af-fligo affligere afflixi afflictus shatter
dico dicere dixi dictus say
duco ducere duxi ductus lead
coquo coquere coxi coctus cook
traho trahere traxi tractus draw
veho vehere vexi vectus carry
cingo cingere cinxi cinctus gird
tingo tingere tinxi tinctus dip
jungo jungere junxi junctus join
fingo fingere finxi fictus would
pingo pingere pinxi pictus paint
stringo stringere strinxi strictus bind
-stinguo[44] -stinguere -stinxi -stinctus blot out
unguo unguere unxi unctus anoint
vivo vivere vixi victum (est) live
gero gerere gessi gestus carry
uro urere ussi ustus burn
temno temnere con-tempsi con-temptus despise

b.  Type -o, -ere, -si, -sus.

figo figere fixi fixus fasten
mergo mergere mersi mersus sink
spargo spargere sparsi sparsus scatter
flecto flectere flexi flexus bend
necto nectere nexui nexus twine
(nexi)
mitto mittere misi missus send
rado radere rasi rasus shave
rodo rodere rosi rosus gnaw
vado vadere -vasi[45] -vasum march, walk
(est)[45]
ludo ludere lusi lusum (est) play
trudo trudere trusi trusus push
laedo laedere laesi laesus injure, hurt
claudo claudere clausi clausus close
plaudo plaudere plausi plausum (est) clap
explodo explodere explosi explosus hoot off
cedo cedere cessi cessum (est) withdraw
divido dividere divisi divisus divide
premo premere pressi pressus press

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2.  Perfect in -i with Reduplication.

ab-do abdere abdidi abditus conceal
red-do red-dere reddidi redditus return
So addo, condo, dedo, perdo, prodo,
trado, etc.
con-sisto consistere constiti ——­ take one’s stand
resisto resistere restiti ——­ resist
circumsisto circumsistere circumsteti ——­ surround
cado cadere cecidi casurus fall
caedo caedere cecidi caesus kill
pendo pendere pependi pensus weigh, pay
tendo tendere tetendi tentus stretch
tundo tundere tutudi tusus, tunsus beat
fallo fallere fefelli (falsus, as deceive
Adj.)
pello pellere pepuli pulsus drive out
curro currere cucurri cursum (est) run
parco parcere peperci parsurus spare
cano canere cecini ——­ sing
tango tangere tetigi tactus touch
pungo pungere pupugi punctus prick

NOTE.—­In the following verbs the perfects were originally reduplicated, but have lost the reduplicating syllable:—­ per-cello percellere perculi perculsus strike down findo findere fidi fissus split scindo scindere scidi scissus tear apart tollo tollere sus-tuli sublatus remove

3.  Perfect in -i with Lengthening of Stem Vowel.

ago         agere       egi         actus            drive, do
perago    peragere    peregi      peractus         finish
subigo    subigere    subegi      subactus         subdue
cogo      cogere      coegi       coactus          force, gather
frango      frangere    fregi       fractus          break
perfringo  perfringere  perfregi  perfractus       break down
lego        legere      legi        lectus           gather, read
perlego   perlegere   perlegi     perlectus        read through
colligo   colligere   collegi     collectus        collect
deligo    deligere    delegi      delectus         choose
diligo    diligere    dilexi      dilectus         love
intellego  intellegere  intellexi  intellectus     understand
neglego   neglegere   neglexi     neglectus        neglect
emo         emere       emi         emptus           buy
coemo     coemere     coemi       coemptus         buy up
redimo    redimere    redemi      redemptus        buy back
dirimo    dirimere    diremi      diremptus        destroy

Page 66

demo demere dempsi demptus take away sumo sumere sumpsi sumptus take promo promere prompsi (promptus, as take out Adj.) vinco vincere vici victus conquer re-linquo relinquere reliqui relictus leave rumpo rumpere rupi ruptus break edo esse (Sec. edi esus eat 128) fundo fundere fudi fusus four

4.  Perfect in -i without either Reduplication or Lengthening of Stem Vowel.

excudo excudere excudi excusus hammer consido considere consedi ——­ take one’s seat possido possidere possedi possessus take possession accendo accendere accendi accensus kindle a-scendo ascendere ascendi ascensum (est) climb de-fendo defendere defendi defensus defend pre-hendo prehendere prehendi prehensus seize ico icere ici ictus strike vello vellere velli vulsus pluck verto vertere verti versus turn pando pandere pandi passus spread solvo solvere solvi solutus loose viso visere visi visus visit volvo volvere volvi volutus roll verro verrere verri versus sweep

5.  Perfect in -ui.

in-cumbo incumbere incubui incubiturus lean on gigno gignere genui genitus bring forth molo molere molui molitus grind vomo vomere vomui vomitus vomit fremo fremere fremui ——­ snort gemo gemere gemui ——­ sigh meto metere messui messus reap tremo tremere tremui ——­ tremble strepo strepere strepui ——­ rattle alo alete alui altus (alitus) nourish colo colere colui cultus cultivate
  incolo incolere incolui ——­ inhabit
excolo excolere excolui excultus perfect
consulo consulere consului consultus consult consero conserere conserui consertus join desero deserere deserui desertus desert dissero disserere disserui ——­ discourse texo texere texui textus weave

6.  Perfect in -vi.

Page 67

sino        sinere      sivi        situs            allow
desino    desinere    desii       desitus          cease
pono      ponere      posui       positus          place
ob-lino     oblinere    oblevi      oblitus          smear
sero        serere      sevi        satus            sow
consero   conserere   consevi     consitus         plant
cerno       cernere     ——­        ——­             separate
discerno  discernere  discrevi    discretus        distinguish
decerno   decernere   decrevi     decretus         decide
sperno      spernere    sprevi      spretus          scorn
sterno      sternere    stravi      stratus          spread
pro-sterno  prosternere  prostravi  prostratus     overthrow
peto        petere      petivi      petitus          seek
(petii)
appeto    appetere    appetivi    appetitus        long for
tero        terere      trivi       tritus           rub
quaero      quaerere    quaesivi    quaesitus        seek
acquiro   acquirere   acquisivi   acquisitus       acquire
arcesso     arcessere   arcessivi   arcessitus       summon
capesso     capessere   capessivi   capessitus       seize
lacesso     lacessere   lacessivi   lacessitus       provoke

7.  Used only in Present System.

ango angere ——­ ——­ choke
lambo lambere ——­ ——­ lick
claudo claudere ——­ ——­ be lame
furo furere ——­ ——­ rave
vergo vergere ——­ ——­ bend

                                  and a few others.

II.  VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -U.

induo       induere     indui       indutus          put on
imbuo       imbuere     imbui       imbutus          moisten
luo         luere       lui         ——­             wash
polluo    polluere    pollui      pollutus         defile
minuo       minuere     minui       minutus          lessen
statuo      statuere    statui      statutus         set up
constituo  constituere  constitui  constitutus     determine
suo         suere       sui         sutus            sew
tribuo      tribuere    tribui      tributus         allot
ruo         ruere       rui         ruiturus         fall
diruo     diruere     dirui       dirutus          destroy
obruo     obruere     obrui       obrutus          overwhelm
acuo        acuere      acui        ——­             sharpen
arguo       arguere     argui       ——­             accuse
congruo     congruere   congrui     ——­             agree
metuo       metuere     metui       ——­             fear
ab-nuo      abnuere     abnui       ——­             decline
re-spuo     respuere    respui      ——­             reject
struo       struere     struxi      structus         build
fluo        fluere      fluxi       (fluxus, as      flow
Adj.)

III.  VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -I.

Page 68

capio       cupere      cupivi      cupitus          wish
sapio       sapere      sapivi      ——­             taste
rapio       rapere      rapui       raptus           snatch
diripio   diripere    diripui     direptus         plunder
conspicio   conspicere  conspexi    conspectus       gaze at
aspicio     aspicere    aspexi      aspectus         behold
illicio     illicere    illexi      illectus         allure
pellicio    pellicere   pellexi     pellectus        allure
elicio      elicere     elicui      elicitus         elicit
quatio      quatere     ——­        quassus          shake
concutio  concutere   concussi    concussus        shake
pario       parere      peperi      partus           bring forth
capio       capere      cepi        captus           take
accipio   accipere    accepi      acceptus         accept
incipio   incipere    incepi      inceptus         begin
facio       facere      feci        factus           make
afficio   afficere    affeci      affectus         affect
Passive, afficior, affici, affectus sum. 
So other prepositional compounds, perficio, perficior; interficio,
interficior; etc.  But—­
assuefacio  assuefacere  assuefeci  assuefactus      accustom
Passive, assuefio, assuefieri, assuefactus sum. 
So also patefacio, patefio; calefacio, calefio; and all
non-prepositional compounds.
jacio       jacere      jeci        jactus           hurl
abicio    abicere     abjeci      abjectus         throw away
fodio       fodere      fodi        fossus           dig
fugio       fugere      fugi        fugiturus        flee
effugio   effugere    effugi      ——­             escape

IV.  VERBS IN -SCO.

1.  Verbs in -sco from Simple Roots.

  posco poscere poposci ——­ demand
  disco discere didici ——­ learn
  pasco pascere pavi pastus feed
    pascor pasci pastus sum graze
  cresco crescere crevi cretus grow
  consuesco consuescere consuevi consuetus accustom one’s
          
                                             self

  quiesco quiescere quievi quieturus be still
  adolesco adolescere adolevi adultus grow up
  obsolesco obsolescere obsolevi ——­ grow old
  nosco noscere novi ——­ become acquainted
          
                                             with

    ignosco ignoscere ignovi ignoturus pardon
  agnosco agnoscere agnovi agnitus recognize
  cognosco cognoscere cognovi cognitus get acquainted
                                                       with

Page 69

2.  Verbs in -sco formed from other Verbs.

These usually have Inchoative or Inceptive meaning (see Sec. 155, 1).  When they have the Perfect, it is the same as that of the Verbs from which they are derived.

floresco florescere florui begin to (floreo)
bloom

scisco sciscere scivi enact (scio)
aresco arescere arui become dry (areo)
calesco calescere calui become hot (caleo)
consenesco consenescere consenui grow old (seneo)
extimesco extimescere extimui fear greatly (timeo)
ingemisco ingemiscere ingemui sigh (gemo)
adhaeresco adhaerescere adhaesi stick (haereo)

3.  Verbs in -sco derived from Adjectives, usually with Inchoative meaning.

obduresco obdurescere obdurui grow hard (durus) evanesco evanescere evinui disappear (vanus) percrebresco percrebrescere percrebrui grow fresh (creber) maturesco maturescere maturui grow ripe (maturus) obmutesco obmutescere obmutui grow dumb (mutus)

V. DEPONENTS.

fungor fungi functus sum perform
queror queri questus sum complain
loquor loqui locutus sum speak
sequor sequi secutus sum follow
fruor frui fruiturus enjoy
perfruor perfrui perfructus sum thoroughly enjoy
labor labi lapsus sum glide
amplector amplecti amplexus sum embrace
nitor niti nisus sum, strive
nixus sum
gradior gradi gressus sum walk
patior pati passus sum suffer
perpetior perpeti perpessus sum endure
utor uti usus sum use
morior mori mortuus sum die
adipiscor adipisci adeptus sum acquire
comminiscor comminisci commentus sum invent
reminiscor reminisci ——­ remember
nanciscor nancisci nanctus acquire
(nactus) sum
nascor nasci natus sum be born
obliviscor oblivisci oblitus sum forget
paciscor pacisci pactus sum covenant
proficiscor proficisci profectus sum set out
ulciscor ulcisci ultus sum avenge
irascor irasci (iratus, as be angry
Adj.)
vescor vesci ——­ eat

Fourth Conjugation.

123.  I. PERFECT ENDS IN -VI.

audio audire audivi auditus hear
So all regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation.
sepelio sepelire sepelivi sepultus bury

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II.  PERFECT ENDS IN -UI.

aperio      aperire     aperui      apertus          open
operio      operire     operui      opertus          cover
salio       salire      salui       ——­             leap

III.  PERFECT ENDS IN -SI.

saepio saepire saepsi saeptus hedge in sancio sancire sanxi sanctus ratify vincio vincire vinxi vinctus bind amicio amicire ——­ amictus envelop fulcio fulcire fulsi fultus prop up refercio refercire refersi refertus fill sarcio sarcire sarsi sartus patch haurio haurire hausi haustus draw sentio sentire sensi sensus feel

IV.  PERFECT IN -I WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

venio       venire      veni        ventum (est)     come
advenio   advenire    adveni      adventum (est)   arrive
invenio   invenire    inveni      inventus         find

V. PERFECT WITH LOSS OF REDUPLICATION.

reperio     reperire    repperi     repertus         find
comperio    comperire   comperi     compertus        learn

VI.  USED ONLY IN THE PRESENT.

ferio       ferire      ——­        ——­             strike
esurio      esurire     ——­        ——­             be hungry

VII.  DEPONENTS.

  largior largiri largitus sum bestow
     So many others.
  experior experiri expertus sum try
  opperior opperiri oppertus sum await
  ordior ordiri orsus sum begin
  orior oriri ortus sum arise
  Orior usually follows the Third Conjugation in its inflection; as
  oreris, oritur, orimur; orerer (Imp.  Subj.); orere (Imper.).
  metior metiri mensus sum measure
  assentior assentiri assensus sum assent

* * * * *

IRREGULAR VERBS.

124.  A number of Verbs are called Irregular.  The most important are sum, do, edo, fero, volo, nolo, malo, eo, fio.  The peculiarity of these Verbs is that they append the personal endings in many forms directly to the stem, instead of employing a connecting vowel, as fer-s (2d Sing. of fer-o), instead of fer-i-s.  They are but the relics of what was once in Latin a large class of Verbs.

125.  The Inflection of sum has already been given.  Its various compounds are inflected in the same way.  They are—­

Page 71

  absum abesse afui am absent
          Pres.  Partic. absens (absentis), absent.
  adsum adesse adfui am present
  desum deesse defui am lacking
  insum inesse infui am in
  intersum interesse interfui am among
  praesum praeesse praefui am in charge of
        Pres.  Partic. praesens (praesentis), present
  obsum obesse obfui hinder
  prosum prodesse profui am of advantage
  subsum subesse subfui am underneath
  supersum superesse superfui am left

NOTE.—­Prosum is compounded of prod (earlier form of pro) and sum; the d disappears before consonants, as prosumus; but prodestis.

126.  Possum.  In its Present System possum is a compound of pot- (for pote, able) and sum; potui is from an obsolete potere.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
possum, posse, potui, to be
able
.

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
SINGULAR.                              PLURAL.
Pres.    possum, potes, potest;          possumus, potestis, possunt.
Imp.     poteram;                        poteramus.
Fut.     potero;                         poterimus.
Perf.    potui;                          potuimus.
Plup.    potueram;                       potueramus.
Fut.  P.  potuero;                        potuerimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE. 
SINGULAR.                              PLURAL.
Pres.    possim, possis, possit;         possimus, possitis, possint.
Imp.     possem;                         possemus.
Perf.    potuerim;                       potuerimus.
Plup.    potuissem;                      potuissemus.
INFINITIVE.                           PARTICIPLE.
Pres.    posse.                  Pres.  potens (as an adjective).
Perf.    potuisse.

127.  Do, I give.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
do, dare, dedi, datus.

Active Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
SINGULAR.                              PLURAL.
Pres.    do, das, dat;                   damus, datis, dant.
Imp.     dabam, etc.;                    dabamus.
Fut.     dabo, etc.;                     dabimus.
Perf.    dedi;                           dedimus.
Plup.    dederam;                        dederamus.
Fut.  P.  dedero;                         dederimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres.    dem;                            demus.
Imp.     darem;                          daremus.
Perf.    dederim;                        dederimus.
Plup.    dedissem;                       dedissemus.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.    da;                             date.

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Fut. dato; datote. dato. danto.
INFINITIVE.                           PARTICIPLE.
Pres.    dare.                           dans.
Perf.    dedisse.
Fut.     daturus esse.                   daturus.
GERUND.                               SUPINE.
dandi, etc.                     datum, datu.

1.  The passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel.  Thus:  dari, datur, daretur, etc.

2.  The archaic and poetic Present Subjunctive forms duim, duint, perduit, perduint, etc., are not from the root da-, but from du-, a collateral root of similar meaning.

128.  Edo, I eat.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
edo, esse, edi, esus.

Active Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.     edo,          edimus,
es,           estis,
est;          edunt.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imp.      essem,        essemus,
esses,        essetis,
esset;        essent.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.     es;           este.
Fut.      esto;         estote.
esto;         edunto.

INFINITIVE.
Pres. esse.

Passive Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. 3d Sing. estur.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imp. 3d Sing. essetur.

1.  Observe the long vowel of the forms in es-, which alone distinguishes them from the corresponding forms of esse, to be.

2.  Note comedo, comesse, comedi, comesus or comestus, consume.

3.  The Present Subjunctive has edim, -is, -it, etc., less often edam, -as, etc.

129.  Fero, I bear.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
fero, ferre, tuli, latus.

Active Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PLURAL. 
SINGULAR.
Pres.    fero, fers, fert;               ferimus, fertis, ferunt.[46]
Imp.     ferebam;                        ferebamus.
Fut.     feram;                          feremus.
Perf.    tuli;                           tulimus.
Plup.    tuleram;                        tuleramus.
Fut.  P.  tulero;                         tulerimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.    feram;                          feramus.
Imp.     ferrem;                         ferremus.
Perf.    tulerim;                        tulerimus.
Plup.    tulissem;                       tulissemus.
IMPERATIVE
Pres.    fer;                            ferte.
Fut.     ferto;                          fertote.
ferto;                          ferunto.
INFINITIVE.                           PARTICIPLE.
Pres.    ferre.                  Pres.  ferens.
Perf.    tulisse.
Fut.     laturus esse.           Fut.  laturus.
GERUND.                               SUPINE.
Gen.     ferendi.
Dat.     ferendo.
Acc.     ferendum.               Acc.  latum.
Abl.     ferendo.                Abl.  latu.

Passive Voice.
feror, ferri, latus sum, to be borne.

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INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PLURAL. 
SINGULAR.
Pres.    feror, ferris, fertur;          ferimur, ferimini, feruntur.
Imp.     ferebar;                        ferebamur.
Fut.     ferar;                          feremur.
Perf.    latus sum;                      lati sumus.
Plup.    latus eram;                     lati eramus.
Fut.  P.  latus ero;                      lati erimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.    ferar;                          feramur.
Imp.     ferrer;                         ferremur.
Perf.    latus sim;                      lati simus.
Plup.    latus essem;                    lati essemus.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.    ferre;                          ferimimi.
Fut.     fertor;                         ——­
fertor;                         feruntor.
INFINITIVE.                           PARTICIPLE.
Pres.    ferri.
Perf.    latus esse.             Perf.  latus.
Fut.     latum iri.              Fut.  ferendus.

So also the Compounds—­

affero afferre attuli allatus bring toward aufero auferre abstuli ablatus take away confero conferre contuli collatus compare differo differre distuli dilatus put off effero efferre extuli elatus carry out infero inferre intuli illatus bring against offero offerre obtuli oblatus present refero referre rettuli relatus bring back

NOTE.—­The forms sustuli and sublatus belong to tollo.

130. volo, nolo, malo.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
volo,       velle,      volui,      to wish.
nolo,       nolle,      nolui,      to be unwilling.
malo,       malle,      malui,      to prefer.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.     volo,               nolo,               malo,
vis,                non vis,            mavis,
vult;               non vult;           mavult;
volumus,            nolumus,            malumus,
vultis,             non vultis,         mavultis,
volunt.             nolunt.             malunt.
Imp.      volebam.            nolebam.            malebam.
Fut.      volam.              nolam.              malam.
Perf.     volui.              nolui.              malui.
Plup.     volueram.           nolueram.           malueram.
Fut.  P.   voluero.            noluero.            maluero.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. velim, -is, -it, nolim. malim.
etc.
Inf. vellem, -es, -et, nollem. mallem.
etc.
Perf. voluerim. noluerim. maluerim.
Pluf. voluissem. noluissem. maluissem.

IMPERATIVE.

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Pres.     noli;       nolite.
Fut.      nolito;     nolitote.
nolito;     nolunto.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.     velle.              nolle.              malle.
Perf.     voluisse.           noluisse.           maluisse

PARTICIPLE.
Pres. volens nolens. ——­

131.  Fio.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
fio, fieri, factus sum, to become, be
made
.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR,                             PLURAL.
Pres.    fio, fis, fit;                  fimus, fitis, fiunt.
Inf.     fiebam;                         fiebamus.
Fut.     fiam;                           fiemus.
Perf.    factus sum;                     facti sumus.
Pluf.    factus eram;                    facti eramus.
Fut.  P.  factus ero;                     facti erimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.    fiam;                           fiamus.
Imp.     fierem;                         fieremus.
Perf.    factus sim;                     facti simus.
Plup.    factus essem;                   facti essemus.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. fi; fite. 
PARTICIPLE. 
INFINITIVE.
Pres. fieri.
Perf. factus esse. Perf. factus.
Fut. factum iri. Ger. faciendus.

NOTE.—­A few isolated forms of compounds of fio occur; as, defit lacks; infit, begins.

132.  Eo.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
eo, ire, ivi, itum (est), to go.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.                              PLURAL.
Pres.    eo, is, it;                     imus, itis, eunt.
Imp.     ibam;                           ibamus.
Fut.     ibo;                            ibimus.
Perf.    ivi (ii);                       ivimus (iimus).
Plup.    iveram (ieram);                 iveramus (ieramus)
Fut.  P.  ivero (iero);                   iverimus (ierimus).

SUBJUNCTIVE.

SINGULAR.                              PLURAL.
Pres.    eam;                            eamus.
Inf.     irem;                           iremus.
Perf.    iverim (ierim);                 iverimus (ierimus).
Pluf.    ivissem (iissem, issem);        ivissemus (iissemus, issemus).
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.    i;                              ite.
Fut.     ito;                            itote,
ito;                            eunto.
INFINITIVE.                           PARTICIPLE.
Pres.    ire.                    Pres.  iens.
Perf.    ivisse (isse).                  (Gen. euntis.)
Fut.     iturus esse.            Fut.  iturus.   Gerundive, eundum.
GERUND.                               SUPINE.
eundi, etc.                     itum, itu.

1.  Transitive compounds of eo admit the full Passive inflection; as adeor, adiris, aditur, etc.

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* * * * *

DEFECTIVE VERBS.

Defective Verbs lack certain forms.  The following are the most important:—­

133.  USED MAINLY IN THE PERFECT SYSTEM.

Coepi, Memini, Odi,
I have I remember_. I hate.
begun._

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Perf.     coepi.          memini.         odi.
Plup.     coeperam.       memineram.      oderam.
Fut.  P.   coepero.        meminero.       odero.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Perf.     coeperim.       meminerim.      oderim.
Pluf.     coepissem.      meminissem.     odissem.

IMPERATIVE.
Sing. memento; Plur. mementote.

INFINITIVE.
Perf.     coepisse.       meminisse.      odisse.
Fut.      coepturus esse.                 osurus esse.
PARTICIPLE.
Perf.     coeptus, begun.               osus.
Fut.      coepturus.                      osurus.

1.  When coepi governs a Passive Infinitive it usually takes the form coeptus est; as, amari coeptus est, he began to be loved.

2.  Note that memini and odi, though Perfect in form, are Present in sense.  Similarly the Pluperfect and Future Perfect have the force of the Imperfect and Future; as, memineram, I remembered; odero, I shall hate.

134.  Inquam, I say (inserted between words of a direct quotation)

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
SINGULAR.  PLURAL.
Pres. inquam, ——­
inquis, ——­
inquit; inquiunt.
Fut. ——­ ——­
inquies, ——­
inquiet. ——­
Perf. 3d Sing. inquit.

135.  Ajo, I say.

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
SINGULAR.  PLURAL
Pres. ajo, ——­
ais, ——­
ait; ajunt.
Imp. ajebam, ajebamus,
ajebas, ajebatis,
ajebat; ajebant.
Perf 3d Sing. ait.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Pres 3d Sing. ajat.

NOTE.—­For aisne, do you mean? ain is common.

136.  Fari, to speak.

This is inflected regularly in the perfect tenses.  In the Present System it has—­

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
SINGULAR.        PLURAL.
Pres.         ——­            ——­
——­            ——­
fatur.          ——­
Fut.          fabor,          ——­
——­            ——­
fabitur.        ——­
Impv.         fare.
Inf.          fari.
Pres.          fantis, fanti, etc. 
Partic.
Gerund,       fandi; D. and Abl., fando.
G.,
Gerundive,    fandus.

NOTE.—­Forms of fari are rare.  More frequent are its compounds; as,—­ affatur, he addresses; praefamur, we say in advance.

137.  OTHER DEFECTIVE FORMS.

1.  Queo, quire, quivi, to be able, and nequeo, nequire, nequivi, to be unable, are inflected like eo, but occur chiefly in the Present Tense, and there only in special forms.

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2.  Quaeso, I entreat; quaesumus, we entreat.

3.  Cedo (2d sing.  Impv.), cette (2d plu.); give me, tell me.

4.  Salve, salvete, hail.  Also Infinitive, salvere.

5.  Have (ave), havete, hail.  Also Infinitive, havere.

* * * * *

IMPERSONAL VERBS.

138.  Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English, it snows, it seems, etc. They have no personal subject, but may take an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Neuter Pronoun; as, me pudet hoc fecisse, lit. it shames me to have done this; hoc decet, this is fitting.  Here belong—­

I. Verbs denoting operations of the weather; as,—­

fulget fulsit it lightens tonat tonuit it thunders grandinat ——­ it hails ningit ninxit it snows pluit pluit it rains

II.  Special Verbs.

paenitet paenitere paenituit it repents piget pigere piguit it grieves pudet pudere puduit it causes shame taedet taedere taeduit it disgusts miseret miserere miseruit it causes pity libet libere libuit it pleases licet licere licuit it is lawful oportet oportere oportuit it is fitting decet decere decuit it is becoming dedecet dedecere dedecuit it is unbecoming refert referre retulit it concerns

III.  Verbs Impersonal only in Special Senses.

  constat constare constitit it is evident
  praestat praestare praestitit it is better
  juvat juvare juvit it delights
  apparet apparere apparuit it appears
  placet placere placuit it pleases
                              (placitum
                              est)
  accedit accedere accessit it is added
  accidit accidere accidit it happens
  contingit contingere contigit it happens
  evenit evenire evenit it turns out
  interest interesse interfuit it concerns

IV.  The Passive of Intransitive Verbs; as,—­

  itur lit. it is gone i.e. some one goes
  curritur lit. it is run i.e. some one runs
  ventum est lit. it has been come i.e. some one has come
  veniendum est lit. it must be come i.e. somebody must
          
                                      come

  pugnari potest lit. it can be fought i.e. somebody can
                                                fight

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* * * * *

PART III.

* * * * *

PARTICLES.

* * * * *

139.  Particles are the four Parts of Speech that do not admit of inflection; viz.  Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections.

ADVERBS.

140.  Adverbs denote manner, place, time, or degree Most adverbs are in origin case-forms which have become stereotyped by usage.  The common adverbial terminations have already been given above (Sec. 76).  The following TABLE OF CORRELATIVES is important:—­

RELATIVE AND DEMONSTRATIVE.  INDEFINITE. 
INTERROGATIVE.
ubi, where; where? hic, here. alicubi, usquam,
ibi, illic, istic, uspiam, somewhere.
there.
quo, whither; huc, hither_. aliquo, to some
whither
? eo, istuc, illuc, place_.
thither.
unde, whence; hinc, hence_. alicunde, from
whence
? inde, istinc, illinc, somewhere_.
thence.
qua, where; where? hac, by this way. aliqua, by some way.
ea, istac, illac, by
that way
.
cum, when. nunc, now. aliquando, umquam,
quando, when? tum, tunc, then. sometime, ever.
quotiens, as often totiens, so often_. aliquotiens, some
as
; how often? number of times_.
quam, as much as; tam, so much. aliquantum,
how much? somewhat.

PREPOSITIONS.

141.  Prepositions show relations of words.  The following Prepositions govern the Accusative:—­

ad, to. contra, against. post, after. adversus, erga, toward. praeter, past. against. extra, outside. prope, near. adversum, toward, infra, below. propter, on account against_. inter, between. of_. ante, before. intra, within. secundum, after. apud, with, juxta, near. subter, beneath. near. ob, on account super, over_. circa, around. of_. supra, above. circiter, about. penes, in the hands trans, across_. circum, around. of_. ultra, beyond. cis, this side per, through_. versus, toward. of_. pone, behind. citra, this side of.

1.  Usque is often prefixed to ad, in the sense of even; as,—­

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  usque ad urbem, even to the city.

2.  Versus always follows its case; as,—­

  Romam versus, toward Rome.

It may be combined with a preceding Preposition; as,—­

  ad urbem versus, toward the city.

3.  Like prope, the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Superlatives proximus, proxime, sometimes govern the Accusative; as,—­

Ubii proxime Rhenum incolunt, the Ubii dwell next to the Rhine;
propius castra hostium, nearer the camp of the enemy.

142.  The following Prepositions govern the Ablative:—­

a, ab, abs, from, cum, with. pro, in front of,
by. de, from, for.
absque, without. concerning. sine, without.
coram, in the e, ex, from out tenus, up to.
presence of_. of_.

                                                prae, before.

1.  A, ab, abs.  Before vowels or h, ab must be used; before consonants we find sometimes a, sometimes ab (the latter usually not before the labials b, p, f, v, m; nor before c, g, q, or t); abs occurs only before te, and a is admissible even there.

2.  E, ex.  Before vowels or h, ex must be used; before consonants we find sometimes e, sometimes ex.

3.  Tenus regularly follows its case, as, pectoribus tenus, up to the breast.  It sometimes governs the Genitive, as, labrorum tenus, as far as the lips.

4.  Cum is appended to the Pronouns of the First and Second Persons, and to the Reflexive Pronoun; usually also to the Relative and Interrogative.  Thus:—­

mecum nobiscum quocum or cum quo
tecum vobiscum quacum or cum qua
secum quibuscum or cum quibus

                    On quicum, see Sec. 89, Footnote 27.

143.  Two Prepositions, in, in, into, and sub, under, govern both the Accusative and the Ablative.  With the Accusative they denote motion; with the Ablative, rest; as,—­

in urbem, into the city;
in urbe, in the city.

1.  Subter and super are also occasionally construed with the Ablative.

144.  RELATION OF ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS.

1.  Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and many of them still retain their adverbial meaning; as, post, afterwards; ante, previously; contra, on the other hand, etc.

2.  Conversely several words, usually adverbs, are occasionally employed as prepositions; as,—­

  clam, pridie, with the Accusative.
  procul, simul, palam, with the Ablative.

3.  Anastrophe.  A Preposition sometimes follows its case.  This is called Anastrophe; as,—­

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  ei, quos inter erat, those among whom he was.

Anastrophe occurs chiefly with dissyllabic prepositions.

CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.

145. 1.  Conjunctions are used to connect ideas.  For Cooerdinate Conjunctions, see Sec. 341 ff.  Subordinate Conjunctions are treated in connection with Subordinate Clauses.

2.  Interjections express emotion.  Thus:—­

1.  Surprise; as, en, ecce, o. 2.  Joy; as, io, euoe. 3.  Sorrow and Pain; as, heu, eheu, vae, pro. 4.  Calling; as, heus, eho.

* * * * *

PART IV.

* * * * *

WORD-FORMATION.

* * * * *

I. DERIVATIVES.

146.  Derivatives are formed by appending certain terminations called Suffixes to stems of verbs, nouns, or adjectives.

A. NOUNS.

1.  Nouns derived from Verbs.

147. 1.  The suffix -tor (-sor), Fem. -trix, denotes the agent; as,—­

  victor, victrix, victor; defensor, defender.

NOTE.—­The suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems; as,—­

  gladiator, gladiator (from gladius).

2.  The suffix -or (originally -os) denotes an activity or a condition; as,—­

  amor, love; timor, fear; dolor, pain.

3.  The suffixes -tio (-sio), Gen. -onis, and -tus (-sus), Gen. -us, denote an action as in process; as,—­

  venatio, hunting; obsessio, blockade; gemitus, sighing; cursus,
  running.

NOTE.—­Rarer endings with the same force are:—­

  a) -tura, -sura; as,—­

    sepultura, burial; mensura, measuring.

  b) -ium; as,—­

    gaudium, rejoicing.

c) -ido; as,—­

cupido, desire.

4.  The suffixes -men, -mentum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -culum, denote the means or place of an action; as,—­

lumen (luc-s-men), light; vocabulum, word;
ornamentum, ornament; documentum, proof;
sepulcrum, grave; aratrum, plough;

                                  vehiculum, carriage.

2.  Nouns derived from Nouns.

148. 1.  Diminutives end in—­

-ulus, (-ula, -ulum) -olus, (-ola, -olum), after a vowel -culus, (-cula, -culum) -ellus, (-ella, -ellum) -illus, (-illa, -illum)

as,—­

nidulus, little nest (nidus); virgula, wand (virga); oppidulum, little town (oppidum); filiolus, little son (filius); opusculum, little work (opus); tabella, tablet (tabula); lapillus, pebble (lapis).

NOTE 1.—­It will be observed that in gender the Diminutives follow the gender of the words from which they are derived.

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NOTE 2.—­The endings -ellus, -illus contain the primitive form of the diminutive suffix, viz., -lo-.  Thus:—­

  agellus, field, for ager-lus;
  lapillus, pebble, for lapid-lus.

2.  The suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates either a collection of such persons or their function; as,—­

  collegium, a corporation, body of colleagues (collega);
  sacerdotium, priestly function (sacerdos).

3.  The suffixes -arium, -etum, -ile designate a place where objects are kept or are found in abundance; as,—­

columbarium,  dove-cote       (columba);
olivetum,     olive-orchard   (oliva);
ovile,        sheep-fold      (ovis).

4.  The suffix -atus denotes official position or honor; as,—­

  consulatus, consulship (consul).

5.  The suffix -ina appended to nouns denoting persons designates a vocation or the place where it is carried on; as,—­

  doctrina, teaching (doctor, teacher);
  medicina, the art of healing (medicus, physician);
  sutrina, cobbler’s shop (sutor, cobbler).

6.  Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting son of ..., daughter of ....  They have the following suffixes:—­

  a) Masculines:  -ides, -ades, -ides; as, Priamides, son of Priam;
  Aeneades, son of Aeneas; Pelides, son of Peleus.

  b) Feminines:  -eis, -is, -ias; as, Nereis, daughter of Nereus;
  Atlantis, daughter of Atlas; Thaumantias, daughter of Thaumas.

3.  Nouns derived from Adjectives.

149.  The suffixes -tas (-itas), -tudo (-itudo), -ia, -itia are used for the formation of abstract nouns denoting qualities; as,—­

  bonitas, goodness; celeritas, swiftness; magnitudo, greatness;
  audacia, boldness; amicitia, friendship.

* * * * *

B. ADJECTIVES.

1.  Adjectives derived from Verbs.

150. 1.  The suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force of a present participle; as,—­

  tremebundus, trembling; jucundus (juvo), pleasing.

2.  The suffixes -ax and -ulus denote an inclination or tendency, mostly a faulty one; as,—­

  loquax, loquacious; credulus, credulous.

3.  The suffix -idus denotes a state; as,—­

  calidus, hot; timidus, timid; cupidus, eager.

4.  The suffixes -ilis and -bilis denote capacity or ability, usually in a passive sense; as,—­

  fragilis, fragile (i.e. capable of being broken);
  docilis, docile.

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2.  Adjectives derived from Nouns.

a) From Common Nouns.

151. 1.  The suffixes -eus and -inus are appended to names of substances or materials; as,—­

aureus, of gold; ferreus, of iron; faginus, of beech.

2.  The suffixes -ius, -icus, -ilis, -alis, -aris, -arius, -nus, -anus, -inus, -ivus, -ensis signify belonging to, connected with; as,—­

oratorius, oratorical; legionarius, legionary;
bellicus, pertaining to war; paternus, paternal;
civilis, civil; urbanus, of the city;
regalis, regal; marinus, marine;
consularis, consular; aestivus, pertaining to
summer
;
circensis, belonging to the circus.

3.  The suffixes -osus and -lentus denote fullness; as,—­

periculosus, full of danger, gloriosus, glorious;
dangerous; opulentus, wealthy.

4.  The suffix -tus has the force of provided with; as,—­

barbatus, bearded; stellatus, set with stars.

b) From Proper Names.

152. 1.  Names of persons take the suffixes:  -anus, -ianus, -inus; as,—­

Catonianus, belonging to       Plautinus, belonging to
Cato_;                          Plautus_.

2.  Names of nations take the suffixes -icus, -ius; as,—­

Germanicus, German; Thracius, Thracian.

3.  Names of places take the suffixes -anus, -inus, -ensis, -aeus, -ius; as,—­

Romanus, Roman; Atheniensis, Athenian;
Amerinus, of Ameria; Smyrnaeus, of Smyrna;
Corinthius, Corinthian.

NOTE.—­ -anus and -ensis, appended to names of countries, designate something stationed in the country or connected with it, but not indigenous; as,—­

bellum Africanum, a war (of Romans with Romans) in Africa.
bellum Hispaniense, a war carried on in Spain.
legiones Gallicanae, (Roman) legions stationed in Gaul.

3.  Adjectives derived from Adjectives.

153.  Diminutives in -lus sometimes occur; as,—­

  parvolus, little;
  misellus (passer), poor little (sparrow);
  pauperculus, needy.

4.  Adjectives derived from Adverbs.

154.  These end in -ernus, -ternus, -tinus, -tinus; as,—­

hodiernus, of to-day (hodie); hesternus, of yesterday (heri); intestinus, internal (intus); diutinus, long-lasting (diu).

* * * * *

C. VERBS.

1.  Verbs derived from Verbs.

155. 1.  INCEPTIVES OR INCHOATIVES.  These end in -sco, and are formed from Present Stems.  They denote the beginning of an action; as,—­

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labasco, begin to totter (from labo); horresco, grow rough (from horreo); tremesco, begin to tremble (from tremo); obdormisco, fall asleep (from dormio).

2.  FREQUENTATIVES OR INTENSIVES.  These denote a repeated or energetic action.  They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -to or -so.  Those derived from verbs of the First Conjugation end in -ito (not -ato, as we should expect).  Examples of Frequentatives are—­

jacto, toss about, brandish (from jacio,
hurl);
curso, run hither and thither (from curro, run);
volito, flit about (from volo, fly).

a.  Some double Frequentatives occur; as,—­

cantito,    sing over and over  (canto);
cursito,    keep running about  (curso);
ventito,    keep coming.

b. agito, set in motion, is formed from the Present Stem.

3.  DESIDERATIVES.  These denote a desire to do something.  They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -urio; as,—­

  esurio, desire to eat, am hungry (edo);
  parturio, want to bring forth, am in (pario).
                labor

2.  Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives (Denominatives).

156.  Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly transitive; those of the Second exclusively intransitive.  Those of the Third and Fourth Conjugations are partly transitive, partly intransitive.  Examples are—­

  a) From Nouns:—­

fraudo,   defraud     (fraus);
vestio,   clothe      (vestis);
floreo,   bloom       (flos).

  b) From Adjectives:—­

  libero, free (liber);
  saevio, be fierce (saevus).

* * * * *

D. ADVERBS.

157. 1.  Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Participial Stem by means of the suffix -im; as,—­

  certatim, emulously (certo);
  cursim, in haste (curro);
  statim, immediately (sto).

2.  Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed:—­

  a) With the suffixes -tim (-sim), -atim; as,—­

    gradatim, step by step;

    paulatim, gradually;

    viritim, man by man.

  b) With the suffix -tus; as,—­

    antiquitus, of old;

    radicitus, from the roots.

  c) With the suffix -ter; as,—­

    breviter, briefly.

* * * * *

II.  COMPOUNDS.

158. 1.  Compounds are formed by the union of simple words.  The second member usually contains the essential meaning of the compound; the first member expresses some modification of this.

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2.  Vowel changes often occur in the process of composition.  Thus:—­

  a.  In the second member of compounds. (See Sec. 7, 1.)

  b.  The final vowel of the stem of the first member of the compound often
  appears as i where we should expect o or a; sometimes it is dropped
  altogether, and in case of consonant stems i is often inserted; as,—­

    signifer, standard-bearer;

    tubicen, trumpeter;

    magnanimus, high-minded;

    matricida, matricide.

159.  EXAMPLES OF COMPOUNDS.

1.  Nouns:—­

  a) Preposition + Noun; as,—­

    de-decus, disgrace;

    pro-avus, great-grandfather.

  b) Noun + Verb Stem; as,—­

    agri-cola, farmer;

    fratri-cida, fratricide.

2.  Adjectives:—­

  a) Preposition + Adjective (or Noun); as,—­

    per-magnus, very great;

    sub-obscurus, rather obscure;

    a-mens, frantic.

  b) Adjective + Noun; as,—­

    magn-animus, great-hearted;

    celeri-pes, swift-footed.

  c) Noun + Verb Stem; as,—­

    parti-ceps, sharing;

    morti-fer, death-dealing.

3.  Verbs:—­

The second member is always a verb.  The first may be—­

  a) A Noun; as,—­

    aedi-fico, build.

  b) An Adjective; as,—­

    ampli-fico, enlarge.

  c) An Adverb; as,—­

    male-dico, rail at.

  d) Another Verb; as,—­

    cale-facio, make warm.

  e) A Preposition; as,—­

    ab-jungo, detach;

    re-fero, bring back;

    dis-cerno, distinguish;

    ex-specto, await.

NOTE.—­Here belong the so-called INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS: 

    ambi- (amb-), around;

    dis- (dir-, di-), apart, asunder;

    por-, forward;

    red- (re-), back;

    sed- (se-), apart from;

    ve-, without.

4.  Adverbs:—­

These are of various types; as,—­

    antea, before;

    ilico (in loco), on the spot;

    imprimis, especially;

    obviam, in the way.

* * * * *

PART V.

* * * * *

SYNTAX.

* * * * *

160.  Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences

CHAPTER I.—­Sentences.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.

161.  Sentences may be classified as follows:—­

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1.  DECLARATIVE, which state something; as,—­

    puer scribit, the boy is writing.

2.  INTERROGATIVE, Which ask a question; as,—­

    quid puer scribit, what is the boy writing?

3.  EXCLAMATORY, which are in the form of an exclamation; as,—­

    quot libros scribit, how many books he writes!

4.  IMPERATIVE, which express a command or an admonition; as,—­

    scribe, write!

FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

162.  Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sentence-Questions.

1.  Word-Questions.  These are introduced by the various interrogative pronouns and adverbs, such as—­quis, qui, qualis, quantus, quot, quotiens, quo, qua, etc.  Thus:—­

    quis venit, who comes? quam diu manebit, how long will he stay?

2.  Sentence-Questions.  These are introduced—­

  a) By nonne implying the answer ‘yes’; as,—­

    nonne videtis, do you not see?

  b) By num implying the answer ‘no’; as,—­

    num exspectas, do you expect? (i.e. you don’t expect, do you?)

  c) by the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word (which usually
  stands first), and simply asking for information; as,—­

    videsne, do you see?

  A question introduced by -ne may receive a special implication from the
  context; as,—­

    sensistine, did you not perceive?

  d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of
  surprise or indignation; as,—­

    tu in judicum conspectum venire audes, do you dare to come into the
    presence of the judges?

3.  Rhetorical Questions.  These are questions merely in form, being employed to express an emphatic assertion; as, quis dubitat, who doubts? (_= no one doubts_).

4.  Double Questions.  Double Questions are introduced by the following particles:—­

    utrum ... an;

    -ne ... an;

    ——­ ... an.

If the second member is negative, annon (less often necne) is used.  Examples:—­

utrum honestum est an turpe, } honestumne est an turpe, } is it honorable or base? honestum est an turpe, } suntne di annon, are there gods or not?

  a.  An was not originally confined to double questions, but introduced
  single questions, having the force of -ne, nonne, or num.  Traces of this
  use survive in classical Latin; as,—­

A rebus gerendis abstrahit senectus.  Quibus?  An eis quae juventute geruntur et viribus? Old age (it is alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits.  From what pursuits?  Is it not merely from those which are carried on by the strength of youth?

5.  Answers.

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  a.  The answer YES is expressed by ita, etiam, vero, sane, or by
  repetition of the verb; as,—­

    ‘visne locum mutemus?’ ‘sane’. ’Shall we change the place?’
    ’Certainly.’

    ‘estisne vos legati?’ ‘sumus.’ ’Are you envoys?’ ’Yes.’

  b.  The answer NO is expressed by non, minime, minime vero, or by
  repeating the verb with a negative; as,—­

    ‘jam ea praeteriit?’ ‘non.’ ’Has it passed?’ ’No.’

    ‘estne frater intus?’ ‘non est.’ ’Is your brother within?’ ’No.’

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

163.  The two essential parts of a sentence are the SUBJECT and PREDICATE.

The SUBJECT is that concerning which something is said, asked, etc. The PREDICATE is that which is said, asked, etc., concerning the SUBJECT.

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

164.  Sentences containing but one Subject and one Predicate are called SIMPLE SENTENCES, those containing more are called COMPOUND SENTENCES.  Thus puer libros legit, the boy reads books, is a Simple Sentence; but puer libros legit et epistulas scribit, the boy reads books and writes letters, is a Compound Sentence.  The different members of a Compound Sentence are called Clauses.

165.  COOeRDINATE AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.  Clauses which stand upon an equality are called COOeRDINATE; a Clause dependent on another is called SUBORDINATE.  Thus in puer libros legit et epistulas scribit the two clauses are Cooerdinate; but in puer libros legit quos pater scribit, the boy reads the books which his father writes, the second clause is Subordinate to the first.

* * * * *

CHAPTER II.—­Syntax of Nouns.

SUBJECT.

166.  The Subject of a Finite Verb (i.e. any form of the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nominative Case.

1.  The Subject may be—­

  a) A Noun or Pronoun; as,—­

    puer scribit, the boy writes;

    hic scribit, this man writes.

  b) An Infinitive; as,—­

    decorum est pro patria mori, to die for one’s county is a noble
    thing
.

  c) A Clause; as,—­

    opportune accidit quod vidisti, it happened opportunely that you saw.

2.  A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb and is not separately expressed; as,—­

    scribo, I write; videt, he sees.

  a.  But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is expressed;
  as,—­

    ego scribo et tu legis, I write, and you read.

3.  The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied from the context, especially the auxiliary sum; as,—­

    recte ille (sc. facit), he does rightly; consul profectus (sc.
    est), the consul set out.

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PREDICATE NOUNS.

167.  A PREDICATE NOUN is one connected with the Subject by some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb.

168.  A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Case;[47] as,—­

    Cicero orator fuit, Cicero was an orator;

    Numa creatus est rex, Numa was elected king.

1. when possible, the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Subect in Gender also; as,—­

    philosophia est vitae magistra, philosophy is the guide of life.

2.  Besides sum, the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predicate Noun are—­

  a) fio, evado, exsisto; maneo; videor; as,—­

    Croesus non semper mansit rex, Croesus did not always remain king.

  b) Passive verbs of making, calling, regarding, etc.; as, creor,
  appellor, habeor; as,—­

    Romulus rex appellatus est, Romulus was called king;

    habitus est deus, he was regarded as a god.

APPOSITIVES.

169. 1.  An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defining another Noun denoting the same person or thing; as,—­

    Cicero consul, Cicero, the Consul;

    urbs Roma, the city Rome.

2.  An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case; as,—­

    opera Ciceronis oratoris, the works of Cicero, the orator;

    apud Herodotum, patrem historiae, in the works of Herodotus, the
    father of history
.

3.  When possible, the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gender also; as,—­

    assentatio adjutrix vitiorum, flattery, the promoter of evils.

4.  A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or oppidum, with or without a preposition; as,—­

    Corinthi, Achaiae urbe, or in Achaiae urbe, at Corinth, a city of
    Greece
.

5.  PARTITIVE APPOSITION.  A Noun denoting a whole is frequently followed by an Appositive denoting a part; as,—­

    milites, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restiterunt, the soldiers, all
    the bravest of them, resisted the enemy
.

* * * * *

THE CASES.

THE NOMINATIVE.

170.  The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject, Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained.  See Sec. 166-169.

* * * * *

THE VOCATIVE.

171.  The Vocative is the Case of direct address; as,—­

    credite mihi, judices, believe me, judges.

1.  By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used for the Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose; as, audi tu, populus Albanus, hear ye, Alban people!

2.  Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in the Nominative; as, nate, mea magna potentia solus, O son, alone the source of my great power.

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* * * * *

THE ACCUSATIVE.

172.  The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object.

173.  The Direct Object may express either of the two following relations:—­

A. The PERSON OR THING AFFECTED by the action; as,—­

    consulem interfecit, he slew the consul;

    lego librum, I read the book.

B. The RESULT PRODUCED by the action; as,—­

    librum scripsi, I wrote a book (i.e. produced one);

    templum struit, he constructs a temple.

174.  Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are TRANSITIVE VERBS.

  a.  Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used without
  it.  They are then said to be employed absolutely; as,—­

    rumor est meum gnatum amare, it is rumored that my son is in love.

Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.

175. 1.  This is the most frequent use of the Accusative; as in—­

    parentes amamus, we love our parents;

    mare aspicit, he gazes at the sea.

2.  The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind are worthy of note:—­

  a) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a Preposition, become
  Transitive.  Thus:—­

    1) Compounds of circum, praeter, trans; as,—­

    hostes circumstare, to surround the enemy;

    urbem praeterire, to pass by the city;

    muros transcendere, to climb over the walls.

    2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub; as,—­

    adire urbem, to visit the city;

    peragrare Italiam, to travel through Italy;

    inire magistratum, to take office;

    subire periculum, to undergo danger.

  b) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have also a
  Transitive use; as,—­

    queror fatum, I lament my fate;

    doleo ejus mortem, I grieve at his death;

    rideo tuam stultitiam, I laugh at your folly.

  So also lugeo, maereo, mourn; gemo, bemoan; horreo, shudder, and
  others.

  c) The impersonals decet, it becomes; dedecet, it is unbecoming;
  juvat, it pleases, take the Accusative of the Person Affected; as,—­

    me decet haec dicere, it becomes me to say this.

  d) In poetry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage, are
  employed as Middles (Sec. 256, 1; 2), and take the Accusative as Object;
  as,—­

    galeam induitur, he puts on his helmet;

    cinctus tempora hedera, having bound his temples with ivy;

    nodo sinus collecta, having gathered her dress in a knot.

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Accusative of the Result Produced.

176. 1.  The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in such expressions as—­

    librum scribo, I write a book;

    domum aedifico, I build a house.

2.  Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a Neuter Pronoun, or Adjective, as an Accusative of Result.  Thus:—­

  a) A Neuter Pronoun; as,—­

    haec gemebat, he made these moans;

    idem gloriari, to make the same boast;

    eadem peccat, he makes the same mistakes.

  b) A Neuter Adjective,—­particularly Adjectives of number or
  amount,—­multum, multa, pauca, etc.; also nihil; as,—­

    multa egeo, I have many needs;

    pauca studet, he has few interests;

    multum valet, he has great strength;

    nihil peccat, he makes no mistake.

NOTE.—­In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction; as—­

    minitantem vana, making vain threats;

    acerba tuens, giving a fierce look;

    dulce loquentem, sweetly talking.

3.  The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives grows out of this Accusative; as,—­

    multum sunt in venatione, they are much engaged in hunting.

  a.  So also plurimum, very greatly; plerumque, generally; aliquid,
  somewhat; quid, why? nihil, not at all; etc.

4.  Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result which is of kindred etymology with the Verb.  This is called a COGNATE ACCUSATIVE, and is usually modified by an Adjective; as,—­

    sempiternam servitutem serviat, let him serve an everlasting slavery;

    vitam duram vixi, I have lived a hard life.

  a.  Sometimes the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred etymology, but
  merely of kindred meaning; as,—­

    stadium currit, he runs a race;

    Olympia vincit, he wins an Olympic victory.

5.  The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of tasting and smelling; as,—­

    piscis mare sapit, the fish tastes of the sea;

    orationes antiquitatem redolent, the speeches smack of the past.

Two Accusatives—­Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.

177.  Many Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Showing, and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusative; as,—­

    me heredem fecit, he made me heir.

Here me is Direct Object, heredem Predicate Accusative.  So also—­

    eum judicem cepere, they took him as judge;

    urbem Romam vocavit, he called the city Rome;

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    se virum praestitit, he showed himself a man.

2.  The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun; as,—­

    homines caecos reddit cupiditas, covetousness renders men blind;

    Apollo Socratem sapientissimum judicavit, Apollo adjudged Socrates the
    wisest man
.

  a.  Some Verbs, as reddo, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predicate
  Accusative.

3.  In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (Sec. 168, 2, b):  as,—­

    urbs Roma vocata est, the city was called Rome.

  a.  Not all Verbs admit the Passive construction; reddo and efficio, for
  example, never take it.

Two Accusatives—­Person and Thing.

178. 1.  Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the Person Affected, the other of the Result Produced.  Thus:—­

  a) Verbs of requesting and demanding; as,—­

    otium divos rogat, he asks the gods for rest;

    me duas orationes postulas, you demand two speeches of me.

  So also oro, posco, reposco, exposco, flagito, though some of these
  prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative of the Person; as,—­

    opem a te posco, I demand aid of you.

  b) Verbs of teaching (doceo and its compounds); as,—­

    te litteras doceo, I teach you your letters.

  c) Verbs of inquiring; as,—­

    te haec rogo, I ask you this;

    te sententiam rogo, I ask you your opinion.

  d) Several Special Verbs; viz. moneo, admoneo, commoneo, cogo, accuso,
  arguo, and a few others.  These admit only a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective
  as Accusative of the Thing; as,—­

    hoc te moneo, I give you this advice;

    me id accusas, you bring this accusation against me;

    id cogit nos natura, nature compels us (to) this.

  e) One Verb of concealing, celo; as,—­

    non te celavi sermonem, I have not concealed the conversation from
    you
.

2.  In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person becomes the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained; as,—­

    omnes artes edoctus est, he was taught all accomplishments;

    rogatus sum sententiam, I was asked my opinion;

    multa admonemur, we are given many admonitions.

  a.  Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.

Two Accusatives with Compounds.

179. 1.  Transitive compounds of trans may take two Accusatives, one dependent upon the Verb, the other upon the Preposition, as,—­

    milites flumen transportat, he leads his soldiers across the river.

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2.  With other compounds this construction is rare.

3.  In the Passive the Accusative dependent upon the preposition is retained; as,—­

    milites flumen traducebantur, the soldiers were led across the river.

Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative.

180. 1.  The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the part to which an action or quality refers; as,—­

    tremit artus, literally, he trembles as to his limbs, i.e. his limbs
    tremble;

    nuda genu, lit. bare as to the knee, i.e. with knee bare;

    manus revinctus, lit. tied as to the hands, i.e. with hands tied.

2.  Note that this construction—­

a) Is borrowed from the Greek. b) Is chiefly confined to poetry. c) Usually refers to a part of the body. d) Is used with Adjectives as well as Verbs.

Accusative of Time and Space.

181. 1. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are denoted by the Accusative; as,—­

    quadraginta annos vixit, he lived forty years;

    hic locus passus sescentos aberat, this place was six hundred paces
    away
;

    arbores quinquaginta pedes altae, trees fifty feet high;

    abhinc septem annos, seven years ago.

2.  Emphasis is sometimes added by using the Preposition per; as,

    per biennium laboravi, I toiled throughout two years.

Accusative of Limit of Motion.

182. 1.  The Accusative of Limit of Motion is used—­

  a) With names of Towns, Small Islands, and Peninsulas; as,—­

    Romam veni, I came to Rome;

    Athenas proficiscitur, he sets out for Athens;

    Delum perveni, I arrived at Delos.

  b) With domum, domos, rus; as,—­

    domum revertitur, he returns home;

    rus ibo, I shall go to the country.

NOTE.—­When domus means house (i.e. building), it takes a preposition; as,—­

    in domum veterem remigrare, to move back to an old house.

2.  Other designations of place than those above mentioned require a Preposition to denote Limit of Motion; as,—­

    ad Italiam venit, he came to Italy.

  a.  The Preposition is also customary with the Accusatives urbem or
  oppidum when they stand in apposition with the name of a town; as,—­

    Thalam, in oppidum magnum, to Thala, a large town;

    Genavam ad oppidum, to the town Geneva.

  b.  The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be combined with the
  name of a country or other word dependent upon a preposition; as,—­

    Thurios in Italiam pervectus, carried to Thurii in Italy;

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    cum Acen ad exercitum venisset, when he had come to the army at Ace.

3.  To denote toward, to the vicinity of, in the vicinity of, ad is used; as,—­

    ad Tarentum veni, I came to the vicinity of Tarentum;

    ad Cannas pugna facta est, a battle was fought near Cannae.

4.  In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place may be used without a preposition to express the limit of motion; as,—­

    Italiam venit, he came to Italy.

5.  The goal notion seems to represent the original function of the Accusative Case.  Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in the phrase infitias ire, to deny (lit. to go to a denial), and a few other similar expressions.

Accusative in Exclamations.

183.  The Accusative, generally modified by an Adjective, is used in Exclamations; as,—­

    me miserum, ah, wretched me!

    O fallacem spem, oh, deceptive hope!

Accusative as Subject of the Infinitive.

184.  The Subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusative; as,—­

    video hominem abire, I see that the man is going away.

Other Uses of the Accusative.

185.  Here belong—­

1.  Some Accusatives which were originally Appositives; viz.—­

    id genus, of that kind; as, homines id genus, men of that kind
    (originally homines, id genus hominum, men, that kind of men);

    virile secus, muliebre secus, of the male sex, of the female sex;

    meam vicem, tuam vicem, etc., for my part, etc.;

    bonam partem, magnam partem, in large part;

    maximam partem, for the most part.

2.  Some phrases of doubtful origin; as,—­

id temporis, at that time;         quod si, but if;
id aetatis, at that time;          cetera, in other respects.

* * * * *

THE DATIVE.

186.  The Dative case, in general, expresses relations which are designated in English by the prepositions to and for.

Dative of Indirect Object.

187.  The commonest use of the Dative is to denote the person to whom something is given, said, or done.  Thus:—­

I. With transitive verbs in connection with the Accusative; as,—­

    hanc pecuniam mihi dat, he gives me this money;

    haec nobis dixit, he said this to us.

  a.  Some verbs which take this construction (particularly dono and
  circumdo) admit also the Accusative of the person along with the Ablative
  of the thing.  Thus:—­

    Either Themistocli munera donavit, he presented gifts to
    Themistocles
, or

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    Themistoclem muneribus donavit, he presented Themistocles with gifts;

    urbi muros circumdat, he builds walls around the city, or

    urbem muris circumdat, he surrounds the city with walls

II.  With many intransitive verbs; as,—­

    nulli labori cedit, he yields to no labor.

a.  Here belong many verbs signifying favor,[48] help, injure, please, displease, trust, distrust, command, obey, serve, resist, indulge, spare, pardon, envy, threaten, be angry, believe, persuade, and the like; as,—­

    Caesar popularibus favet, Caesar favors (i.e. is favorable to) the
    popular party
;

    amicis confido, I trust (to) my friends;

    Orgetorix Helvetiis persuasit, Orgetorix persuaded (made it acceptable
    to) the Helvetians
;

    bonis nocet qui malis parcit, he injures (does harm to) the good, who
    spares the bad
.

NOTE.—­It is to be borne in mind that these verbs do not take the Dative by virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are intransitive, and adapted to an indirect object.  Some verbs of the same apparent English equivalence are transitive and govern the Accusative; as, juvo, laedo, delecto.  Thus:  audentes deus juvat, God helps the bold; neminem laesit he injured no one.

  b.  Verbs of this class are used in the passive only impersonally; as,—­

    tibi parcitur, you are spared;

    mihi persuadetur, I am being persuaded;

    ei invidetur, he is envied.

  c.  Some of the foregoing verbs admit also a Direct Object in connection
  with the Dative; as,—­

    mihi mortem minitatur, he threatens me with death (threatens death
    to me
).

III.  With many verbs compounded with the prepositions:  ad, ante, circum, com,[49] in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super.

These verbs fall into two main classes,—­

1.  Many simple verbs which cannot take a Dative of the indirect object become capable of doing so when compounded with a preposition; as,—­

    afflictis succurrit, he helps the aflicted;

    exercitui praefuit, he was in command of the army;

    intersum consiliis, I share in the deliberations.

2.  Many transitive verbs which take only a direct object become capable, when compounded, of taking a dative also as indirect object; as,—­

    pecuniae pudorem anteponit, he puts honor before money;

    inicere spem amicis, to inspire hope in one’s friends;

    munitioni Labienum praefecit, he put Labienus in charge of the
    fortifications
.

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Dative of Reference.

188. 1.  The Dative of Reference denotes the person to whom a statement refers, of whom it is true, or to whom it is of interest; as,—­

    mihi ante oculos versaris, you hover before my eyes (lit. hover
    before the eyes to me
);

    illi severitas amorem non deminuit, in his case severity did not
    diminish love
(lit. to him severity did not diminish);

    intercludere inimicis commeatum, to cut of the supplies of the enemy.

  a.  Note the phrase alicui interdicere aqua et igni, to interdict one
  from fire and water
.

NOTE.—­The Dative of Reference, unlike the Dative of Indirect Object, does not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a whole.  It is often used where, according to the English idiom, we should expect a Genitive; so in the first and third of the above examples.

2.  Special varieties of the Dative of Reference are—­

  a) Dative of the Local Standpoint.  This is regularly a participle; as,—­

    oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro, the first town of
    Thessaly as you come from Epirus
(lit. to those coming from Epirus).

  b) Ethical Dative.  This name is given to those Dative constructions of
  the personal pronouns in which the connection of the Dative with the rest
  of the sentence is of the very slightest sort; as,—­

    tu mihi istius audaciam defendis? tell me, do you defend that man’s
    audacity?

    quid mihi Celsus agit? what is my Celsus doing?

  c) Dative of Person Judging; as,—­

    erit ille mihi semper deus, he will always be a god to me (i.e. in my
    opinion);

    quae ista servitus tam claro homini, how can that be slavery to so
    illustrious a man
(i.e. to his mind)!

  d) Dative of Separation.  Some verbs of taking away, especially
  compounds of ab, de, ex, ad, govern a Dative of the person, less often of
  the thing; as,—­

    honorem detraxerunt homini, they took away the honor from the man;

    Caesar regi tetrarchiam eripuit, Caesar took the tetrarchy away from
    the king
;

    silici scintillam excudit, he struck a spark from the flint.

Dative of Agency.

189.  The Dative is used to denote agency—­

1.  Regularly with the Gerundive; as,—­

    haec nobis agenda sunt, these things must be done by us;

    mihi eundum est, I must go (lit. it must be gone by me).

  a.  To avoid ambiguity, a with the Ablative is sometimes used with the
  Gerundive; as,—­

    hostibus a nobis parcendum est, the enemy must be spared by us.

2.  Much less frequently with the compound tenses of the passive voice and the perfect passive participle; as,—­

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    disputatio quae mihi nuper habita est, the discussion which was
    recently conducted by me
.

3.  Rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive; as,—­

    honesta bonis viris quaeruntur, noble ends are sought by good men.

Dative of Possession.

190.  The Dative of Possession occurs with the verb esse in such expressions as:—­

    mihi est liber, I have a book;

    mihi nomen est Marcus, I have the name Marcus.

1.  But with nomen est the name is more commonly attracted into the Dative; as, mihi Marco nomen est.

Dative of Purpose or Tendency.

191.  The Dative of Purpose or Tendency designates the end toward which an action is directed or the direction in which it tends.  It is used—­

1.  Unaccompanied by another Dative; as,—­

    castris locum deligere, to choose a place for a camp;

    legiones praesidio relinquere, to leave the legions as a guard (lit.
    for a guard);

    receptui canere, to sound the signal for a retreat.

2.  Much more frequently in connection with another Dative of the person:—­

  a) Especially with some form of esse; as,—­

    fortunae tuae mihi curae sunt, your fortunes are a care to me (lit.
    for a care);

    quibus sunt odio, to whom they are an object of hatred;

    cui bono? to whom is it of advantage?

  b) With other verbs; as,—­

    hos tibi muneri misit, he has sent these to you for a present;

    Pausanias Atticis venit auxilio, Pausanias came to the aid of the
    Athenians
(lit. to the Athenians for aid).

3.  In connection with the Gerundive; as,—­

    decemviri legibus scribundis, decemvirs for codifying the laws;

    me gerendo bello ducem creavere, me they have made leader for carrying
    on the war
.

NOTE.—­This construction with the gerundive is not common till Livy.

Dative with Adjectives.

192.  The use of the Dative with Adjectives corresponds very closely to its use with verbs.  Thus:—­

1.  Corresponding to the Dative of Indirect Object it occurs with adjectives signifying:  friendly, unfriendly, similar, dissimilar, equal, near, related to, etc.; as,—­

    mihi inimicus, hostile to me;

    sunt proximi Germanis, they are next to the Germans;

    noxiae poena par esto, let the penalty be equal to the damage.

  a.  For propior and proximus with the Accusative, see Sec. 141, 3.

2.  Corresponding to the Dative of Purpose, the Dative occurs with adjectives signifying:  suitable, adapted, fit; as,—­

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    castris idoneus locus, a place fit for a camp;

    apta dies sacrificio, a day suitable for a sacrifice.

NOTE.—­Adjectives of this last class often take the Accusative with ad.

Dative of Direction.

193.  In the poets the Dative is occasionally used to denote the direction of motion; as,—­

    it clamor caelo, the shout goes heavenward;

    cineres rivo fluenti jace, cast the ashes toward a flowing stream.

1.  By an extension of this construction the poets sometimes use the Dative to denote the limit of motion; as,—­

    dum Latio deos inferret, till he should bring his gods to Latium.

* * * * *

THE GENITIVE.

194.  The Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

GENITIVE WITH NOUNS.

195.  With Nouns the Genitive is the case which defines the meaning of the limited noun more closely.  This relation is generally indicated in English by the preposition of.  There are the following varieties of the Genitive with Nouns:—­

Genitive of Origin,        Objective Genitive,
Genitive of Material,      Genitive of the Whole,
Genitive of Possession,    Appositional Genitive,
Subjective Genitive,       Genitive of Quality.

196.  Genitive of Origin; as,—­

    Marci filius, the son of Marcus.

197.  Genitive of Material; as,—­

    talentum auri, a talent of gold;

    acervus frumenti, a pile of grain.

198.  Genitive of Possession or Ownership; as,—­

    domus Ciceronis, Cicero’s house.

1.  Here belongs the Genitive with causa and gratia.  The Genitive always precedes; as,—­

    hominum causa, for the sake of men;

    meorum amicorum gratia, for the sake of my friends.

2.  The Possessive Genitive is often used predicatively, especially with esse and fieri; as,—­

    domus est regis, the house is the king’s;

    stulti est in errore manere, it is (the part) of a fool to remain in
    error
;

    de bello judicium imperatoris est, non militum, the decision
    concerning war belongs to the general, not to the soldiers
.

  a.  For the difference in force between the Possessive Genitive and the
  Dative of Possession, see Sec. 359, 1.

199.  Subjective Genitive.  This denotes the person who makes or produces something or who has a feeling; as,—­

    dicta Platonis, the utterances of Plato;

    timores liberorum, the fears of the children.

200.  Objective Genitive.  This denotes the object of an action or feeling; as,—­

    metus deorum, the fear of the gods;

    amor libertatis, love of liberty;

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    consuetudo bonorum hominum, intercourse with good men.

1.  This relation is often expressed by means of prepositions; as,—­

    amor erga parentes, love toward one’s parents.

201.  Genitive of the Whole.  This designates the whole of which a part is taken.  It is used—­

1.  With Nouns, Pronouns, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Ordinal Numerals; as,—­

    magna pars hominum, a great part of mankind;

    duo milia peditum, two thousand foot-soldiers;

    quis mortalium, who of mortals?

    major fratrum, the elder of the brothers;

    gens maxima Germanorum, the largest tribe of the Germans;

    primus omnium, the first of all.

  a.  Yet instead of the Genitive of the Whole we often find ex or de with
  the Ablative, regularly so with Cardinal numbers and quidam; as,—­

    fidelissimus de servis, the most trusty of the slaves;

    quidam ex amicis, certain of his friends;

    unus ex militibus, one of the soldiers.

  b.  In English we often use of where there is no relation of whole to
  part.  In such cases the Latin is more exact, and does not use the
  Genitive; as,—­

    quot vos estis, how many of you are there?

    trecenti conjuravimus, three hundred of us have conspired (i.e. we,
    three hundred in number).

2.  The Genitive of the Whole is used also with the Nominative or Accusative Singular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives used substantively; also with the Adverbs parum, satis, and partim when used substantively; as,—­

    quid consili, what purpose?

    tantum cibi, so much food;

    plus auctoritatis, more authority;

    minus laboris, less labor;

    satis pecuniae, enough money;

    parum industriae, too little industry.

  a.  An Adjective of the second declension used substantively may be
  employed as a Genitive of the Whole; as, nihil boni, nothing good.

  b.  But Adjectives of the third declension agree directly with the noun
  they limit; as, nihil dulcius, nothing sweeter.

3.  Occasionally we find the Genitive of the Whole dependent upon Adverbs of place; as,—­

    ubi terrarum? ubi gentium? where in the world?

a.  By an extension of this usage the Genitive sometimes occurs in dependence upon pridie and postridie, but only in the phrases pridie ejus diei, on the day before that; postridie ejus diei, on the day after that.

202.  Appositional Genitive.  The Genitive sometimes has the force of an appositive; as,—­

    nomen regis, the name of king;

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    poena mortis, the penalty of death;

    ars scribendi, the art of writing.

203.  Genitive of Quality.  The Genitive modified by an Adjective is used to denote quality.  This construction presents several varieties.  Thus it is used—­

1.  To denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a person or thing; as,—­

    vir magnae virtutis, a man of great virtue;

    rationes ejus modi, considerations of that sort.

  a.  Only a limited number of Adjectives occur in this construction,
  chiefly magnus, maximus, summus, tantus, along with ejus.

2.  To denote measure (breadth, length, etc.); as,—­

    fossa quindecim pedum, a trench fifteen feet wide (or deep);

    exsilium decem annorum, an exile of ten years.

3.  Equivalent to the Genitive of Quality (though probably of different origin) are the Genitives tanti, quanti, parvi, magni, minoris, pluris, minimi, plurimi, maximi.  These are used predicatively to denote indefinite value; as,—­

    nulla studia tanti sunt, no studies are of so much value;

    magni opera ejus existimata est, his assistance was highly esteemed.

4.  By an extension of the notion of value, quanti, tanti, pluris, and minoris are also used with verbs of buying and selling, to denote indefinite price; as,—­

    quanti aedes emisti, at how high a price did you purchase the house?

5.  Any of the above varieties of the Genitive of Quality may be used predicatively; as,—­

    tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem, of so great difficulty was
    it to found the Roman race
.

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

204.  The Genitive is used with many Adjectives to limit the extent of their application.  Thus:—­

1.  With adjectives signifying desire, knowledge, familiarity, memory, participation, power, fullness, and their opposites; as,—­

    studiosus discendi, desirous of learning;

    peritus belli, skilled in war;

    insuetus laboris, unused to toil;

    immemor mandati tui, unmindful of your commission;

    plena periculorum est vita, life is full of dangers.

  a.  Some participles used adjectively also take the Genitive; as,—­

    diligens veritatis, fond of truth;

    amans patriae, devoted to one’s country.

2.  Sometimes with proprius and communis; as,—­

    viri propria est fortitudo, bravery is characteristic of a man.

    memoria est communis omnium artium, memory is common to all
    professions
.

  a. proprius and communis are also construed with the Dative.

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3.  With similis the Genitive is the commoner construction in Cicero, when the reference is to living objects; as,—­

    filius patris simillimus est, the son is exactly like his father;

    mei similis, like me; vestri similis, like you.

When the reference is to things, both Genitive and Dative occur; as,—­

    mors somno (or somni) similis est, death is like sleep.

4.  In the poets and later prose writers the use of the Genitive with Adjectives is extended far beyond earlier limits; as, atrox animi, fierce of temper; incertus consili, undecided in purpose.

GENITIVE WITH VERBS.

205.  The Genitive is used with the following classes of Verbs:—­

Memini, Reminiscor, Obliviscor.

206. 1.  WHEN REFERRING TO PERSONS—­

  a. memini always takes the Genitive of personal or reflexive pronouns;
  as,—­

    mei memineris, remember me!

    nostri meminit, he remembers us.

With other words denoting persons memini takes the Accusative, rarely the Genitive; as,—­

    Sullam memini, I recall Sulla;

    vivorum memini, I remember the living.

  b. obliviscor regularly takes the Genitive; as,—­

    Epicuri non licet oblivisci, we mustn’t forget Epicurus.

2.  WHEN REFERRING TO THINGS, memini, reminiscor, obliviscor take sometimes the Genitive, sometimes the Accusative, without difference of meaning; as,—­

    animus praeteritorum meminit, the mind remembers the past;

    meministine nomina, do you remember the names?

    reminiscere veteris incommodi, remember the former disaster;

    reminiscens acerbitatem, remembering the bitterness.

  a.  But neuter pronouns, and adjectives used substantively, regularly
  stand in the Accusative; as,—­

    haec memini, I remember this;

    multa reminiscor, I remember many things.

3.  The phrase mihi (tibi, etc.) in mentem venit, following the analogy of memini, takes the Genitive; as,—­

    mihi patriae veniebat in mentem, I remembered my country.

Admoneo, Commoneo, Commonefacio.

207.  These verbs, in addition to an Accusative of the person, occasionally take a Genitive of the thing; as,—­

    te veteris amicitiae commonefacio, I remind you of our old
    friendship.

  a.  But more frequently (in Cicero almost invariably) these verbs take de
  with the Ablative; as,—­

    me admones de sorore, you remind me of your sister.

  b.  A neuter pronoun or adjective used substantively regularly stands in
  the Accusative (Sec. 178, 1, d); as,—­

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    te hoc admoneo, I give you this warning.

Verbs of Judicial Action.

208. 1.  Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Acquitting take the Genitive of the charge; as,—­

    me furti accusat, he accuses me of theft;

    Verrem avaritiae coarguit, he convicts Verres of avarice;

    impietatis absolutus est, he was acquitted of blasphemy.

2.  Verbs of Condemning take—­

  a.  The Genitive of the charge; as,—­

    pecuniae publicae condemnatus, condemned (on the charge) of
    embezzlement
(lit. public money);

    capitis damnatus, condemned on a capital charge (lit. on a charge
    involving his head
).

  b.  The Ablative of the penalty; as,—­

    capite damnatus est, he was condemned to death;

    mille nummis damnatus est, he was condemned (to pay) a thousand
    sesterces
(lit. by a thousand sesterces, Abl. of Means).

3.  Note the phrases:—­

    voti damnatus, voti reus, having attained one’s prayer (lit.
    condemned on the score of one’s vow);

    de vi, (accused, convicted, etc.) of assault;

    inter sicarios, (accused, convicted, etc.) of murder.

Genitive with Impersonal Verbs.

209. 1.  The Impersonals pudet, paenitet, miseret, taedet, piget take the Accusative of the person affected, along with the Genitive of the person or thing toward whom the feeling is directed; as,—­

    pudet me tui, I am ashamed of you (lit. it shames me of you);

    paenitet me hujus facti, I repent of this act;

    eum taedet vitae, he is weary of life;

    pauperum te miseret, you pity the poor.

  a.  Instead of the Genitive of the thing we often find an Infinitive or
  Neuter Pronoun used as subject of the verb.  Thus;—­

    me paenitet hoc fecisse, I repent of having done this;

    me hoc pudet, I am ashamed of this.

2.  Misereor and miseresco also govern the Genitive; as,—­

    miseremini sociorum, pity the allies.

Interest, Refert.

210.  With interest, it concerns, three points enter into consideration; viz.—­

  a) the person concerned;
  b) the thing about which he is concerned;
  c) the extent of his concern.

211. 1.  The person concerned is regularly denoted by the Genitive; as,—­

    patris interest, it concerns the father.

  a.  But instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, mei, tui,
  nostri, vestri, the Latin uses the Ablative Singular Feminine of the
  Possessive, viz.:  mea, tua, etc.; as,—­

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    mea interest, it concerns me.

2.  The thing about which a person is concerned is denoted—­

  a) by a Neuter Pronoun as subject; as,—­

    hoc rei publicae interest, this concerns the state.

  b) by an Infinitive; as,—­

    omnium interest valere, it concerns all to keep well.

  c) by an Indirect Question; as,—­

    mea interest quando venias, I am concerned as to when you are coming.

3.  The degree of concern is denoted—­

  a) by the Genitive (cf.  Sec. 203, 3):  magni, parvi, etc.; as,—­

    mea magni interest, it concerns me greatly.

  b) by the Adverbs, magnopere, magis, maxime, etc.; as,—­

    civium minime interest, it concerns the citizens very little.

  c) by the Neuters, multum, plus, minus, etc.; as,—­

    multum vestra interest, it concerns you much.

4.  Refert follows interest in its construction, except that it rarely takes the Genitive of the person.  Thus:—­

    mea refert, it concerns me;

but rarely illius refert, it concerns him.

Genitive with Other Verbs.

212. 1.  Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the Genitive; as,—­

    pecuniae indiges, you need money.

  a.  These verbs more commonly take the Ablative (Sec. 214, 1); indigeo is the
  only verb which has a preference for the Genitive.

2.  Potior, though usually followed by the Ablative, sometimes takes the Genitive, almost always so in Sallust; and regularly in the phrase potiri rerum, to get control of affairs.

3.  In poetry some verbs take the Genitive in imitation of the Greek; as,—­

    desine querellarum, cease your complaints;

    operum soluti, freed from their tasks.

* * * * *

THE ABLATIVE.

213.  The Latin Ablative unites in itself three cases which were originally distinct both in form and in meaning; viz.—­

  The Ablative or from-case. 
  The Instrumental or with-case. 
  The Locative or where-case.

The uses of the Latin Ablative accordingly fall into Genuine Ablative uses, Instrumental uses, and Locative uses.

GENUINE ABLATIVE USES.

Ablative of Separation.

214.  The Ablative of Separation is construed sometimes with, sometimes without, a preposition.

1.  The following words regularly take the Ablative without a preposition:—­

  a) The Verbs of freeing:  libero, solvo, levo;

  b) The Verbs of depriving:  privo, spolio, exuo, fraudo, nudo;

  c) The Verbs of lacking:  egeo, careo, vaco;

  d) The corresponding Adjectives, liber, inanis, vacuus, nudus,

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  and some others of similar meaning.

  Thus:—­

    curis liberatus, freed from cares;

    Caesar hostes armis exuit, Caesar stripped the enemy of their arms;

    caret sensu communi, he lacks common sense;

    auxilio eget, he needs help;

    bonorum vita vacua est metu, the life of the good is free from fear.

NOTE 1.—­Yet Adjectives and libero may take the preposition ab,—­regularly so with the Ablative of persons; as,—­

    urbem a tyranno liberarunt, they freed the city from the tyrant.

NOTE 2.—­Indigeo usually takes the Genitive.  See Sec. 212, 1, a.

2.  Of Verbs signifying to keep from, to remove, to withdraw, some take the preposition, others omit it.  The same Verb often admits both constructions.  Examples:—­

    abstinere cibo, to abstain from food;

    hostes finibus prohibuerunt, they kept the enemy from their borders;

    praedones ab insula prohibuit, he kept the pirates from the island.

3.  Other Verbs of separation usually take the Ablative with a Prepositon, particularly compounds of dis- and se-; as,—­

    dissentio a te, I dissent from you;

    secernantur a nobis, let them be separated from us.

4.  The Preposition is freely omitted in poetry.

Ablative of Source.

215.  The Ablative of Source is used with the participles natus and ortus (in poetry also with editus, satus, and some others), to designate parentage or station; as,—­

    Jove natus, son of Jupiter;

    summo loco natus, high-born (lit. born from a very high place);

    nobili genere ortus, born of a noble family.

1.  Pronouns regularly (nouns rarely) take ex; as,

    ex me natus, sprung from me.

2.  To denote remoter descent, ortus ab, or oriundus (with or without ab), is used; as,—­

    ab Ulixe oriundus, descended from Ulysses.

Ablative of Agent.

216.  The Ablative accompanied by a (ab) is used with passive verbs to denote the personal agent; as,—­

    a Caesare accusatus est, he was arraigned by Caesar.

1.  Collective nouns referring to persons, and abstract nouns when personified, may be construed as the personal agent.  Thus:—­

    hostes a fortuna deserebantur, the enemy were deserted by Fortune;

    a multitudine hostium montes tenebantur, the mountains were held by a
    multitude of the enemy
.

2.  Names of animals sometimes admit the same construction.  Thus:—­

    a canibus laniatus est, he was torn to pieces by dogs.

Ablative of Comparison.

217. 1.  The Ablative is often used with Comparatives in the sense of than; as,—­

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    melle dulcior, sweeter than honey;

    patria mihi vita carior est, my country is dearer to me than life.

2.  This construction, as a rule, occurs only as a substitute for quam (than) with the Nominative or Accusative.  In other cases quam must be used; as,—­

    tui studiosior sum quam illius, I am fonder of you than of him.

    —­Studiosior illo would have meant, I am fonder of you than he is.

Plus, minus, amplius, longius are often employed as the equivalents of plus quam, minus quam, etc.  Thus:—­

    amplius viginti urbes incenduntur, more than twenty cities are fired;

    minus quinque milia processit, he advanced less than five miles.

3.  Note the use of opinione with Comparatives; as,—­

    opinione celerius venit, he comes more quickly than expected (lit.
    than opinion).

INSTRUMENTAL USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

Ablative of Means.

218.  The Ablative is used to denote means or instrument; as,—­

    Alexander sagitta vulneratus est, Alexander was wounded by an arrow.

There are the following special varieties of this Ablative:—­

1.  Utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds take the Ablative; as,—­

    divitiis utitur, he uses his wealth (lit. he benefits himself by his
    wealth
);

    vita fruitur, he enjoys life (lit. he enjoys himself by life);

    munere fungor, I perform my duty (lit. I busy myself with duty);

    carne vescuntur, they eat flesh (lit. feed themselves by means of);

    castris potitus est, he got possession of the camp (lit. made
    himself powerful by the camp
).

  a..  Potior sometimes governs the Genitive.  See Sec. 212, 2.

2.  With opus est (rarely usus est), there is need; as,—­

    duce nobis opus est, we need a leader.

  a.  A Neuter Pronoun or Adjective often stands as subject with opus as
  predicate.  Thus:—­

    hoc mihi opus est, this is necessary for me.

  b.  An ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject.  Thus dux nobis opus
  est is a rare form of expression.

  c.  Note the occasional use of a perfect passive participle with opus est;
  as,—­

    opus est properato, there is need of haste.

3.  With nitor, innixus, and fretus; as,—­

    nititur hasta, he rests on a spear (lit. supports himself by a
    spear
);

    fretus virtute, relying on virtue (lit. supported by virtue).

4.  With contineri, consistere, constare, consist of; as,—­

    nervis et ossibus continentur, they consist of sinews and bones (lit.
    they are held together by sinews and bones);

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    mortali consistit corpore mundus, the world consists of mortal
    substance
(lit. holds together by means of, etc.).

6.  In expressions of the following type:—­

    quid hoc homine facias, what can you do with this man?

    quid mea Tulliola fiet, what will become of my dear Tullia? (lit.
    what will be done with my dear Tullia?)

7.  In the following special phrases at variance with the ordinary English idiom:—­

    proelio contendere, vincere, to contend, conquer in battle;

    proelio lacessere, to provoke to battle;

    curru vehi, to ride in a chariot;

    pedibus ire, to go on foot;

    castris se tenere, to keep in camp.

8.  With Verbs of filling and Adjectives of plenty; as,—­

    fossas virgultis complerunt, they filled the trenches with brush.

  a.  But plenus more commonly takes the Genitive.  See Sec. 204, 1.

9.  Under ‘Means’ belongs also the Ablative of the Way by Which; as,—­

    vinum Tiberi devectum, wine brought down (by) the Tiber.

10.  The means may be a person as well as a thing.  Thus:—­

    militibus a lacu Lemanno ad montem Juram murum perducit, with (i.e.
    by means of) his troops he runs a wall from Lake Geneva to Mt.  Jura.

Ablative of Cause.

219.  The Ablative is used to denote cause; as,—­

    multa gloriae cupiditate fecit, he did many things on account of his
    love of glory
.

1.  So especially with verbs denoting mental states; as, delector, gaudeo, laetor, glorior, fido, confido.  Also with contentus; as,—­

    fortuna amici gaudeo, I rejoice at the fortune of my friend (i.e. on
    account of it
);

    victoria sua gloriantur, they exult over their victory;

    natura loci confidebant, they trusted in the character of their
    country
(lit. were confident on account of the character).

  a. fido and confido always take the Dative of the person (Sec. 187, II, a);
  sometimes the Dative of the thing.

2.  As Ablatives of Cause are to be reckoned also such Ablatives as jussu, by order of, injussu, without the order, rogatu, etc.

Ablative of Manner.

220.  The Ablative with cum is used to denote manner; as,—­

    cum gravitate loquitur, he speaks with dignity.

1.  The preposition may be absent when the Ablative is modified by an adjective; as,—­

    magna gravitate loquitur, he speaks with great dignity.

2.  The preposition is regularly absent in the expressions jure, injuria, joco, vi, fraude, voluntate, furto, silentio.

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3.  A special variety of the Ablative of Manner denotes that in accordance with which or in pursuance of which anything is or is done.  It is generally used without a preposition.  Thus:—­

    mea sententia, according to my opinion;

    suis moribus, in accordance with their custom;

    sua sponte, voluntarily, of his (their) own accord;

    ea condicione, on these terms.

Ablative of Attendant Circumstance.

221.  The Ablative is often used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action or an event; as,—­

    bonis auspiciis, under good auspices;

    nulla est altercatio clamoribus umquam habita majoribus, no debate was
    ever held under circumstances of greater applause
;

    exstinguitur ingenti luctu provinciae, he dies under circumstances of
    great grief on the part of the province
;

    longo intervallo sequitur, he follows at a great distance.

Ablative of Accompaniment.

222.  The Ablative with cum is used with verbs of motion to denote accompaniment; as,—­

    cum comitibus profectus est, he set out with his attendants;

    cum febri domum rediit, he returned home with a fever.

1.  In military expressions the Ablative may stand without cum when modified by any adjective except a numeral; as,—­

    omnibus copiis, ingenti exercitu, magna manu; but usually cum exercitu,
    cum duabus legionibus.

Ablative of Association.

222A.  The Ablative is often used with verbs of joining, mixing, clinging, exchanging; also with assuesco, consuesco, assuefacio, and some others to denote association; as,—­

    improbitas scelere juncta, badness joined with crime;

    aer calore admixtus, air mixed with heat;

    assuetus labore, accustomed to (lit. familiarized with) toil;

    pacem bello permutant, they change peace for (lit. with) war.

Ablative of Degree of Difference.

223.  The Ablative is used with comparatives and words involving comparison (as post, ante, infra, supra) to denote the degree of difference; as,—­

    dimidio minor, smaller by a half;

    tribus pedibus altior, three feet higher;

    paulo post, a little afterwards;

    quo plura habemus, eo cupimus ampliora, the more we have, the more we
    want
.

Ablative of Quality.

224.  The Ablative, modified by an adjective, is used to denote quality; as,—­

    puella eximia forma, a girl of exceptional beauty;

    vir singulari industria, a man of singular industry.

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1.  The Ablative of Quality may also be used predicatively; as,—­

    est magna prudentia, he is (a man) of great wisdom;

    bono anima sunt, they are of good courage.

2.  In place of the Adjective we sometimes find a limiting Genitive; as,—­

    sunt specie et colore tauri, they are of the appearance and color of a
    bull
,

3.  In poetry the Ablative of Quality sometimes denotes material; as,—­

    scopulis pendentibus antrum, a cave of arching rocks.

Ablative of Price.

225.  With verbs of buying and selling, price is designated by the Ablative; as—­

    servum quinque minis emit, he bought the slave for five minae.

1.  The Ablatives magno, plurimo, parvo, minimo (by omission of pretio) are used to denote indefinite price; as,—­

    aedes magno vendidit, he sold the house for a high price.

2.  For the Genitive of Indefinite Price, see Sec. 203, 4.

Ablative of Specification.

226.  The Ablative of Specification is used to denote that in respect to which something is or is done; as,—­

    Helvetii omnibus Gallis virtute praestabant, the Helvetians surpassed
    all the Gauls in valor
;

    pede claudus, lame in his foot.

1.  Note the phrases:—­

    major natu, older (lit. greater as to age);

    minor natu, younger.

2.  Here belongs the use of the Ablative with dignus, worthy, indignus, unworthy, and dignor, deem worthy of; as,—­

    digni honore, worthy of honor (i.e. in point of honor);

    fide indigni, unworthy of confidence;

    me dignor honore, I deem myself worthy of honor.

Ablative Absolute.

227.  The Ablative Absolute is grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence.  In its commonest form it consists of a noun or pronoun limited by a participle; as,—­

    urbe capta, Aeneas fugit, when the city had been captured, Aeneas
    fled
(lit. the city having been captured).

1.  Instead of a participle we often find an adjective or noun; as,—­

    vivo Caesare res publica salva erat, while Caesar was alive the state
    was safe
(lit. Caesar being alive);

    Tarquinio rege, Pythagoras in Italiam venit, in the reign of Tarquin
    Pythagoras came into Italy
(lit. Tarquin being king);

    Cn.  Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey
    and Marcus Crassus
(lit. P. and C. being consuls).

2.  The Ablative Absolute is generally used in Latin where in English we employ subordinate clauses.  Thus the Ablative Absolute may correspond to a clause denoting—­

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  a) Time, as in the foregoing examples.

  b) Condition; as,—­

    omnes virtutes jacent, voluptate dominante, all virtues lie prostrate,
    if pleasure is master
.

  c) Opposition; as,—­

    perditis omnibus rebus, virtus se sustentare potest, though everything
    else is lost, yet Virtue can maintain herself
.

  d) Cause; as,—­

    nullo adversante regnum obtinuit, since no one opposed him, he secured
    the throne
.

  e) Attendant circumstance; as,—­

    passis palmis pacem petiverunt, with hands outstretched, they sued for
    peace
.

3.  An Infinitive or clause sometimes occurs in the Ablative Absolute construction, especially in Livy and later writers; as,—­

    audito eum fugisse, when it was heard that he had fled.

4.  A noun or pronoun stands in the Ablative Absolute construction only when it denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause in which it stands.  Exceptions to this principle are extremely rare.

LOCATIVE USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

Ablative of Place.

A.  Place where.

228.  The place where is regularly denoted by the Ablative with a preposition; as,—­

    in urbe habitat, he dwells in the city.

1.  But certain words stand in the Ablative without a preposition; viz.—­

  a) Names of towns,—­except Singulars of the First and Second Declensions
  (see Sec. 232, 1); as,—­

    Carthagini, at Carthage;

    Athenis, at Athens;

    Vejis, at Veii.

  b) The general words loco, locis, parte; also many words modified by
  totus or even by other Adjectives; as,—­

    hoc loco, at this place;

    totis castris, in the whole camp.

  c) The special words:  foris, out of doors; ruri, in the country,
  terra marique, on land and sea.

  d) The poets freely omit the preposition with any word denoting place;
  as,—­

    stant litore puppes, the sterns rest on the beach.

B.  Place from which.[50]

229.  Place from which is regularly denoted by the Ablative with a preposition; as,—­

    ab Italia profectus est, he set out from Italy;

    ex urbe rediit, he returned from the city.

1.  But certain words stand in the Ablative without a preposition; viz.—­

  a) Names of towns and small islands; as,—­

    Roma profectus est, he set out from Rome;

    Rhodo revertit, he returned from Rhodes.

  b) domo, from home; rure, from the country.

  c) Freely in poetry; as,—­

    Italia decessit, he withdrew from Italy.

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2.  With names of towns, ab is used to mean from the vicinity of, or to denote the point whence distance is measured; as,—­

  a Gergovia discessit, he withdrew from the vicinity of Gergovia;

  a Roma X milia aberat, he was ten miles distant from Rome.

Urbe and oppido, when standing in apposition with a town name, are accompanied by a preposition; as,—­

  Curibus ex oppido Sabinorum, from Cures, a town of the Sabines

Ablative of Time.

A.  Time at which.

230.  The Ablative is used to denote the time at which; as,—­

  quarta hora mortuus est, he died at the fourth hour;

  anno septuagesimo consul creatus, elected consul in his seventieth
  year
.

1.  Any word denoting a period of time may stand in this construction, particularly annus, ver, aestas, hiems, dies, nox, hora, comitia (Election Day), ludi (the Games), etc.

2.  Words not denoting time require the preposition in, unless accompanied by a modifier.  Thus:—­

  in pace, in peace; in bello, in war;

  but secundo bello Punico, in the second Punic War.

3.  Expressions like in eo tempore, in summa senectute, take the preposition because they denote situation rather than time.

B.  Time within which.

231.  Time within which is denoted by the Ablative either with or without a preposition; as,—­

    stella Saturni triginta annis cursum conficit, the planet Saturn
    completes its orbit within thirty years
;

    ter in anno, thrice in the course of the year.

1.  Occasionally the Ablative denotes duration of time; as,—­

    biennio prosperas res habuit, for two years he had a prosperous
    administration
.

* * * * *

THE LOCATIVE.

232.  The Locative case occurs chiefly in the following words:—­

1.  Regularly in the Singular of names of towns and small islands of the first and second declensions, to denote the place in which; as,—­

Romae, at Rome; Corinthi, at Corinth;
Rhodi, at Rhodes.

2.  In the following special forms:—­

domi, at home;              humi, on the ground;
belli, in war;              militiae, in war;
vesperi, at evening;        heri, yesterday.

3.  Note the phrase pendere animi, lit. to be in suspense in one’s mind.

4.  For urbs and oppidum in apposition with a Locative, see Sec. 169, 4.

* * * * *

CHAPTER III.—­Syntax of Adjectives.

233. 1.  The word with which an Adjective agrees is called its Subject.

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2.  Attributive and Predicate Adjectives.  An Attributive Adjective is one that limits its subject directly; as,—­

    vir sapiens, a wise man.

A Predicate Adjective is one that limits its subject through the medium of a verb (usually esse); as,—­

    vir est sapiens, the man is wise;

    vir videbatur sapiens, the man seemed wise;

    vir judicatus est sapiens, the man was judged wise;

    hunc virum sapientem judicavimus, we adjudged this man wise.

3.  Participles and Adjective Pronouns have the construction of Adjectives.

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES.

234.  Agreement with One Noun.  When an Adjective limits one noun it agrees with it in Gender, Number, and Case.

1.  Two Adjectives in the Singular may limit a noun in the Plural, as; prima et vicesima legiones, the first and twentieth legions.

2.  A Predicate Adjective may stand in the Neuter when its Subject is Masculine or Feminine and denotes a thing; as,—­

    omnium rerum mors est extremum, death is the end of all things.

235.  Agreement with Two or More Nouns.

A. AGREEMENT AS TO NUMBER.

1.  When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees in number with the nearest noun; as,—­

    pater tuus et mater, your father and mother;

    eadem alacritas et studium, the same eagerness and zeal.

2.  When the Adjective is Predicative, it is regularly Plural; as,—­

    pax et concordia sunt pulchrae, peace and concord are glorious.

B. AGREEMENT AS TO GENDER.

1.  When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees in gender with the nearest noun; as,—­

    res operae multae ac laboris, a matter of much effort and labor.

2.  When the Adjective is Predicative—­

  a) If the nouns are of the same gender, the Adjective agrees with them in
  gender; as,—­

    pater et filius capti sunt, father and son were captured.

  Yet with feminine abstract nouns, the Adjective is more frequently
  Neuter; as,—­

    stultitia et timiditas fugienda sunt, folly and cowardice must be
    shunned
.

  b) If the nouns are of different gender; then,—­

    a) In case they denote persons, the Adjective is Masculine; as,—­

    pater et mater mortui sunt, the father and mother have died.

    b) In case they denote things, the Adjective is Neuter; as,—­

    honores et victoriae fortuita sunt, honors and victories are
    accidental.

    c) In case they include both persons and things, the Adjective is,—­

      aa) Sometimes Masculine; as,—­

    domus, uxor, liberi inventi sunt, home, wife, and children are
    secured.

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      bb) Sometimes Neuter; as,—­

    parentes, liberos, domos vilia habere, to hold parents, children,
    houses cheap.

      cc) Sometimes it agrees with the nearest noun; as,—­

    populi provinciaeque liberatae sunt, nations and provinces were
    liberated.

  c) Construction according to Sense.  Sometimes an Adjective does not agree
  with a noun according to strict grammatical form, but according to sense;
  as,—­

    pars bestiis objecti sunt, part (of the men) were thrown to beasts.

ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY.

236. 1.  PLURAL ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY.  Adjectives are quite freely used as Substantives in the Plural.  The Masculine denotes persons; the Neuter denotes things; as,—­

  docti, scholars; parva, small things;
  mali, the wicked; magna, great things;
  Graeci, the Greeks; utilia, useful things;
                nostri, our men.

2.  Neuter Plural Adjectives thus used are confined mainly to the Nominative and Accusative cases.  Such forms as magnorum, omnium; magnis, omnibus, would ordinarily lead to ambiguity; yet where there is no ambiguity, they sometimes occur; as,—­

    parvis componere magna, to compare great things with small

Otherwise the Latin says:  magnarum rerum, magnis rebus, etc.

237.  SINGULAR ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY.  Adjectives are less freely used as Substantives in the Singular than in the Plural.

1.  Masculine Adjectives occur only occasionally in this use; as,—­

    probus invidet nemini, the honest man envies nobody.

  a.  Usually vir, homo, or some similar word is employed; as,—­

    homo doctus, a scholar;

    vir Romanus, a Roman.

  b.  But when limited by a pronoun any adjective may be so used; as,—­

    hic doctus, this scholar;

    doctus quidam, a certain scholar.

2.  Neuters are likewise infrequent; as,—­

    verum, truth;

    justum, justice;

    honestum, virtue.

  a.  This substantive use of Neuter Singulars is commonest in the
  construction of the Genitive of the Whole, and after Prepositions; as,—­

    aliquid veri, something true;

    nihil novi, nothing new;

    in medio, in the midst.

238.  From Adjectives which, like the above, occasionally admit the substantive use, must be carefully distinguished certain others which have become nouns; as,—­

  adversarius, opponent; hiberna, winter
                              quarters
;
  aequalis, contemporary; propinquus, relative;
  amicus, friend; socius, partner;
  cognatus, kinsman; sodalis, comrade;
                vicinus, neighbor; etc.

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ADJECTIVES WITH THE FORCE OF ADVERBS.

239.  The Latin often uses an Adjective where the English idiom employs an Adverb or an adverbial phrase; as,—­

    senatus frequens convenit, the senate assembled in great numbers;

    fuit assiduus mecum, he was constantly with me.

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.

240. 1.  The Comparative often corresponds to the English Positive with ‘rather,’ ‘somewhat,’ ‘too’; as,—­

    senectus est loquacior, old age is rather talkative.

2.  So the Superlative often corresponds to the Positive with ‘very’; as,—­

    vir fortissimus, a very brave man.

3.  Strengthening Words.  Vel and quam are often used with the Superlative as strengthening particles, vel with the force of ‘very,’ and quam with the force of ‘as possible’; as,—­

    vel maximus, the very greatest;

    quam maximae copiae, as great forces as possible.

4.  Phrases of the type ‘more rich than brave’ regularly take the Comparative in both members; as,—­

    exercitus erat ditior quam fortior, the army was more rich than
    brave.

OTHER PECULIARITIES.

241. 1.  Certain Adjectives may be used to denote a part of an object, chiefly primus, extremus, summus, medius, infimus, imus; as,—­

    summus mons, the top of the mountain;

    extrema hieme, in the last part of the winter.

2.  Prior, primus, ultimus, and postremus are frequently equivalent to a relative clause; as,—­

    primus eam vidi, I was the first who saw her;

    ultimus decessit, he was the last who withdrew.

3.  When multus and another adjective both limit the same noun et is generally used; as,—­

    multae et magnae cogitationes, many (and) great thoughts.

* * * * *

CHAPTER IV.—­Syntax of Pronouns.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

242. 1.  The Personal Pronouns as subjects of verbs are, as a rule, not expressed except for the purpose of emphasis, contrast, or clearness.  Thus ordinarily:—­

    video, I see; amat, he loves.

But ego te video, et tu me vides, I see you, and you see me.

2.  The Genitives mei, tui, nostri, vestri are used only as Objective Genitives; nostrum and vestrum as Genitives of the Whole.  Thus:—­

    memor tui, mindful of you;

    desiderium vestri, longing for you;

    nemo vestrum, no one of you.

  a.  But nostrum and vestrum are regularly used in the place of the
  Possessive in the phrases omnium nostrum, omnium vestrum.

3.  The First Plural is often used for the First Singular of Pronouns and Verbs.  Compare the Eng. editorial ‘we.’

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4.  When two Verbs govern the same object, the Latin does not use a pronoun with the second, as is the rule in English.  Thus:—­

    virtus amicitias conciliat et conservat, virtue establishes
    friendships and maintains them
(not eas conservat).

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

243. 1.  The Possessive Pronouns, as a rule, are not employed except for the purpose of clearness.  Thus:—­

    patrem amo, I love my father;

    de filii morte flebas, you wept for the death of your son.

  But—­

    de morte filii mei flebas, you wept for the death of my son.

  a.  When expressed merely for the sake of clearness, the possessive
  usually stands after its noun; but in order to indicate emphasis or
  contrast, it precedes; as,—­

    sua manu liberos occidit, with his own hand he slew his children;

    mea quidem sententia, in my opinion at least.

2.  Sometimes the Possessive Pronouns are used with the force of an Objective Genitive; as,—­

    metus vester, fear of you;

    desiderium tuum, longing for you.

3.  For special emphasis, the Latin employs ipsius or ipsorum, in apposition with the Genitive idea implied in the Possessive; as,—­

    mea ipsius opera, by my own help;

    nostra ipsorum opera, by our own help.

  a.  So sometimes other Genitives; as,—­

    mea unius opera, by the assistance of me alone.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

244. 1.  The Reflexive Pronoun se and the Possessive Reflexive suus have a double use:—­

I. They may refer to the subject of the clause (either principal or subordinate) in which they stand,—­’Direct Reflexives’; as,—­

    se amant, they love themselves;

    suos amicos adjuvat, he helps his own friends;

    eum oravi, ut se servaret, I besought him to save himself.

II.  They may stand in a subordinate clause and refer to the subject of the principal clause,—­’Indirect Reflexives’; as,—­

    me oravit ut se defenderem, he besought me to defend him (lit. that
    I defend himself
);

    me oraverunt, ut fortunarum suarum defensionem susciperem, they
    besought me to undertake the defense of their fortunes
.

  a.  The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses which
  express the thought, not of the author, but of the subject of the
  principal clause.

2.  The Genitive sui is regularly employed, like mei and tui, as an Objective Genitive, e.g. oblitus sui, forgetful of himself; but it occasionally occurs—­particularly in post-Augustan writers—­in place of the Possessive suus; as, fruitur fama sui, he enjoys his own fame.

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3.  Se and suus are sometimes used in the sense, one’s self, one’s own, where the reference is not to any particular person; as,—­

    se amare, to love one’s self;

    suum genium propitiare, to propitiate one’s own genius.

4.  Suus sometimes occurs in the meaning his own, their own, etc., referring not to the subject but to an oblique case; as,—­

    Hannibalem sui cives e civitate ejecerunt, his own fellow-citizens
    drove out Hannibal.

    a.  This usage is particularly frequent in combination with quisque;
    as,—­

    suus quemque error vexat, his own error troubles each.

5.  The Reflexives for the first and second persons are supplied by the oblique cases of ego and tu (Sec. 85); as,—­

    vos defenditis, you defend yourselves.

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.

245. 1.  The Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun (’each other’), but expresses the reciprocal notion by the phrases:  inter nos, inter vos, inter se; as,—­

    Belgae obsides inter se dederunt, the Belgae gave each other hostages
    (lit. among themselves);

    amamus inter nos, we love each other;

    Galli inter se cohortati sunt, the Gauls exhorted each other.

  a.  Note that the Object is not expressed in sentences of this type.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

Hic, Ille, Iste.

246. 1.  Where hic and ille are used in contrast, hic usually refers to the latter of two objects, and ille to the former.

2.  Hic and ille are often used in the sense of ‘the following’; as,—­

    Themistocles his verbis epistulam misit, Themistocles sent a letter
    (couched) in the following words
;

    illud intellego, omnium ora in me conversa esse, I understand this,
    that the faces of all are turned toward me
.

3.  Ille often means the famous; as, Solon ille, the famous Solon.

4.  Iste frequently involves contempt; as, iste homo, that fellow!

5.  The above pronouns, along with is, are usually attracted to the gender of a predicate noun; as, hic est honor, meminisse officium suum, this is an honor, to be mindful of one’s duty.

Is.

247. 1.  Is often serves as the antecedent of the relative qui.  Thus:—­

    Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recepit, dilexi, I loved Maximus, the man
    who retook Tarentum
.

  a.  Closely akin to this usage is is in the sense of such (= talis);
  as,—­

    non sum is qui terrear, I am not such a person as to be frightened.

  b.  Note the phrase id quod, where id stands in apposition with an entire
  clause; as,—­

    non suspicabatur (id quod nunc sentiet) satis multos testes nobis
    reliquos esse, he did not suspect (a thing which he will now perceive)
    that we had witnesses enough left
.

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  Yet quod alone, without preceding id, sometimes occurs in this use.

2.  Is also in all cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third person, ‘he,’ ‘she,’ ‘it,’ ‘they,’ ‘them.’

3.  When the English uses ‘that of,’ ‘those of,’ to avoid repetition of the noun, the Latin omits the pronoun:  as,—­

    in exercitu Sullae et postea in Crassi fuerat, he had been in the army
    of Sulla and afterward in that of Crassus
;

    nullae me fabulae delectant nisi Plauti, no plays delight me except
    those of Plautus
.

4.  Note the phrases et is, et ea, etc., in the sense:  and that too; as,—­

    vincula, et ea sempiterna, imprisonment, and that too permanently.

Idem.

248. 1.  Idem in apposition with the subject or object often has the force of also, likewise; as,—­

    quod idem mihi contigit, which likewise happened to me (lit. which,
    the same thing
);

    bonus vir, quem eundem sapientem appellamus, a good man, whom we call
    also wise
.

For idem atque (ac), the same as, see Sec. 341, 1. c.

Ipse.

249. 1.  Ipse, literally self, acquires its special force from the context; as,—­

    eo ipso die, on that very day;

    ad ipsam ripam, close to the bank;

    ipso terrore, by mere fright;

    valvae se ipsae aperuerunt, the doors opened of their own accord;

    ipse aderat, he was present in person.

2.  The reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of ipse, but ipse in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the reflexive, more commonly agrees with the subject; as,—­

    secum ipsi loquuntur, they talk with themselves;

    se ipse continere non potest, he cannot contain himself

3.  Ipse is also used as an Indirect Reflexive for the purpose of marking a contrast or avoiding an ambiguity; as,—­

    Persae pertimuerunt ne Alcibiades ab ipsis descisceret et cum suis in
    gratiam rediret, the Persians feared that Alcibiades would break with
    them and become reconciled with his countrymen
;

    ea molestissime ferre debent homines quae ipsorum culpa contracta sunt,
    men ought to chafe most over those things which have been brought
    about by their own fault
(as opposed to the fault of others).

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

250.  Agreement. 1.  The Relative Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in Gender, Number, and Person, but its case is determined by its construction in the clause in which it stands; as,—­

    mulier quam videbamus, the woman whom we saw;

    bona quibus fruimur, the blessings which we enjoy.

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2.  Where the antecedent is compound, the same principles for number and gender prevail as in case of predicate adjectives under similar conditions (see Sec. 235, B, 2).  Thus:—­

    pater et filius, qui capti sunt, the father and son who were
    captured
;

    stultitia et timiditas quae fugienda sunt, folly and cowardice which
    must be shunned
;

    honores et victoriae quae sunt fortuita, honors and victories, which
    are accidental
.

3.  The Relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun (either Nominative or Accusative) instead of its antecedent; as,—­

    carcer, quae lautumiae vocantur, the prison, which is called
    Lautumiae
;

    Belgae, quae est tertia pars, the Belgians, who are the third part.

4.  Sometimes the Relative takes its gender and number from the meaning of its antecedent; as,—­

    pars qui bestiis objecti sunt, a part (of the men) who were thrown to
    beasts.

5.  Occasionally the Relative is attracted into the case of its antecedent; as,—­

    natus eo patre quo dixi, born of the father that I said.

251.  Antecedent. 1.  The antecedent of the Relative is sometimes omitted; as,—­

    qui naturam sequitur sapiens est, he who follows Nature is wise.

2.  The antecedent may be implied in a possessive pronoun (or rarely an adjective); as,—­

    nostra qui remansimus caedes, the slaughter of us who remained;

    servili tumultu, quos usus ac disciplina sublevarunt, at the uprising
    of the slaves, whom experience and discipline assisted
(servili =
    servorum).

3.  Sometimes the antecedent is repeated with the Relative; as,—­

    erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus, there were two routes, by which
    (routes).

4.  Incorporation of Antecedent in Relative Clause.  The antecedent is often incorporated in the relative clause.  Thus:—­

  a) When the relative clause stands first; as,—­

    quam quisque novit artem, in hac se exerceat, let each one practice
    the branch which he knows.

  b) When the antecedent is an appositive; as,—­

    non longe a Tolosatium finibus absunt, quae civitas est in provincia,
    they are not far from the borders of the Tolosates, a state which is
    in our province.

  c) When the logical antecedent is a superlative; as,—­

    Themistocles de servis suis, quem habuit fidelissimum, misit,
    Themistocles sent the most trusty slave he had.

  d) In expressions of the following type—­

    qua es prudentia; quae tua est prudentia, such is your prudence (lit.
    of which prudence you are; which is your prudence).

5.  The Relative is never omitted in Latin as it is in English.  Thus the boy I saw must be puer quem vidi.

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6.  The Relative is used freely in Latin, particularly at the beginning of a sentence, where in English we employ a demonstrative; as,—­

    quo factum est, by this it happened;

    quae cum ita sint, since this is so;

    quibus rebus cognitis, when these things became known.

7.  The Relative introducing a subordinate clause may belong grammatically to a clause which is subordinate to the one it introduces; as,—­

numquam digne satis laudari philosophia poterit, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere, philosophy can never be praised enough, since he who obeys her can pass every period of life without annoyance (lit. he who obeys which, etc.).

Here cui introduces the subordinate clause possit and connects it with philosophia; but cui is governed by pareat, which is subordinate to possit.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

252. 1.  Quis, any one, is the weakest of the Indefinites, and stands usually in combination with si, nisi, ne, num; as,—­

    si quis putat, if any one thinks.

2.  Aliquis (adj. aliqui) is more definite than quis, and corresponds usually to the English some one, somebody, some; as,—­

    nunc aliquis dicat mihi, now let somebody tell me;

    utinam modo agatur aliquid, oh that something may be done.

3.  Quidam, a certain one, is still more definite than aliquis; as,—­

    homo quidam, a certain man (i.e., one whom I have in mind).

  a.  Quidam (with or without quasi, as if) is sometimes used in the
  sense:  a sort of, kind of; as,—­

    cognatio quaedam, a sort of relationship;

    mors est quasi quaedam migratio, death is a kind of transfer as it
    were
.

4.  Quisquam, any one, any one whoever (more general than quis), and its corresponding adjective ullus, any, occur mostly in negative and conditional sentences, in interrogative sentences implying a negative, and in clauses of comparison; as,—­

    justitia numquam nocet cuiquam, justice never harms anybody;

    si quisquam, Cato sapiens fuit, if anybody was ever wise, Cato was;

    potestne quisquam sine perturbatione animi irasci, can anybody be
    angry without excitement?

    si ullo modo poterit, if it can be done in any way;

    taetrior hic tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superiorum, he was a viler
    tyrant than any of his predecessors
.

5.  Quisque, each one, is used especially under the following circumstances:—­

  a) In connection with suus.  See Sec. 244, 4, a.

  b) In connection with a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun; as,—­

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    quod cuique obtigit, id teneat, what falls to each, that let him
    hold
.

  c) In connection with superlatives; as,—­

    optimus quisque, all the best (lit. each best one).

  d) With ordinal numerals; as,—­

    quinto quoque anno, every four years (lit. each fifth year).

6.  Nemo, no one, in addition to its other uses, stands regularly with adjectives used substantively; as,—­

    nemo mortalis, no mortal;

    nemo Romanus, no Roman.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

253. 1.  Alius, another, and alter, the other, are often used correlatively; as,—­

    aliud loquitur, aliud sentit, he says one thing, he thinks another;

    alii resistunt, alii fugiunt, some resist, others flee;

    alter exercitum perdidit, alter vendidit, one ruined the army, the
    other sold it
;

    alteri se in montem receperunt, alteri ad impedimenta se contulerunt,
    the one party retreated to the mountain, the others betook themselves
    to the baggage
.

2.  Where the English says one does one thing, another another, the Latin uses a more condensed form of statement; as,—­

    alius aliud amat, one likes one thing, another another;

    aliud aliis placet, one thing pleases some, another others.

  a.  So sometimes with adverbs; as,—­

    alii alio fugiunt, some flee in one direction, others in another.

3.  The Latin also expresses the notion ‘each other’ by means of alius repeated; as,—­

    Galli alius alium cohortati sunt, the Gauls encouraged each other.

4.  Ceteri means the rest, all the others; as,—­

    ceteris praestare, to be superior to all the others.

5.  Reliqui means the others in the sense of the rest, those remaining,—­hence is the regular word with numerals; as,—­

    reliqui sex, the six others.

6.  Nescio quis forms a compound indefinite pronoun with the force of some one or other; as,—­

    causidicus nescio quis, some pettifogger or other;

    misit nescio quem, he sent some one or other;

    nescio quo pacto, somehow or other.

* * * * *

CHAPTER V.—­Syntax of Verbs.

AGREEMENT.

With One Subject.

254. 1.  Agreement in Number and Person.  A Finite Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person; as,—­

    vos videtis, you see;

    pater filios instituit, the father trains his sons.

2.  Agreement in Gender.  In the compound forms of the verb the participle regularly agrees with its subject in gender; as,—­

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    seditio repressa est, the mutiny was checked.

3.  But when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from its subject, the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive; as,—­

    Tarquinii materna patria erat, Tarquinii was his native country on his
    mother’s side
;

    non omnis error stultitia est dicenda, not every error is to be called
    folly
.

  a.  Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive; as,—­

    Corioli, oppidum Volscorum, captum est, Corioli, a town of the Volsci,
    was captured
.

4.  Construction according to Sense.  Sometimes the verb agrees with its subject according to sense instead of strict grammatical form.  Thus:—­

  a) In Number; as,—­

    multitudo hominum convenerant, a crowd of men had gathered.

  b) In Gender; as,—­

    duo milia crucibus adfixi sunt, two thousand (men) were crucified.

With Two or More Subjects.

255. 1.  Agreement in Number.  With two or more subjects the verb is regularly plural; as,—­

    pater et filius mortui sunt, the father and son died.

2.  But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject; viz.,—­

  a) When the verb precedes both subjects or stands between them; as,—­

    mortuus est pater et filius;

    pater mortuus est et filius.

  b) When the subjects are connected by aut; aut ... aut; vel ... vel;
  neque ... neque; as,—­

    neque pater neque filius mortuus est, neither father nor son died.

3.  When the different subjects are felt together as constituting a whole, the singular is used; as,—­

    temeritas ignoratioque vitiosa est, rashness and ignorance are bad.

  a.  This is regularly the case in senatus populusque Romanus.

4.  Agreement in Person.  With compound subjects of different persons the verb always takes the first person rather than the second, and the second rather than the third; as,—­

    si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, if you and Tullia are
    well, Cicero and I are well
.

5.  Agreement in Gender.  With subjects of different genders the participle in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for predicate adjectives.  See Sec. 235, B, 2.

VOICES.

256. 1.  The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original middle or reflexive meaning; as,—­

    ego non patiar eum defendi, I shall not allow him to defend himself.

2.  In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as acting not upon itself, but as doing something in his own interest; as,—­

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    velatus tempora, having veiled his temples.

  a.  Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used; as,—­

    tunica inducitur artus, he covers his limbs with a tunic.

3.  Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive; as,—­

    curritur, people run (lit. it is run);

    ventum est, he (they, etc.) came (lit. it was come).

TENSES.

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

257. 1.  The Latin tenses express two distinct notions:—­

  a) The period of time to which the action belongs:  Present, Past, or
  Future.

b) The kind of action:  Undefined, Going on, or Completed.

The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds of action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine tenses).  It does this by employing certain tenses in more than one way, as may be seen by the following table:—­

KIND OF PERIOD OF TIME. 
ACTION. 
PRESENT.  PAST. FUTURE. 
UNDEFINED Present:  Historical Future: 
scribo, I write.  Perfect:  scribam, I shall
scripsi,
I write_.
wrote_. 
GOING ON.  Present:  Imperfect:  Future: 
scribo, I am scribebam, I was scribam, I shall
writing
. writing_. be writing_. 
COMPLETED. Present Pluperfect:  Future Perfect: 
Perfect:  scripseram, I had scripsero, I
scripsi, I have written. shall have
written_. written_.

2.  It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action or action Going on; so also the Future.  The Perfect likewise has a double use, according as it denotes action Completed in present time (Present Perfect) or Undefined action belonging to past time (Historical Perfect).

Principal and Historical Tenses.

258.  Tenses which denote Present or Future time are called Principal (or Primary) Tenses, those which denote Past time are called Historical (or Secondary).

The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are:  Present, Future, Present Perfect, Future Perfect.

The Historical Tenses are:  Imperfect, Historical Perfect, Pluperfect.

Present Indicative.

259.  Besides the two uses indicated in the table, the Present Indicative presents the following peculiarities:—­

1.  It is used to denote a general truth, i.e. something true not merely in the present but at all times (’Gnomic Present’); as,—­

    virtus conciliat amicitias et conservat, virtue establishes ties of
    friendship and maintains them
(i.e. always does so).

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2.  It is used of an attempted action (’Conative Present’); as,—­

    dum vitant vitia, in contraria currunt, while they try to avoid
    (vitant) vices, they rush into opposite ones.

3.  In lively narration the Present is often used of a past action (’Historical Present’); as,—­

    Caesar imperat magnum numerum obsidum, Caesar demanded a large number
    of hostages
(lit. demands).

4.  In combination with jam, jam diu, jam pridem, and similar words, the Present is frequently used of an action originating in the past and continuing in the present; as,—­

    jam pridem cupio te visere, I have long been desiring to visit you
    (i.e.  I desire and have long desired).

Imperfect Indicative.

260. 1.  The Imperfect primarily denotes action going on in past time; as,—­

    librum legebam, I was reading a book.

  a.  This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve as the
  tense of description (as opposed to mere narration).

2.  From the notion of action going on, there easily develops the notion of repeated or customary action; as,—­

    legatos interrogabat, he kept asking the envoys;

    C. Duilium videbam puer, as a boy I often used to see Gaius Duilius.

3.  The Imperfect often denotes an attempted action (’Conative Imperfect’) or an action as beginning (’Inceptive Imperfect’); as,—­

    hostes nostros intra munitiones progredi prohibebant, the enemy tried
    to prevent
(prohibebant) our men from advancing within the
    fortifications
(’Conative’);

    ad proelium se expediebant, they were beginning to get ready for
    battle
(’Inceptive’).

4.  The Imperfect, with jam, jam diu, jam dudum, etc., is sometimes used of an action which had been continuing some time; as,—­

    domicilium Romae multos jam annos habebat, he had had his residence at
    Rome for many years
(i.e. he had it at this time and had long had it).

Future Indicative.

261. 1.  The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than is the English.  We say:  ‘If he comes, I shall be glad,’ where we really mean:  ‘If he shall come,’ etc.  In such cases the Latin rarely admits the Present, but generally employs the Future.

2.  Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dices, say!

Perfect Indicative.

262.  A. PRESENT PERFECT.  Several Present Perfects denote the state resulting from a completed act, and so seem equivalent to the Present; as,—­

    novi, cognovi, I know (lit. I have become acquainted with);

    consuevi, I am wont (lit. I have become accustomed).

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B. HISTORICAL PERFECT.  The Historical Perfect is the tense of narration (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of description); as,—­

    Regulus in senatum venit, mandata exposuit, reddi captivos negavit esse
    utile, Regulus came into the Senate, set forth his commission, said it
    was useless for captives to be returned
.

1.  Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth (’Gnomic Perfect’).

Pluperfect Indicative.

263.  The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act completed in the past; as,—­

    Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat, sed naves deerant, Caesar had
    decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats
.

  a.  In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (Sec. 262, A), the
  Pluperfect has the force of an Imperfect; as,—­

    noveram, I knew.

Future Perfect Indicative.

264.  The Future Perfect denotes an action completed in future time.  Thus:—­

    scribam epistulam, cum redieris, I will write the letter when you have
    returned
(lit. when you shall have returned).

  a.  The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Perfect than the
  English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future
  Perfect.

  b.  In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (Sec. 262, A) the Future
  Perfect has the force of a Future; as,—­

    novero, I shall know.

Epistolary Tenses.

265.  In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appropriate at the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is received; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect; as,—­

    nihil habebam quod scriberem, neque enim novi quidquam audieram et ad
    tuas omnes epistulas jam rescripseram, I have nothing to write, for I
    have heard no news and have already answered all your letters
.

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

266.  A. In Independent sentences.  See Sec. 272-280.

B. In Dependent Sentences.  In dependent sentences the tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called

Sequence of Tenses.

267. 1.  In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.

2.  By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are followed by Principal, Historical by Historical.  Thus:—­

PRINCIPAL SEQUENCE,—­

    video quid facias, I see what you are doing.

    videbo quid facias, I shall see what you are doing.

    videro quid facias, I shall have seen what you are doing.

    video quid feceris, I see what you have done.

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    videbo quid feceris, I shall see what you have done.

    videro quid feceris, I shall have seen what you have done.

HISTORICAL SEQUENCE,—­

    videbam quid faceres, I saw what you were doing.

    vidi quid faceres, I saw what you were doing.

    videram quid faceres, I had seen what you were doing.

    videbam quid fecisses, I saw what you had done.

    vidi quid fecisses, I saw what you had done.

    videram quid fecisses, I had seen what you had done.

3.  The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative.

Peculiarities of Sequence.

268. 1.  The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even when translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive; as,—­

    demonstravi quare ad causam accederem, I have shown why I took the
    case
(lit. I showed why, etc.).

2.  A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be historical; as,—­

    videor ostendisse quales dei essent, I seem to have shown of what
    nature the gods are
(ostendisse here corresponds to an Indicative,
    ostendi, I showed).

3.  The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense, sometimes as historical.  Thus:—­

    Sulla suos hortatur ut forti animo sint, Sulla exhorts his soldiers to
    be stout-hearted
;

    Gallos hortatur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls to take arms.

4.  Conditional sentences of the ‘contrary-to-fact’ type are not affected by the principles for the Sequence of Tenses; as,—­

honestum tale est ut, vel si ignorarent id homines, sua tamen pulchritudine laudabile esset, virtue is such a thing that even if men were ignorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own loveliness.

5.  In conditional sentences of the ‘contrary-to-fact’ type the Imperfect Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as,—­

    si solos eos diceres miseros, quibus moriendum esset, neminem tu quidem
    eorum qui viverent exciperes, if you called only those wretched who
    must die, you would except no one of those who live
.

6.  In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes used as an historical tense.  Thus:—­

    rex tantum motus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem judicarit, the king was
    so much moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an enemy
.

This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and subsequent historians.  The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a result simply as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act, and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct statement.  Thus, judicarit in the above example corresponds to adjudicavit, he adjudged.  To denote a result as something continuous, all writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses.

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7.  Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be abandoned altogether.  Thus: 

  a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an historical
  tense; as,—­

    Verres Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restitui non possit, Verres so
    ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored
(Direct statement:  non potest
    restitui);

ardebat Hortensius dicendi cupiditate sic, ut in nullo flagrantius studium viderim, Hortensius burned so with eagerness to speak that I have seen in no one a greater desire (Direct statement:  in nullo vidi, I have seen in no one).

NOTE.—­This usage is different from that cited under 6.  Here, by neglect of Sequence, the Perfect is used, though a principal tense; there the Perfect was used as an historical tense.

  b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Subjunctive used
  historically; as,—­

    nescio quid causae fuerit cur nullas ad me litteras dares, I do not
    know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter
.

  Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect
  Subjunctive.

Method of Expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive.

269.  The Future and Future Perfect, which are lacking to the Latin Subjunctive, are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows:—­

1. a) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses, by the
  Imperfect after historical tenses.

  b) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal tenses,
  by the Pluperfect after historical tenses.

  This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the
  presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is to
  future time.  Thus:—­

    Galli pollicentur se facturos, quae Caesar imperet, the Gauls promise
    they will do what Caesar shall order
;

    Galli pollicebantur se facturos, quae Caesar imperaret, the Gauls
    promised they would do what Caesar should order
;

    Galli pollicentur se facturos quae Caesar imperaverit, the Gauls
    promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered
;

    Galli pollicebantur se facturos quae Caesar imperavisset, the Gauls
    promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered.

2.  Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive.  Thus:—­

    timeo ne veniat, I am afraid he will come;

    Caesar exspectabat quid consili hostes caperent, Caesar was waiting to
    see what plan the enemy would adopt
.

3.  Where greater definiteness is necessary, the periphrastic forms in -urus sim and -urus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect Questions, and after non dubito quin; as,—­

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    non dubito quin pater venturus sit, I do not doubt that my father will
    come
;

    non dubitabam quin pater venturus esset, I did not doubt that my
    father would come
.

4.  Where the verb has no Future Active Participle, or where it stands in the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the particles mox, brevi, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive; as,—­

    non dubito quin te mox hujus rei paeniteat, I do not doubt that you
    will soon repent of this thing;

    non dubitabam quin haec res brevi conficeretur, I did not doubt that
    this thing would soon be fnished.

TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.

270. 1.  The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb on which they depend. Thus:—­

  a) The Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous with the
  time of the verb on which it depends; as,—­

    videtur honores adsequi, he seems to be gaining honors;

    videbatur honores adsequi, he seemed to be gaining honors.

  b) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as prior to the time of the
  verb on which it depends; as,—­

    videtur honores adsecutus esse, he seems to have gained honors;

    visus est honores adsecutus esse, he seemed to have gained honors.

  c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as subsequent to that of the
  verb on which it depends; as,—­

    videtur honores adsecuturus esse, he seems to be about to gain
    honors
;

    visus est honores adsecuturus esse, he seemed to be about to gain
    honors
.

2.  Where the English says ‘ought to have done,’ ‘might have done,’ etc., the Latin uses debui, oportuit, potui (debebam, oportebat, poteram), with the Present Infinitive; as,—­

    debuit dicere, he ought to have said (lit. owed it to say);

    oportuit venire, he ought to have come;

    potuit videre, he might have seen.

  a.  Oportuit, volo, nolo (and in poetry some other verbs), may take a
  Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as,—­

    hoc jam pridem factum esse oportuit, this ought long ago to have been
    done
.

3.  PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE INFINITIVE.  Verbs that have no Participial Stem, express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or futurum esse ut, with the Subjunctive; as,—­

    spero fore ut te paeniteat levitatis, I hope you will repent of your
    fickleness
(lit. hope it will happen that you repent);

    spero futurum esse ut hostes arceantur, I hope that the enemy will be
    kept off
.

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  a.  The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the
  Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem; as,—­

    spero fore ut hostes vincantur, I hope the enemy will be conquered.

4.  Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infinitive with fore; as,—­

    spero epistulam scriptam fore, I hope the letter will have been
    written
;

    dico me satis adeptum fore, I say that I shall have gained enough.

THE MOODS.

MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

The Indicative in Independent Sentences.

271.  The Indicative is used for the statement of facts, the supposition of facts, or inquiry after facts.

1.  Note the following idiomatic uses:—­

  a) With possum; as,—­

    possum multa dicere, I might say much;

    poteram multa dicere, I might have said much (Sec. 270, 2).

  b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est, difficile
  est, utilius est, and some others; as,—­

    longum est ea dicere, it would be tedious to tell that;

    difficile est omnia persequi, it would be difficult to enumerate
    everything
.

The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences.

272.  The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences to express something—­

  1.  As willed—­Volitive Subjunctive;
  2.  As desired—­Optative Subjunctive;
  3.  Conceived of as possible—­Potential Subjunctive.

VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

273.  The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action as willed.  It always implies authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following varieties:—­

A. HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE.

274.  The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses an exhortation.  This use is confined to the first person plural of the Present.  The negative is ne.  Thus:—­

    eamus, let us go;

    amemus patriam, let us love our country;

    ne desperemus, let us not despair.

B. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

275.  The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a command.  The Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and is used—­

1.  Most frequently in the third singular and the third plural; as,—­

    dicat, let him tell;

    dicant, let them tell;

    quare secedant improbi, wherefore let the wicked depart!

2.  Less frequently in the second person, often with indefinite force; as,—­

    isto bono utare, use that advantage;

    modeste vivas, live temperately.

C. PROHIBITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

276.  The Subjunctive is used in the second and third persons singular and plural, with ne, to express a prohibition.  Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning; as,—­

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    ne repugnetis, do not resist!

    tu vero istam ne reliqueris, don’t leave her!

    impii ne placare audeant deos, let not the impious dare to appease the
    gods!

  a.  Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose.

  b.  A commoner method of expressing a prohibition in the second person is
  by the use of noli (nolite) with a following infinitive, or by cave or
  cave ne with the Subjunctive; as,—­

    noli hoc facere, don’t do this (lit. be unwilling to do)!

    nolite mentiri, do not lie!

    cave ignoscas, cave te misereat, do not forgive, do not pity!

    cave ne haec facias, do not do this (lit. take care lest you do)!

D. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

277.  The Deliberative Subjunctive is used in questions and exclamations implying doubt, indignation, the impossibility of an act, obligation, or propriety.  The Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect referring to past.  The negative is non.  Thus:—­

    quid faciam, what shall I do?

    ego redeam, I go back!

    huic cedamus! hujus condiciones audiamus! are we to bow to him! are we
    to listen to his terms!

    quid facerem, what was I to do?

    hunc ego non diligam, should I not cherish this man?

  a.  These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in
  character, and do not expect an answer.

E. CONCESSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

278.  The Subjunctive is used to indicate something as granted or conceded for the sake of argument.  The Present is used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past.  The negative is ne.  Thus:—­

    sit hoc verum, I grant that this is true (lit. let this be true);

    ne sint in senectute vires, I grant there is not strength in old age;

    fuerit malus civis aliis; tibi quando esse coepit, I grant that he was
    a bad citizen to others; when did he begin to be so toward you?

OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

279.  The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of wishing.  The negative is regularly ne.

1.  The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish is conceived of as possible.

    di istaec prohibeant, may the gods prevent that!

    falsus utinam vates sim, oh that I may be a false prophet!

    ne veniant, may they not come!

2.  The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the regret that something is not so now; the Pluperfect that something was not so in the past.  The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam; as,—­

    utinam istud ex animo diceres, would that you were saying that in
    earnest
(i.e.  I regret that you are not saying it in earnest);

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    Pelides utinam vitasset Apollinis arcus, would that Achilles had
    escaped the bow of Apollo
;

    utinam ne natus essem, would that I had not been born.

POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.

280.  The Potential Subjunctive expresses a possibility.  The negative is non.  The following uses are to be noted:—­

1.  The ‘May’ Potential.—­The Potential Subjunctive may designate a mere possibility (English auxiliary may).  Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning.  Thus:—­

    dicat aliquis, some one may say;

    dixerit aliquis, some one may say.

  a.  This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a
  few phrases like those given as examples.

2.  ‘Should’-’Would’ Potential.—­The Potential Subjunctive may represent something as depending upon a condition expressed or understood (English auxiliary should, would).  Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning.  Thus:—­

    fortunam citius reperias quam retineas, one would more quickly find
    Fortune than keep it
(i.e. if one should make the trial);

    crediderim, I should believe.

  a.  Here belongs the use of velim, malim, nolim, as softened forms of
  statement for volo, malo, nolo.  Thus:—­

    velim mihi ignoscas, I wish you would forgive me;

    nolim putes me jocari, I don’t want you to think I’m joking.

  b.  When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular types of
  Conditional Sentences (see Sec. 303); as,—­

    dies deficiat, si coner enumerare causas, time would fail if I should
    attempt to enumerate the reasons.

3.  ‘Can’-’Could’ Potential.—­In the Present and Imperfect the Potential occurs in the second person singular (with indefinite force; Sec. 356, 3) of a few verbs of perceiving, seeing, thinking, and the like; as,—­

    videas, cernas, one can see, one can perceive;

    crederes, one could believe;

    videres, cerneres, one could see, perceive;

    putares, one could imagine.

4.  The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see Sec. 304) are also Potential in character.  By omission of the Protasis, such an Apodosis sometimes stands alone, particularly vellem, nollem, mallem; as,—­

    vellem id quidem, I should wish that (i.e. were I bold enough).

The Imperative.

281.  The Imperative is used in commands, admonitions and entreaties (negative ne), as,—­

    egredere ex urbe, depart from the city;

    mihi ignosce, pardon me;

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    vale, farewell.

1.  The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used, but the Future is employed—­

  a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in the
  apodosis of conditional sentences; as,—­

    rem vobis proponam; vos eam penditote, I will lay the matter before
    you; do you (then) consider it
;

    si bene disputabit, tribuito litteris Graecis, if he shall speak well,
    attribute it to Greek literature.

  b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc.; as,—­

    consules summum jus habento, the consuls shall have supreme power;

    hominem mortuom in urbe ne sepelito, no one shall bury a dead body in
    the city
;

    amicitia regi Antiocho cum populo Romano his legibus et condicionibus
    esto, let there be friendship between Antiochus and the Roman people
    on the following terms and conditions
;

    quartae esto partis Marcus heres, let Marcus be heir to a fourth (of
    the property
);

    ignoscito saepe alteri, numquam tibi, forgive your neighbor often,
    yourself never
.

2.  Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical prose.  Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways.  See Sec. 276, b.

3.  Questions in the Indicative introduced by quin (why not?) are often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,—­

    quin abis, go away! (lit. why don’t you go away?);

    quin vocem continetis, keep still! (lit. why don’t you stop your
    voices?
);

    quin equos conscendimus, let us mount our horses (lit. why do we not
    mount our horses?
)

MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES.

Clauses of Purpose.

282. 1.  Clauses of Purpose are introduced most commonly by ut (uti), quo (that, in order that), ne (in order that not, lest), and stand in the Subjunctive, as,—­

    edimus ut vivamus, we eat that we may live;

    adjuta me quo hoc fiat facilius, help me, in order that this may be
    done more easily;

    portas clausit, ne quam oppidani injuriam acciperent, he closed the
    gates, lest the townspeople should receive any injury.

  a.  Quo, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a
  comparative or a comparative idea.  Occasional exceptions occur; as,—­

    haec faciunt quo Chremetem absterreant, they are doing this in order
    to frighten Chremes.

  b.  Ut ne is sometimes found instead of ne.  Thus:—­

    ut ne quid neglegenter agamus, in order that we may not do anything
    carelessly
.

  c.  Ut non (not ne) is used where the negation belongs to some single
  word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole.  Thus:—­

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    ut non ejectus ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos videare, that you may
    seem not driven out among strangers, but invited to your own friends.

  d.  To say ‘and that not’ or ‘or that not,’ the Latin regularly uses
  neve (neu); as,—­

    ut earum rerum vis minueretur, neu ponti nocerent, that the violence
    of these things might be lessened, and that they might not harm the
    bridge
;

    profugit, ne caperetur neve interficeretur, he fled, that he might not
    be captured or killed.

  e.  But neque (for neve) is sometimes used in a second Purpose Clause when
  ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first
  clause is introduced by ne.

  f.  Purpose Clauses sometimes stand in apposition with a preceding noun or
  pronoun:  as,—­

    hac causa, ut pacem haberent, on this account, that they might have
    peace.

2.  A Relative Pronoun (qui) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quo) is frequently used to introduce a Purpose Clause; as,—­

    Helvetii legatos mittunt, qui dicerent, the Helvetii sent envoys to
    say
(lit. who should say);

    haec habui, de senectute quae dicerem, I had these things to say about
    old age
;

    non habebant quo se reciperent, they had no place to which to flee
    (lit. whither they might flee).

  a.  Qui in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc.; ubi to ut
  ibi; unde to ut inde; quo to ut eo.

3.  Relative Clauses of purpose follow dignus, indignus, and idoneus; as,—­

    idoneus fuit nemo quem imitarere, there was no one suitable for you to
    imitate
(cf. nemo fuit quem imitarere, there was no one for you to
    imitate
);

    dignus est qui aliquando imperet, he is worthy to rule sometime.

4.  Purpose Clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sentences; as,—­

    ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, to pass over all this, (I will say
    that
) we departed.

Clauses of Characteristic.

283. 1.  A relative clause used to express a quality or characteristic of a general or indefinite antecedent is called a Clause of Characteristic, and usually stands in the Subjunctive; as,—­

    multa sunt, quae mentem acuant, there are many things which sharpen
    the wits.

Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are used merely to state some fact about a definite antecedent, and which therefore take the Indicative; as,—­

    Cato, senex jucundus, qui Sapiens appellatus est, Cato, a delightful
    old man, who was called ’The Wise.’

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The Clause of Characteristic implies ’a person of the sort that does something’; the Indicative relative clause implies ’a particular person who does something.’

2.  Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions as, est qui; sunt qui; nemo est qui; nullus est qui; unus est qui; solus est qui; quis est qui; is qui; etc.  Thus:—­

    sunt qui dicant, there are (some) who say;

    nemo est qui nesciat, there is nobody who is ignorant;

    sapientia est una quae maestitiam pellat, philosophy is the only thing
    that drives away sorrow
;

    quae civitas est quae non everti possit, what state is there that
    cannot be overthrown?

    non is sum qui improbos laudem, I am not the sort of man that praises
    the wicked.

  a.  Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of
  characteristic is used after comparatives; as,—­

    non longius hostes aberant quam quo telum adigi posset, the enemy were
    not too far off for a dart to reach them
(lit. further off than [a
    point] to which a dart could be cast
).

3.  The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion of cause (since) or opposition (although).  Thus:—­

  a) Cause.  The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut, quippe,
  utpote; as,—­

    o fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris,
    O fortunate man, since you have found a Homer as the herald of your
    valor
;

    ut qui optimo jure eam provinciam obtinuerit, since he held that
    province by excellent right
.

  b) Opposition:—­

    egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complures dies
    Athenis commoratus sum, I, although I had taken up Greek literature
    late in life, nevertheless tarried several days at Athens
.

4.  Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quin = qui (quae, quod) non; as,—­

    nemo est quin saepe audierit, there is no one who has not often
    heard
;

    nemo fuit militum quin vulneraretur, there was no one of the soldiers
    who was not wounded
.

5.  Related to Clauses of Characteristic are also phrases of the type: 

    quod sciam, so far as I know; quem (quam, quod), audierim, so far as
    I have heard
.

Clauses of Result.

284. 1.  Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut (that, so that), negative ut non (so that not), and take the Subjunctive.  The main clause often contains tantus, talis, tot, is (= talis), tam, ita, sic, adeo, or some similar word.  Thus:—­

    quis tam demens est ut sua voluntate maereat, who is so senseless as
    to mourn of his own volition?

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    Siciliam ita vastavit ut restitui in antiquum statum non possit, he so
    ravaged Sicily that it cannot be restored to its former condition
;

    mons altissimus impendebat, ut facile perpauci prohibere possent, a
    very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could easily stop
    them
;

    non is es ut te pudor umquam a turpitudine avocarit, you are not so
    constituted that shame ever called you back from baseness
.

2.  A Result Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb, qui (= ut is), quo (= ut eo), etc.; as,—­

    nemo est tam senex qui se annum non putet posse vivere, nobody is so
    old as not to think he can live a year
;

    habetis eum consulem qui parere vestris decretis non dubitet, you have
    a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees
.

a.  These Relative Clauses of Result are closely related to the Clause of Characteristic, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the two constructions.  It is best to class the relative clause as one of Characteristic, unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable.

3.  Result clauses may also be introduced by quin = ut non; as,—­

    nihil tam difficile est quin quaerendo investigari possit, nothing is
    so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching
;

    nemo est tam fortis quin rei novitate perturbetur, no one is so
    steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange occurrence
.

4.  Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone) to denote Result after comparatives; as,—­

    urbs erat munitior quam ut primo impetu capi posset, the city was too
    strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack
(lit. more
    strongly fortified than [so] that it could be taken, etc.
).

Causal Clauses.

285.  Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the following particles:—­

  1.  Quod, quia, quoniam.
  2.  Cum.
  3.  Quando.

286.  The use of moods is as follows:—­

1.  Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is that of the writer or speaker; they take the Subjunctive when the reason is viewed as that of another. Thus:—­

    Parthos timeo quod diffido copiis nostris, I fear the Parthians,
    because I distrust our troops
.

    Themistocles, quia non tutus erat, Corcyram demigravit, Themistocles,
    since he was not safe, moved to Corcyra
.

    neque me vixisse paenitet, quoniam bene vixi, I do not regret having
    lived, since I have lived well
.

Socrates accusatus est quod corrumperet juventutem, Socrates was arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young. (Here the reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser.  Hence the Subjunctive.)

    Haedui Caesari gratias egerunt quod se periculo liberavisset, the
    Haedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from danger
. (The
    reason of the Haedui.)

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    quoniam Miltiades dicere non posset, verba pro eo fecit Tisagoras,
    since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him. (The reason
    of Tisagoras.)

    noctu ambulabat Themistocles, quod somnum capere non posset,
    Themistocles used to walk at night because (as he said) he couldn’t
    sleep
.

  a.  Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjunctive in
  causal clauses as though the act of thinking or saying, and not the
  contents of the thought or language, constituted the reason.  Thus:—­

Bellovaci suum numerum non compleverunt quod se suo nomine cum Romanis bellum gesturos dicerent, the Bellovaci did not furnish their complement, because they said they were going to wage war with the Romans on their own account.
b.  Non quod, non quo (by attraction for non eo quod), non quia, not that, not because; and non quod non, non quo non, non quin, not that ... not; not because ... not; not but that, are usually employed merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the Subjunctive; as,—­

    id feci, non quod vos hanc defensionem desiderare arbitrarer, sed ut
    omnes intellegerent, this I did, not because I thought you needed this
    defense, but that all might perceive
;

Crasso commendationem non sum pollicitus, non quin eam valituram apud te arbitrarer, sed egere mihi commendatione non videbatur, I did not promise a recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it would have weight with you, but because he did not seem to me to need recommendation.

  c.  But clauses introduced by non quod, non quia take the Indicative if
  they state a fact
, even though that fact is denied to be the reason for
  something; as,—­

    hoc ita sentio, non quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sic existimare nos
    est necesse, this I think, not because I am myself an augur (which I
    really am), but because it is necessary for us to think so
.

2.  Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as,—­

    quae cum ita sint, since this is so;

    cum sis mortalis, quae mortalia sunt, cura, since you are mortal, care
    for what is mortal
.

  a.  Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum), especially since;
  as,—­

    Haeduos accusat, praesertim cum eorum precibus adductus bellum
    susceperit, he blamed the Haedui, especially since he had undertaken
    the war at their entreaties
.

3.  Quando (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs the Indicative; as,—­

    id omitto, quando vobis ita placet, I pass over that, since you so
    wish
.

Temporal Clauses introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, Simul ac, etc.

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287. 1.  Postquam (posteaquam), after; ut, ubi, when; cum primum, simul, simul ac (simul atque), as soon as, when used to refer to a single past act regularly take the Perfect Indicative; as,—­

    Epaminondas postquam audivit vicisse Boeotios, ‘Satis’ inquit ‘vixi,’
    Epaminondas, after he heard that the Boeotians had conquered, said, ’I
    have lived enough;’

    id ut audivit, Corcyram demigravit, when he heard this, he moved to
    Corcyra
;

    Caesar cum primum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, Caesar, as soon as
    he could, hurried to the army
;

    ubi de Caesaris adventu certiores facti sunt, legatos ad eum mittunt,
    when they were informed of Caesar’s arrival, they sent envoys to him.

  a.  The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this
  construction.

2.  To denote the repeated occurrence of an act, ut, ubi, simul atque, as often as, when following an historical tense, take the Pluperfect Indicative (compare Sec. 288, 3; 302, 3); as,—­

    ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumias statim coniciebatur,
    whenever anybody had offended Verres’s feelings, he was forthwith put
    in the stone-quarry
;

    hostes, ubi aliquos egredientes conspexerant, adoriebantur, whenever
    the enemy had seen any men disembarking, they attacked them
.

  a.  In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect
  Subjunctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act
  (’Indefinite Frequency’); as,—­

    id ubi dixisset hastam mittebat, whenever he had said that, he hurled
    a spear
.

3.  Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluperfect Indicative of a single occurrence.  This is regularly the case with postquam in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days, months, years, etc.), such as post tertium annum quam, triennio postquam.  Thus:—­

    quinque post diebus quam Luca discesserat, ad Sardiniam venit five
    days after he had departed from Luca he came to Sardinia
;

    postquam occupatae Syracusae erant, profectus est Carthaginem, after
    Syracuse had been seized, he set out for Carthage
.

4.  The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs, to denote a continued state; as,—­

    postquam Romam adventabant, senatus consultus est, after they were on
    the march toward Rome, the Senate was consulted
;

    postquam structi utrimque stabant, after they had been drawn up on
    both sides and were in position
.

5.  Rarely postquam, posteaquam, following the analogy of cum, take the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses; as,—­

    posteaquam sumptuosa fieri funera coepissent, lege sublata sunt, after
    funerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away with by law
.

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Temporal Clauses introduced by Cum.

A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST.

288. 1.  Cum, when referring to the past, takes,—­

A. The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or Pluperfect) to denote the point of time at which something occurs.

B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote the situation or circumstances under which something occurs.

Examples:—­

  INDICATIVE.

    an tum eras consul, cum in Palatio mea domus ardebat, or were you
    consul at the time when my house burned up on the Palatine?

    credo tum cum Sicilia florebat opibus et copiis magna artificia fuisse
    in ea insula, I believe that at the time when Sicily was powerful in
    riches and resources there were great crafts in that island
;

    eo tempore paruit cum parere necesse erat, he obeyed at the time when
    it was necessary to obey
;

    illo die, cum est lata lex de me, on that day when the law concerning
    me was passed
.

  SUBJUNCTIVE.

    Lysander cum vellet Lycurgi leges commutare, prohibitus est, when
    Lysander desired to change the laws of Lycurgus, he was prevented
;

    Pythagoras cum in geometria quiddam novi invenisset, Musis bovem
    immolasse dicitur, when Pythagoras had discovered something new in
    geometry, he is said to have sacrificed an ox to the Muses
.

a.  Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases where the main clause has tum, eo die, eo anno, eo tempore or some similar correlative of the cum.  Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive.

2.  Cum Inversum.  When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of when, when suddenly.  The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix, aegre, nondum; as,—­

jam Galli ex oppido fugere apparabant, cum matres familiae repente procurrerunt, the Gauls were already preparing to flee, when suddenly the matrons rushed forth (logically, the matrons rushed forth as the Gauls were preparing to flee);

    Treviri Labienum adoriri parabant, cum duas legiones venisse
    cognoscunt, the Treviri were preparing to attack, when (suddenly) they
    learned that two legions had arrived
.

3.  To denote a recurring action in the past, cum is followed by the Indicative, particularly of the Pluperfect (compare Sec. 287, 2; 302, 3); as,—­

    cum ad aliquod oppidum venerat, eadem lectica ad cubiculum deferebatur,
    whenever he had arrived at some town, he was (always) carried in the
    same litter to his room
;

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    cum equitatus noster se in agros ejecerat, essedarios ex silvis
    emittebat, whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields, he would
    send his charioteers out from the woods
.

  a.  Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used; as,—­

    saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vestitum, suum amiculum dedit,
    often, wherever he saw some one more poorly clothed, he gave him his
    own mantle
;

    cum procucurrissent, Numidae effugiebant, as often as they had
    advanced, the Numidians ran away
.

  This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians.

B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.

289.  When cum refers to the Present or Future it regularly takes the Indicative; as,—­

    tum tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet, your own interests are
    at stake when your neighbor’s house is burning
;

    cum videbis, tum scies, when you see, then you will know.

  a.  The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a recurring
  action;
as,—­

    stabilitas amicitiae confirmari potest, cum homines cupidinibus
    imperabunt, firm friendship can be established whenever men shall
    control their desires.

C. OTHER USES OF Cum.

290. 1.  Cum Explicative.  Cum, with the Indicative, is sometimes used to indicate the identity of one act with another; as,—­

    cum tacent clamant, their silence is a shout (lit. when they are
    silent, they shout
).

2.  Cum ... tum.  When cum ... tum mean both ... and, the cum-clause is in the Indicative; but when cum has the force of while, though, it may take the Subjunctive; as,—­

    cum te semper dilexerim, tum tuis factis incensus sum, while I have
    always loved you, at the same time I am stirred by your conduct
.

Clauses introduced by Antequam and Priusquam.

A. WITH THE INDICATIVE.

291.  Antequam and priusquam (often written ante ... quam, prius ... quam) take the Indicative to denote an actual fact.

1.  Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect; as,—­

    prius respondes quam rogo, you answer before I ask;

    nihil contra disputabo priusquam dixerit, I will say nothing in
    opposition, before he speaks
.

2.  Sometimes the Perfect, especially after negative clauses; as,—­

    non prius jugulandi finis fuit, quam Sulla omnes suos divitiis
    explevit, there was no end of murder until Sulla satisfied all his
    henchmen with wealth
.

B. WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

292.  Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive to denote an act as anticipated.

1.  Thus the Subjunctive may denote—­

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  a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place; as,—­

    priusquam dimicarent, foedus ictum est, i.e. in anticipation of the
    fight, a treaty was struck.

  By an extension of this usage, the Subjunctive is sometimes used of
  general truths, where the anticipatory notion has faded out; as,—­

    tempestas minatur antequam surgat, the tempest threatens before it
    rises
.

  b) An act anticipated and forestalled; as,—­

    priusquam telum adici posset, omnis acies terga vertit, before a spear
    could be hurled, the whole army fled.

  c) An act anticipated and deprecated; as,—­

    animum omittunt priusquam loco demigrent, they die rather than quit
    their post.

2.  After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, especially by some writers, where the notion of anticipation has practically vanished; as,—­

    sol antequam se abderet fugientem vidit Antonium, the sun before it
    set saw Antony fleeing.

Clauses introduced by Dum, Donec, Quoad.

293. 1.  Dum, while, regularly takes the Indicative of the Historical Present; as,—­

    Alexander, dum inter primores pugnat, sagitta ictus est, Alexander,
    while he was fighting in the van, was struck by an arrow
;

    dum haec geruntur, in fines Venellorum pervenit, while these things
    were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli
.

II.  Dum, donec, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative; as,—­

    dum anima est, spes est, as long as there is life, there is hope;

    Lacedaemoniorum gens fortis fuit, dum Lycurgi leges vigebant, the race
    of the Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the laws of Lycurgus
    were in force
;

    Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit, Cato, at long as he lived,
    increased in the fame of his virtues
.

III.  Dum, donec, and quoad, until, take:—­

1.  The Indicative, to denote an actual event; as,—­

    donec rediit, fuit silentium, there was silence till he came;

    ferrum in corpore retinuit, quoad renuntiatum est Boeotios vicisse, he
    kept the iron in his body until word was brought that the Boeotians had
    conquered
.

  a.  In Livy and subsequent historians dum and donec in this sense often
  take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative; as,—­

    trepidationis aliquantum edebant donec timor quietem fecisset, they
    showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet
.

2.  The Subjunctive, to denote anticipation or expectancy; as,—­

    exspectavit Caesar dum naves convenirent, Caesar waited for the ships
    to assemble
;

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    dum litterae veniant, morabor, I shall wait for the letter to come.

Substantive Clauses.

294.  A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole serves as the Subject or Object of a verb, or stands in some other case relation.

A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.

295.  Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volitive are used with the following classes of verbs:—­

1.  With verbs signifying to admonish, request, command, urge, persuade, induce,[51] etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or ut ne); as,—­

    postulo ut fiat, I demand that it be done (dependent form of the
    Jussive fiat, let it be done!);

    orat, ne abeas, he begs that you will not go away;

    milites cohortatus est ut hostium impetum sustinerent, he exhorted his
    soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy
;

    Helvetiis persuasit ut exirent, he persuaded the Helvetii to march
    forth
.

  a.  Jubeo, command, order, regularly takes the Infinitive.

2.  With verbs signifying to grant, concede, permit, allow,[52] etc. (conjunction ut); as,—­

    huic concedo ut ea praetereat, I allow him to pass that by (dependent
    form of the Jussive ea praetereat, let him pass that by!);

    consuli permissum est ut duas legiones scriberet, the consul was
    permitted to enroll two legions
.

3.  With verbs of hindering, preventing,[53] etc. (conjunctions ne, quominus, quin); as,—­

    ne lustrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, death prevented him from
    finishing the lustrum
(dependent form after past tense of ne lustrum
    perficiat, let him not finish, etc.);

    prohibuit quominus in unum coirent, he prevented them from coming
    together
;

    nec quin erumperet, prohiberi poterat, nor could he be prevented from
    rushing forth
.

  a.  Quin is used only when the verb of hindering is accompanied by a
  negative, or stands in a question implying a negative; it is not
  necessarily used even then.

4.  With verbs of deciding, resolving,[54] etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or ut ne); as,—­

    constitueram ut pridie Idus Aquini manerem, I had decided to remain at
    Aquinum on the 12th
;

    decrevit senatus ut Opimius videret, the Senate decreed that Opimius
    should see to it
;

    convenit ut unis castris miscerentur, it was agreed that they should
    be united in one camp
.

5.  With verbs of striving,[55] etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or ut ne); as,—­

    fac ut eum exores, see to it that you prevail upon him!

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    cura ut vir sis, see to it that you are a man!

    laborabat ut reliquas civitates adjungeret, he was striving to join
    the remaining states to him
.

  a.  Conor, try, always takes the Infinitive.

NOTE.—­Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially in poetry.

6.  With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquus est, sequitur, licet, oportet; as,—­

    sequitur ut doceam, it remains for me to show;

    licet redeas, you may return;

    oportet loquamur, we must speak.

On the absence of ut with licet and oportet, see paragraph 8.

7.  Here also belong phrases of the type:  nulla causa est cur, quin; non est cur, etc.; nihil est cur, etc.; as,—­

    nulla causa est cur timeam, there is no reason why I should fear
    (originally Deliberative:  why should I fear?  There’s no reason);

    nihil est quin dicam, there is no reason why I should not say.

8.  Many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Subjunctive without ut.  In such cases we must not recognize any omission of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed before the ut-clause arose.  This is regularly the case with necesse est, licet, and oportet; see 6.  Other examples are:—­

    eos moneo desinant, I warn them to stop;

    huic imperat adeat civitates, he orders him to visit the states.

B. Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative.

296.  Substantive Clauses Developed from the Optative occur:—­

1.  With verbs of wishing, desiring, especially cupio, opto, volo, malo (conjunctions ut, ne, ut ne); as,—­

opto ut in hoc judicio nemo improbus reperiatur, I hope that in this court no bad man may be found (here ut reperiatur represents a simple optative of direct statement, viz. reperiatur, may no bad man be found!);

    cupio ne veniat, I desire that he may not come.

  a.  The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs of
  this class. (See Sec. 295, 8.) Examples are:  velim scribas, I wish you
  would write
; vellem scripsisset, I wish he had written.

2.  With expressions of fearing (timeo, metuo, vereor, etc.).  Here ne means that, lest, and ut means that not; as,—­

    timeo ne veniat, I fear that he will come (originally:  may he not
    come!  I’m afraid
[he will]);

    timeo ut veniat, I fear that he will not come (originally:  may he
    come!  I’m afraid
[he won’t]).

  a.  Ne non sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of
  fearing has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some
  particular word in the dependent clause; as,—­

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    non vereor ne hoc non fiat, I am not afraid that this will not
    happen;

    vereor ne exercitum firmum habere non possit, I fear that he is
    unable
(non possit) to have a strong army.

C. Substantive Clauses of Result.

297.  Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut, ut non) are a development of pure Result clauses, and occur with the following classes of words:—­

1.  As object clauses after verbs of doing, accomplishing (especially facio, efficio, conficio).  Thus:—­

    gravitas morbi facit ut medicina egeamus, the severity of disease
    makes us need medicine.

2.  As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, efficitur, accidit, evenit, contingit, accedit, fieri potest, fore, sequitur, relinquitur.  Thus:—­

    ex quo efficitur, ut voluptas non sit summum bonum, from which it
    follows that pleasure is not the greatest good
;

    ita fit, ut nemo esse possit beatus, thus it happens that no one can
    be happy
;

    accedebat ut naves deessent, another thing was the lack of ships
    (lit. it was added that ships were lacking).

3.  As predicate or appositive after expressions like jus est, mos est, consuetudo est; also after neuter pronouns, hoc, illud, etc.  Thus:—­

    est mos hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere, it is the
    way of men not to wish the same person to excel in many things.

D. Substantive Clauses introduced by Quin.

298.  Substantive Clauses introduced by quin (used sometimes as subject, sometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of doubt, omission, and the like, particularly after non dubito, I do not doubt; quis dubitat, who doubts?; non (haud) dubium est, there is no doubt.  The mood is the Subjunctive.  Examples:—­

    quis dubitat quin in virtute divitiae sint, who doubts that in virtue
    there are riches?

    non dubium erat quin venturus esset, there was no doubt that he was
    about to come.

  a.  In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes
  takes the place of the quin-clause after non dubito; as,—­

    non dubitamus inventos esse, we do not doubt that men were found

  b.  Non dubito, I do not hesitate, is regularly followed by the
  Infinitive, though sometimes by a quin-clause.

E. Substantive Clauses Introduced by Quod.

299. 1.  Quod, the fact that, that, introduces Substantive Clauses in the Indicative.  This construction occurs especially—­

  a) In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hoc, id, illud, illa,
  ex eo, inde, etc.  Thus:—­

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    illud est admiratione dignum, quod captivos retinendos censuit, this
    is especially worthy of admiration, that he thought the prisoners ought
    to be kept
;

    hoc uno praestamus vel maxime feris, quod colloquimur inter nos, in
    this one respect we are especially superior to the beasts, that we talk
    with each other
.

  b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, miror, etc.;
  as,—­

    bene mihi evenit, quod mittor ad mortem, it is well for me that I am
    sent to death
;

    bene fecisti quod mansisti, you did well in remaining.

2.  Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of as regards the fact that.  Thus:—­

    quod multitudinem Germanorum in Galliam traduco, id mei muniendi causa
    facio, as regards the fact that I am transporting a multitude of
    Germans into Gaul, I am doing it for the sake of strengthening myself;

    quod me Agamemnona aemulari putas, falleris, as regards your thinking
    that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken
.

F. Indirect Questions.

300. 1.  Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used after verbs of asking, inquiring, telling, and the like.  They take their verb in the Subjunctive[56].  Like Direct Questions (see Sec. 162) they may be introduced—­

  a) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs; as,—­

    dic mihi ubi fueris, quid feceris, tell me where you were, what you
    did
;

    oculis judicari non potest in utram partem fluat Arar, it cannot be
    determined by the eye in which direction the Arar flows
;

    bis bina quot essent, nesciebat, he did not know how many two times
    two were
.

NOTE.—­Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from Relative Clauses.  The difference between the two appears clearly in the following:—­

effugere nemo id potest quod futurum est, no one can escape what is destined to come to pass; but saepe autem ne utile quidem est scire quid futurum sit, but often it is not even useful to know what is coming to pass.

  b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning; as,—­

    Epaminondas quaesivit num salvus esset clipeus, or salvusne esset
    clipeus, Epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe;

    disputatur num interire virtus in homine possit, the question is
    raised whether virtue can die in a man
;

    ex Socrate quaesitum est nonne Archelaum beatum putaret, the question
    was asked of Socrates whether he did not think Archelaus happy
.

NOTE.—­Nonne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaero, as in the last example above.

2.  Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive of the direct discourse; as,—­

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    nescio quid faciam, I do not know what to do. (Direct:  quid faciam,
    what shall I do!)

3.  After verbs of expectation and endeavor (exspecto, conor, experior, tempto) we sometimes find an Indirect Question introduced by si; as,—­

    conantur si perrumpere possint, they try whether they can break
    through.

  a.  Sometimes the governing verb is omitted; as,—­

    pergit ad proximam speluncam si forte eo vestigia ferrent, he
    proceeded to the nearest cave (to see) if the tracks led thither.

4.  Indirect Double Questions are introduced in the main by the same particles as direct double questions (Sec. 162, 4); viz.;—­

utrum ... an; -ne ... an; ——­ ... an; ——­ ... ne.

Examples:—­

quaero utrum verum an falsum sit, } quaero verumne an falsum sit, } I ask whether it quaero verum an falsum sit, } is true or false? quaero verum falsumne sit, }

  a. ’Or not’ in the second member of the double question is ordinarily
  expressed by necne, less frequently by an non; as,—­

    di utrum sint necne, quaeritur, it is asked whether there are gods or
    not.

5.  Haud scio an, nescio an, by omission of the first member of the double question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense:  I am inclined to think, probably, perhaps; as,—­

    haud scio an ita sit, I am inclined to think this is so.

6.  In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in indirect Questions.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

301.  Conditional Sentences are compound sentences (Sec. 164) consisting of two parts, the Protasis (or condition), usually introduced by si, nisi, or sin, and the Apodosis (or conclusion).  There are the following types of Conditional Sentences:—­

First Type.—­Nothing Implied as to the Reality of the Supposed Case.

302. 1.  Here we regularly have the Indicative in both Protasis and Apodosis.  Any tense may be used; as,—­

    si hoc credis, erras, if you believe this, you are mistaken;

    naturam si sequemur, numquam aberrabimus, if we follow Nature, we
    shall never go astray
;

    si hoc dixisti, errasti, if you said this, you were in error.

2.  Sometimes the Protasis takes the Indefinite Second Person Singular (Sec. 356, 3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of the Indicative; as,—­

    memoria minuitur, nisi eam exerceas, memory is impaired unless you
    exercise it
.

3.  Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Protasis denotes a repeated action (compare Sec. 287, 2; 288, 3); as,—­

    si quis equitum deciderat, pedites circumsistebant, if any one of the
    horsemen fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about him
.

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  a.  Instead of the Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ the
  Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote repeated
  action; as,—­

    si dicendo quis diem eximeret, if (ever) anybody consumed a day in
    pleading
; si quando adsideret, if ever he sat by.

4.  Where the sense demands it, the Apodosis in conditional sentences of the First Type may be an Imperative or one of the Independent Subjunctives (Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.); as,—­

    si hoc creditis, tacete, if you believe this, be silent;

    si hoc credimus, taceamus, if we believe this, let us keep silent.

Second Type.—­’Should’-’Would’ Conditions.

303.  Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Present or Perfect tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis; as,—­

    si hoc dicas, erres, or si hoc dixeris, erraveris, if you should say
    this, you would be mistaken
;

    si velim Hannibalis proelia omnia describere, dies me deficiat, if I
    should wish to describe all the battles of Hannibal, time would fail
    me
;

    mentiar, si negem, I should lie, if I should deny it;

    haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat, if your country
    should plead thus with you, would she not deserve to obtain her
    request?

  a.  The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type
  is of the Potential variety.

  b.  Sometimes we find the Indicative in the Apodosis of sentences of the
  Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the accomplishment of a
  result more positively; as,—­

    aliter si faciat, nullam habet auctoritatem, if he should do
    otherwise, he has no authority
.

Third Type.—­Supposed Case Represented as Contrary to Fact.

304. 1.  Here we regularly have the Subjunctive in both Protasis and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring to present time, and the Pluperfect referring to past; as,—­

    si amici mei adessent, opis non indigerem, if my friends were here, I
    should not lack assistance
;

    si hoc dixisses, errasses, if you had said this, you would have
    erred
;

    sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil efficeret, philosophy would not be
    desired, if it accomplished nothing
;

consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum consilium majores nostri appellassent senatum, unless deliberation, reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ancestors would not have called their highest deliberative body a senate.

2.  Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is found referring to the past, especially to denote a continued act, or a state of things still existing; as,—­

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Laelius, Furius, Cato si nihil litteris adjuvarentur, numquam se ad earum studium contulissent, Laelius, Furius, and Cato would never have devoted themselves to the study of letters, unless they had been (constantly) helped by them;

    num igitur si ad centesimum annum vixisset, senectutis eum suae
    paeniteret, if he had lived to his hundredth year, would he have
    regretted (and now be regretting) his old age?

3.  The Apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes stands in the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz.—­

  a) Frequently in expressions of ability, obligation, or necessity;
  as,—­

    nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuerunt, unless
    their prosperity had turned to folly, they could have thrown off the
    yoke
;

NOTE.—­In sentences of this type, however, it is not the possibility that is represented as-contrary-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought from the context.  Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is et exuissent understood (and they would have shaken it off).  When the possibility itself is conditioned, the Subjunctive is used.

    eum patris loco colere debebas, si ulla in te pietas esset, you ought
    to revere him as a father, if you had any sense of devotion
.

  b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations; as,—­

    si Sestius occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma ituri, if Sestius had been
    slain, would you have proceeded to arms?

    si unum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus fuit, if you had
    delayed one day, you would all have had to die
.

Protasis expressed without Si.

305. 1.  The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with si, but may be implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context; as,—­

    alioqui haec non scriberentur, otherwise (i.e. if matters were
    otherwise) these things would not be written;

    non potestis, voluptate omnia dirigentes, retinere virtutem, you
    cannot retain virtue, if you direct everything with reference to
    pleasure
.

2.  Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive, serves as Protasis.  Thus:—­

    cras petito, dabitur, if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given you
    (lit. ask to-morrow, etc.);

    haec reputent, videbunt, if they consider this, they will see (lit.
    let them consider, etc.);

    roges Zenonem, respondeat, if you should ask Zeno, he would answer.

Use of Nisi, Si Non, Sin.

306. 1.  Nisi, unless, negatives the entire protasis; si non negatives a single word; as,—­

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    ferreus essem, nisi te amarem, I should be hard-hearted unless I loved
    you
; but—­

    ferreus essem, si te non amarem, I should be hard-hearted if I did
    
NOT_ love you_.

In the first example, it is the notion of loving you that is negatived, in the second, the notion of loving.

2.  Si non (si minus) is regularly employed:—­

  a) When an apodosis with at, tamen, certe follows; as,—­

    dolorem si non potuero frangere, tamen occultabo, if I cannot crush my
    sorrow, yet I will hide it.

  b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form; as,—­

    si feceris, magnam habebo gratiam; si non feceris, ignoscam, if you do
    it, I shall be deeply grateful; if you do not do it, I shall pardon
    you
.

  a.  But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus or sin
  minus is admissible; as,—­

    hoc si assecutus sum, gaudeo; si minus, me consolor, if I have
    attained this, I am glad; if not, I console myself
.

3.  Sin.  Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in meaning, but affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sin; as,—­

hunc mihi timorem eripe; si verus est, ne opprimar, sin falsus, ut timere desinam, relieve me of this fear; if it is well founded, that I may not be destroyed; but if it is groundless, that I may cease to fear.

4.  Nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives (non, nemo, nihil); as,—­

    nihil cogitavit nisi caedem, he had no thought but murder.

  a.  Non and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity.

5.  Nisi forte, nisi vero, nisi si, unless perchance, unless indeed (often with ironical force), take the Indicative; as,—­

    nisi vero, quia perfecta res non est, non videtur punienda, unless
    indeed, because an act is not consummated, it does not seem to merit
    punishment
.

Conditional Clauses of Comparison.

307. 1.  Conditional Clauses of Comparison are introduced by the particles, ac si, ut si, quasi, quam si, tamquam si, velut si, or simply by velut or tamquam.  They stand in the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an ellipsis (see Sec. 374, 1), as indicated in the following examples:—­

    tantus patres metus cepit, velat si jam ad portas hostis esset, as
    great fear seized the senators as (would have seized them) if the enemy
    were already at the gates
;

    sed quid ego his testibus utor quasi res dubia aut obscura sit, but
    why do I use these witnesses, as (I should do) if the matter were
    doubtful or obscure
;

    serviam tibi tam quasi emeris me argento, I will serve you as though
    you had bought me for money
.

2.  Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regular principles for the Sequence of Tenses.  Thus after principal tenses the Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third examples), where the English uses the Past and Past Perfect.

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Concessive Clauses.

308.  The term ‘Concessive’ is best restricted to those clauses developed from the Jussive Subjunctive which have the force of granted that, etc.; (see Sec. 278) as,—­

    sit fur, sit sacrilegus, at est bonus imperator, granted that he is a
    thief and a robber, yet he is a good commander
;

    haec sint falsa, granted that this is false;

    ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, granted that pain is not
    the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil
.

Adversative Clauses with Quamvis, Quamquam, etc.

309.  Clauses introduced by quamvis, quamquam, etsi, tametsi, cum, although, while often classed as ‘Concessive,’ are yet essentially different from genuine Concessive clauses.  As a rule, they do not grant or concede anything, but rather state that something is true in spite of something else.  They accordingly emphasize the adversative idea, and are properly Subordinate Adversative Clauses.  The different particles used to introduce these clauses have different meanings and take different constructions, as follows:—­

1.  Quamvis, however much, although, does not introduce a statement of fact, but represents an act merely as conceived.  It is followed by the Subjunctive, usually of the present tense; as,—­

    homines quamvis in turbidis rebus sint, tamen interdum animis
    relaxantur, in however stirring events men may engage, yet at times
    they relax their energies;

    non est potestas opitulandi rei publicae quamvis ea prematur periculis,
    there is no opportunity to succor the state, though it be beset by
    dangers.

2.  Quamquam, etsi, tametsi, although, introduce a statement of fact, and are followed by the Indicative (of any tense); as,—­

    quamquam omnis virtus nos allicit, tamen justitia id maxime efficit,
    although all virtue attracts us, yet justice does so especially;

    Caesar, etsi nondum consilium hostium cognoverat, tamen id quod accidit
    suspicabatur, Caesar, though he did not yet know the plans of the
    enemy, yet was suspecting what actually occurred
.

  a.  Etsi, although, must be distinguished from etsi, even if.  The
  latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions
  admissible for si. (See Sec. 302-304.)

3.  Cum, although, is followed by the Subjunctive; as,—­

    Atticus honores non petiit, cum ei paterent, Atticus did not seek
    honors, though they were open to him
.

4.  Licet sometimes loses its verbal force (see Sec. 295, 6) and sinks to the level of a conjunction with the force of although.  It takes the Subjunctive, Present or Perfect; as,—­

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    licet omnes terrores impendeant, succurram, though all terrors hang
    over me, (yet) I will lend aid
.

5.  Quamquam, with the force and yet, is often used to introduce principal clauses; as,—­

    quamquam quid loquor, and yet why do I speak?

6.  In post-Augustan writers quamquam is freely construed with the Subjunctive, while quamvis is often used to introduce statements of fact, and takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive.  Thus:—­

    quamquam moveretur his vocibus, although he was moved by these words;

    quamvis multi opinarentur, though many thought;

    quamvis infesto animo perveneras, though you had come with hostile
    intent
.

Clauses with Dum, Modo, Dummodo, denoting a Wish or a Proviso.

310.  These particles are followed by the Subjunctive (negative ne) and have two distinct uses:—­

I. They are used to introduce clauses embodying a wish entertained by the subject of the leading verb; as,—­

    multi honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam consequantur, many neglect
    honor in their desire to obtain power
(if only they may attain);

    omnia postposui, dum praeceptis patris parerem, I made everything else
    secondary, in my desire to obey the injunctions of my father
;

    nil obstat tibi, dum ne sit ditior alter, nothing hinders you in your
    desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you
.

II.  They are used to express a proviso (’provided that’); as,—­

    oderint, dum metuant, let them hate, provided they fear;

    manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria, old men
    retain their faculties, provided only they retain their interest and
    vigor
;

    nubant, dum ne dos fiat comes, let them marry, provided no dowry goes
    with it
.

Relative Clauses.

311.  Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pronouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs.

312. 1.  Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood, especially clauses introduced by those General Relatives which are doubled or have the suffix -oumque; as,—­

    quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, whatever it is, I fear
    the Greeks even when they offer gifts;

    quidquid oritur, qualecumque est, causam a natura habet, whatever
    comes into being, of whatever sort it is, has its primal cause in
    Nature.

2.  Any simple Relative may introduce a conditional sentence of any of the three types mentioned in Sec. 302-304; as,—­

    qui hoc dicit, errat, he who says this is mistaken (First Type);

    qui hoc dicat, erret, he would be mistaken who should say this
    (Second Type);

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    qui hoc dixisset, errasset, the man who had said this would have been
    mistaken.

INDIRECT DISCOURSE (ORATIO OBLIQUA).

313.  When the language or thought of any person is reproduced without change, that is called Direct Discourse (Oratio Recta); as, Caesar said, ’The die is cast.’ When, on the other hand, one’s language or thought is made to depend upon a verb of saying, thinking, etc., that is called Indirect Discourse (Oratio Obliqua); as, Caesar said that the die was cast; Caesar thought that his troops were victorious.

  a.  For the verbs most frequently employed to introduce Indirect
  Discourse, see Sec. 331.

MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Declarative Sentences.

314. 1.  Declarative Sentences upon becoming Indirect change their main clause to the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, while all subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive; as,—­

Regulus dixit quam diu jure jurando hostium teneretur non esse se senatorem, Regulus said that as long as he was held by his pledge to the enemy he was not a senator. (Direct:  quam diu teneor non sum senator.)

2.  The verb of saying, thinking, etc., is sometimes to be inferred from the context; as,—­

tum Romulus legatos circa vicinas gentes misit qui societatem conubiumque peterent:  urbes quoque, ut cetera, ex infimo nasci, then Romulus sent envoys around among the neighboring tribes, to ask for alliance and the right of intermarriage, (saying that) cities, like everything else, start from a modest beginning.

3.  Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of the writer and so are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, or which emphasize the fact stated, take the Indicative; as,—­

    nuntiatum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontionem, quod est oppidum
    maximum Sequanorum contendere, it was reported that Ariovistus was
    hastening to seize Vesontio, which is the largest town of the Sequani
.

4.  Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form, and in sense is principal.  It then takes the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.  This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where qui is equivalent to et hic, nam hic, etc.; as,—­

dixit urbem Atheniensium propugnaculum oppositum esse barbaris, apud quam jam bis classes regias fecisse naufragium, he said the city of the Athenians had been set against the barbarians like a bulwark, near which (= and near it) the fleets of the King had twice met disaster.

5.  The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted when it refers to the same person as the subject of the leading verb, or can easily be supplied from the context; as,—­

    cum id nescire Mago diceret, when Mago said he did not know this (for
    se nescire).

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Interrogative Sentences.

315. 1.  Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon becoming indirect, are regularly put in the Subjunctive; as,—­

Ariovistus Caesari respondit:  se prius in Galliam venisse quam populum Romanum.  Quid sibi vellet?  Cur in suas possessiones veniret, Ariovistus replied to Caesar that he had come into Gaul before the Roman people.  What did he (Caesar) mean?  Why did he come into his domain? (Direct:  quid tibi vis? cur in meas possessiones venis?)

2.  Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked merely for effect, and being equivalent in force to emphatic statements, regularly stand in the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse.  Thus :—­

    quid est levius (lit. what is more trivial, = nothing is more
    trivial) of the Direct Discourse becomes quid esse levius in the
    Indirect.

3.  Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain unchanged in mood in the Indirect:  as,—­

    quid faceret, what was he to do? (Direct:  quid faciat?)

Imperative Sentences.

316.  All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse appear as Subjunctives in the Indirect; as,—­

    milites certiores fecit paulisper intermitterent proelium, he told the
    soldiers to stop the battle for a little
. (Direct:  intermittite.)

  a.  The negative in such sentences is ne; as,—­

    ne suae virtuti tribueret, let him not attribute it to his own valor!

TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

A. Tenses of the Infinitive.

317.  These are used in accordance with the regular principles for the use of the Infinitive as given in Sec. 270.

  a.  The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the Indicative
  of Direct Discourse.  Thus:—­

    scio te haec egisse may mean—­

    I know you were doing this.(Direct:  haec agebas.)

    I know you did this. (Direct:  haec egisti.)

    I know you had done this. (Direct:  haec egeras.)

B. Tenses of the Subjunctive.

318.  These follow the regular principle for the Sequence of Tenses, being Principal if the verb of saying is Principal; Historical if it is Historical.  Yet for the sake of vividness, we often find the Present Subjunctive used after an historical tense (Repraesentatio); as,—­

    Caesar respondit, si obsides dentur, sese pacem esse facturum, Caesar
    replied that, if hostages be given, he would make peace
.

  a.  For the sequence after the Perfect Infinitive, see Sec. 268, 2.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Conditional Sentences of the First Type.

319.  A. THE APODOSIS.  Any tense of the Indicative is changed to the corresponding tense of the Infinitive (Sec. 270; 317, a).

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B. THE PROTASIS.  The protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive which are required by the Sequence of Tenses.

Examples:—­

DIRECT.  INDIRECT.
si hoc credis, erras, dico, si hoc credas, te errare;
dixi, si hoc crederes, te errare.
si hoc credes, errabis, dico, si hoc credas, te erraturum
esse;
dixi, si hoc crederes, te erraturum
esse.
si hoc credideris, errabis, dico, si hoc crederis, te erraturum
esse;
dixi, si hoc credidisses, te erraturum
esse.
si hoc credebas, erravisti, dico, si hoc crederes, te erravisse;
dixi, si hoc crederes, te erravisse.

a.  Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after a principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical tense.

Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.

320.  A. THE APODOSIS.  The Present Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse regularly becomes the Future Infinitive of the Indirect.

B. THE PROTASIS.  The Protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses.

Examples:—­

si hoc credas, erres, dico, si hoc credas, te erraturum
esse;
dixi, si hoc crederes, te erraturum
esse;

Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.

321.  A. THE APODOSIS.

1.  The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes the Future Infinitive.

a.  But this construction is rare, being represented in the classical
Latinity by a single example (Caesar, V. 29. 2).  Some scholars question
the correctness of this passage.

2.  The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes:—­

  a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -urus fuisse.

b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum fuisse ut with the
Imperfect Subjunctive.

B. THE PROTASIS.  The protasis in Conditional Sentences of this type always remains unchanged.

Examples:—­

si hoc crederes, errares, dico (dixi), si hoc crederes, te
erraturum esse;
si hoc credidisses, dico (dixi), si hoc credidisses, te
erravisses, erraturum fuisse;
si hoc dixisses, punitus dico (dixi), si hoc dixisses, futurum
esses. fuisse ut punireris.

322.  When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third Type referring to the past is at the same time a Result clause or a quin-clause (after non dubito, etc.), it stands in the Perfect Subjunctive in the form -urus fuerim; as,—­

    ita territi sunt, ut arma tradituri fuerint,[57] nisi Caesar subito
    advenisset, they were so frightened that they would have given up
    their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived
;

    non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, erraturus fueris,[57] I do not doubt
    that, if you had said this, you would have made a mistake
.

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  a.  This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice.  In the Passive, such
  sentences, when they become dependent, remain unchanged; as,—­

    non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, vituperatus esses, I do not doubt
    that, if you had said this, you would have been blamed
.

  b.  When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a conditional
  sentence of the Third Type, -urus fuerim (rarely -urus fuissem) is used;
  as,—­

    quaero, num, si hoc dixisses, erraturus fueris (or fuisses).

  c.  Potui, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this Type,
  usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive; as,—­

concursu totius civitatis defensi sunt, ut frigidissimos quoque oratores populi studia excitare potuerint, they were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people would have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators.

IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

323.  The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose indirect character is merely implied by the context; as,—­

demonstrabantur mihi praeterea, quae Socrates de immortalitate animorum disseruisset, there were explained to me besides, the arguments which Socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul (i.e. the arguments which, it was said, Socrates had set forth);

    Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit, Paetus
    gave me all the books which (as he said) his father had left
.

SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION.

324. 1.  Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive are frequently attracted into the same mood especially when they do not express a fact, but constitute an essential part of one complex idea; as,—­

    nemo avarus adhuc inventus est, cui, quod haberet, esset satis, no
    miser has yet been found who was satisfed with what he had
;

    cum diversas causas afferrent, dum formam sui quisque et animi et
    ingenii redderent, as they brought forward different arguments, while
    each mirrored his own individual type of mind and natural bent
;

    quod ego fatear, pudeat? should I be ashamed of a thing which I
    admit?

2.  Similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive is put in the Subjunctive when the two form one closely united whole; as,—­

mos est Athenis quotannis in contione laudari eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti, it is the custom at Athens every year for those to be publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle. (Here the notion of ‘praising those who fell in battle’ forms an inseparable whole.)

NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.

325.  These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and Supine.  All of these partake of the nature of the Verb, on the one hand, and of the Noun or Adjective, on the other.  Thus:—­

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As Verbs,—­

  a) They may be limited by adverbs;
  b) They admit an object;
  c) They have the properties of voice and tense.

As Nouns or Adjectives,—­

  a) They are declined;
  b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions.

THE INFINITIVE.

Infinitive without Subject Accusative.

326.  This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive.

NOTE.—­The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still to be seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express purpose; as, nec dulces occurrent oscula nati praeripere, and no sweet children will run to snatch kisses.

A.  As Subject.

327. 1.  The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Subject of esse and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est, oportet, juvat, delectat, placet, libet, licet, praestat, decet, pudet, interest, etc.; as,—­

    dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, it is sweet and noble to die for
    one’s country
;

    virorum est fortium toleranter dolorem pati, it is the part of brave
    men to endure pain with patience
;

    senatui placuit legatos mittere, the Senate decided (lit. it pleased
    the Senate
) to send envoys.

2.  Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may take a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative; as,—­

    aliud est iracundum esse, aliud iratum, it is one thing to be
    irascible, another to be angry
;

    impune quaelibet facere, id est regem esse, to do whatever you please
    with impunity, that is to be a king
.

a.  But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate Noun or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as, licuit esse otioso Themistocli, lit. it was permitted to Themistocles to be at leisure.  So sometimes with other Impersonals.

B.  As Object.

328. 1.  The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Object of many verbs, to denote another action of the same subject, particularly after—­

volo, cupio, malo, nolo, debeo, cogito, meditor, purpose, ought; intend; statuo, constituo, decide; neglego, neglect; audeo, dare; vereor, timeo, fear; studeo, contendo, strive; maturo, festino, propero, contendo, paro, prepare (so paratus); hasten; incipio, coepi, instituo, assuesco, consuesco, accustom begin_; myself_ (so assuetus, insuetus, pergo, continue; assuefactus); desino, desisto, cease; disco, learn; possum, can; scio, know how; conor, try; soleo, am wont;

as,—­

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    tu hos intueri audes, do you dare to look on these men?

    Demosthenes ad fluctus maris declamare solebat, Demosthenes used to
    declaim by the waves of the sea
.

2.  A Predicate Noun or Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted into the Nominative; as,—­

    beatus esse sine virtute nemo potest, no one can be happy without
    virtue
;

    Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat, Cato preferred to be good rather
    than to seem so
.

Infinitive with Subject Accusative.

329.  This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive.

A.  As Subject.

330.  The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the simple Infinitive) is used as Subject with esse and Impersonal verbs, particularly with aequum est, utile est, turpe est, fama est, spes est, fas est, nefas est, opus est, necesse est, oportet, constat, praestat, licet, etc.; as,—­

    nihil in bello oportet contemni, nothing ought to be despised in war;

    apertum est sibi quemque natura esse carum, it is manifest that by
    nature everybody is dear to himself
.

B.  As Object.

331.  The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as Object after the following classes of verbs: 

1.  Most frequently after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, perceiving, and the like (Verba Sentiendi et Declarandi).  This is the regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse.  Verbs that take this construction are, among others, the following:  sentio, audio, video, cognosco; puto, judico, spero, confido; scio, memini; dico, affirmo, nego (say that ... not), trado, narro, fateor, respondeo, scribo, promitto, glorior.  Also the phrases:  certiorem facio (inform), memoria teneo (remember), etc.

Examples:—­

    Epicurei putant cum corporibus simul animos interire, the Epicureans
    think that the soul perishes with the body
;

    Thales dixit aquam esse initium rerum, Thales said that water was the
    first principle of the universe
;

    Democritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum, Democritus says nothing is
    everlasting;

    spero eum venturum esse, I hope that he will come.

II.  With jubeo, order, and veto, forbid; as,—­

    Caesar milites pontem facere jussit, Caesar ordered the soldiers to
    make a bridge
.

  a.  When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do
  something is omitted, the Infinitive with jubeo and veto is put in the
  Passive; as, Caesar pontem fieri jussit.

III.  With patior and sino, permit, allow; as,—­

    nullo se implicari negotio passus est, he did not permit himself to be
    involved in any difficulty
.

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IV.  With volo, nolo, malo, cupio, when the Subject of the Infinitive is different from that of the governing verb; as,—­

    nec mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo, nor do I wish this error to be
    wrested from me
;

    eas res jactari nolebat, he was unwilling that these matters should be
    discussed
;

    te tua frui virtute cupimus, we desire that you enjoy your worth.

  a.  When the Subject of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive is
  regularly used in accordance with Sec. 328, 1.  But exceptions occur,
  especially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives as,—­

    cupio me esse clementem, I desire to be lenient;

    Timoleon maluit se diligi quam metui, Timoleon preferred to be loved
    rather than feared
.

  b.  Volo also admits the Subjunctive, with or without ut; nolo the
  Subjunctive alone. (See Sec. 296, 1, a.)

V. With Verbs of emotion (joy, sorrow, regret, etc.), especially gaudeo, laetor, doleo; aegre fero, moleste fero, graviter fero, am annoyed, distressed; miror, queror, indignor; as,—­

    gaudeo te salvum advenire, I rejoice that you arrive safely;

    non moleste ferunt se libidinum vinculis laxatos esse, they are not
    troubled at being released from the bonds of passion
;

    miror te ad me nihil scribere, I wonder that you write me nothing.

  a.  Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a quod-
  clause as Object. (See Sec. 299.) Thus:—­

    miror quod non loqueris, I wonder that you do not speak.

VI.  Some verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and the other of the Thing (Sec. 178, 1), may substitute an Infinitive for the second Accusative; as,—­

    cogo te hoc facere, I compel you to do this (cf. te hoc cogo);

    docui te contentum esse, I taught you to be content (cf. te
    modestiam docui, I taught you temperance).

Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.

332.  Those verbs which in the Active are followed by the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, usually admit the personal construction of the Passive.  This is true of the following and of some others:—­

  a) jubeor, vetor, sinor; as,—­

    milites pontem facere jussi sunt, the soldiers were ordered to build a
    bridge
;

    pons fieri jussus est, a bridge was ordered built;

    milites castris exire vetiti sunt, the troops were forbidden to go out
    of the camp
;

    Sestius Clodium accusare non est situs, Sestius was not allowed to
    accuse Clodius
.

  b) videor, I am seen, I seem; as,—­

    videtur comperisse, he seems to have discovered.

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  c) dicor, putor, existimor, judicor (in all persons); as,—­

    dicitur in Italiam venisse, he is said to have come into Italy;

    Romulus primus rex Romanorum fuisse putatur, Romulus is thought to
    have been the first king of the Romans
.

  d) fertur, feruntur, traditur, traduntur (only in the third person);
  as,—­

    fertur Homerus caecus fuisse, Homer is said to have been blind;

    carmina Archilochi contumeliis referta esse traduntur, Archilochus’s
    poems are reported to have been full of abuse
.

NOTE.—­In compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of verbs, c), d), more commonly take the impersonal construction; as—­

    traditum est Homerum caecum fuisse, the story goes that Homer was
    blind
.

Infinitive with Adjectives.

333.  The Infinitive with Adjectives (except paratus, assuetus, etc.; see Sec. 328, 1) occurs only in poetry and post-Augustan prose writers; as,—­

    contentus demonstrasse, contented to have proved;

    audax omnia perpeti, bold for enduring everything.

Infinitive in Exclamations.

334.  The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying scorn, indignation, or regret.  An intensive -ne is often attached to some word in the clause.  Examples:—­

    huncine solem tam nigrum surrexe mihi, to think that to-day’s sun rose
    with such evil omen for me!

    sedere totos dies in villa, to stay whole days at the villa.

Historical Infinitive.

335.  The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the Imperfect Indicative.  The Subject stands in the Nominative; as,—­

    interim cottidie Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, meanwhile Caesar
    was daily demanding grain of the Haedui
.

PARTICIPLES.

Tenses of the Participle.

336. 1.  The tenses of the Participle, like those of the infinitive (see Sec. 270), express time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb upon which the Participle depends.

2.  The Present Participle denotes action contemporary with that of the verb.  Thus:—­

    audio te loquentem = you ARE speaking and I hear you;

    audiebam te loquentem = you WERE speaking and I heard you;

    audiam te loquentem = you WILL BE speaking and I shall hear you.

  a.  The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative force;
  as,—­

    assurgentem regem resupinat, as the king was trying to rise, he threw
    him down.

3.  The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action prior to that of the verb.  Thus:—­

    locutus taceo = I HAVE spoken and am silent;

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    locutus tacui = I HAD spoken and then was silent;

    locutus tacebo = I SHALL speak and then shall be silent.

4.  The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, is determined entirely by the finite verb with which it is connected.

5.  Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs are used as Presents; viz. arbitratus, ausus, ratus, gavisus, solitus, usus, confisus, diffisus, secutus, veritus.

Use of Participles.

337.  As an Adjective the Participle may be used either as an attributive or predicate modifier of a Substantive.

1.  Attributive Use.  This presents no special peculiarities.  Examples are:—­

    gloria est consentiens laus bonorum, glory is the unanimous praise of
    the good
;

    Conon muros a Lysandro dirutos reficit, Conon restored the walls
    destroyed by Lysander.

2.  Predicate Use.  Here the Participle is often equivalent to a subordinate clause.  Thus the Participle may denote:—­

  a) Time; as,—­

    omne malum nascens facile opprimitur, every evil is easily crushed at
    birth.

  b) A Condition; as,—­

    mente uti non possumus cibo et potione completi, if gorged with food
    and drink, we cannot use our intellects
.

  c) Manner; as,—­

    Solon senescere se dicebat multa in dies addiscentem, Solon said he
    grew old learning many new things daily.

  d) Means; as,—­

    sol oriens diem conficit, the sun, by its rising, makes the day.

  e) Opposition (’though’); as,—­

    mendaci homini ne verum quidem dicenti credimus, we do not believe a
    liar, though he speaks the truth.

  f) Cause; as,—­

    perfidiam veritus ad suos recessit, since he feared treachery, he
    returned to his own troops.

3.  Video and audio, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Participle in the Predicate use; as,—­

    video te fugientem, I see you fleeing.

  a.  So frequently facio, fingo, induco, etc.; as,—­

    eis Catonem respondentem facimus, we represent Cato replying to them;

    Homerus Laertem colentem agrum facit, Homer represents Laertes tilling
    the field.

4.  The Future Active Participle (except futurus) is regularly confined to its use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later writers it is used independently, especially to denote purpose; as,—­

    venerunt castra oppugnaturi, they came to assault the camp.

5.  The Perfect Passive Participle is often equivalent to a cooerdinate clause; as,—­

    urbem captam diruit, he captured and destroyed the city (lit. he
    destroyed the city captured
).

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6.  The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is sometimes equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive; as,—­

    post urbem conditam, after the founding of the city;

    Quinctius defensus, the defense of Quinctius;

    quibus animus occupatus, the preoccupation of the mind with which.

7.  Habeo sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predicate construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative; as,—­

    equitatus quem coactum habebat, the cavalry which he had collected.

8.  The Gerundive denotes obligation, necessity, etc.  Like other Participles it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate.

  a) Less frequently as Attributive.  Thus:—­

    liber legendus, a book worth reading;

    leges observandae, laws deserving of observance.

  b) More frequently as Predicate.

    1) In the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (amandus est, etc.).  In this
    use Intransitive Verbs can be used only impersonally, but admit their
    ordinary case-construction (Gen., Dat., Abl.); as,—­

    veniendum est, it is necessary to come;

    obliviscendum est offensarum, one must forget injuries;

    numquam proditori credendum est, you must never trust a traitor;

    suo cuique utendum est judicio, every man must use his own judgment.

    2) After curo, provide for; do, trado, give over; relinquo,
    leave; concedo, hand over, and some other verbs, instead of an
    object clause, or to denote purpose; as,—­

    Caesar pontem in Arari faciendum curavit, Caesar provided for the
    construction of a bridge over the Arar
;

    imperator urbem militibus diripiendam concessit, the general handed
    over the city to the soldiers to plunder
.

9.  For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see Sec. 339, 1.

THE GERUND.

338.  As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun constructions as follows:—­

1.  Genitive.  The Genitive of the Gerund is used—­

  a) With Nouns, as objective or Appositional Genitive (see Sec. 200, 202);
  as,—­

    cupiditas dominandi, desire of ruling;

    ars scribendi, the art of writing.

  b) With Adjectives; as,—­

    cupidus audiendi, desirous of hearing.

  c) With causa, gratia; as,—­

    discendi causa, for the sake of learning.

2.  Dative.  The Dative of the Gerund is used—­

  a) With Adjectives; as,—­

    aqua utilis est bibendo, water is useful for drinking.

  b) With Verbs (rarely); as,—­

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    adfui scribendo, I was present at the writing.

3.  Accusative.  The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions, chiefly ad and in to denote purpose; as,—­

    homo ad agendum natus est, man is born for action.

4.  Ablative.  The Ablative of the Gerund is used—­

  a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc. (see Sec.
  218, 219); as,—­

    mens discendo alitur et cogitando, the mind is nourished by learning
    and reflection
.

    Themistocles maritimos praedones consectando mare tutum reddidit,
    Themistocles made the sea safe by following up the pirates.

  b) After the prepositions a, de, ex, in; as,—­

    summa voluptas ex discendo capitur, the keenest pleasure is derived
    from learning
;

    multa de bene beateque vivendo a Platone disputata sunt, there was
    much discussion by Plato on the subject of living well and happily
.

5.  As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative (without a preposition) admit a Direct Object.

Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund.

339. 1.  Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a Direct Object, another construction may be, and very often is, used.  This consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund (Gen. or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it.  This is called the Gerundive Construction.  Thus:—­

         GERUND CONSTRUCTION.  GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION.
  cupidus urbem videndi, desirous of cupidus urbis videndae;
  seeing the city
.
  delector oratores legendo, I am delector oratoribus legendis
  charmed with reading the orators
.

2.  The Gerundive Construction must be used to avoid a Direct Object with the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon a Preposition; as,—­

locus castris muniendis aptus, a place adapted to fortifying a camp;

    ad pacem petendam venerunt, they came to ask peace;

    multum temporis consumo in legendis poetis, I spend much time in
    reading the poets
.

3.  In order to avoid ambiguity (see Sec. 236, 2), the Gerundive Construction must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used substantively.  Thus regularly—­

    philosophi cupidi sunt verum investigandi, philosophers are eager for
    discovering truth
(rarely veri investigandi);

    studium plura cognoscendi, a desire of knowing more (not plurium
    cognoscendorum).

4.  From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used in the Gerundive construction; but utor, fruor, fungor, potior (originally transitive) regularly admit it; as,—­

    hostes in spem potiundorum castrorum venerant, the enemy had conceived
    the hope of gaining possession of the camp
.

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5.  The Genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, when used in the Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjectives used substantively.  Thus:—­

    mulier sui servandi causa aufugit, the woman fled for the sake of
    saving herself
;

    legati in castra venerunt sui purgandi causa, the envoys came into
    camp for the purpose of clearing themselves
.

So nostri servandi causa, for the sake of saving ourselves.

6.  Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used to denote purpose; as,—­

    quae ille cepit legum ac libertatis subvertundae, which he undertook
    for the purpose of overthrowing the laws and liberty
.

7.  The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some expressions which have the character of formulas; as,—­

    decemviri legibus scribundis, decemvirs for codifying the laws;

    quindecimviri sacris faciundis, quindecimvirs for performing the
    sacrifices
.

THE SUPINE.

340. 1.  The Supine in -um is used after Verbs of motion to express purpose; as,—­

    legati ad Caesarem gratulatum convenerunt, envoys came to Caesar to
    congratulate him
.

  a.  The Supine in -um may take an Object; as,—­

    pacem petitum oratores Romam mittunt, they send envoys to Rome to ask
    for peace
.

  b.  Note the phrase:—­

    do (colloco) filiam nuptum, I give my daughter in marriage.

2.  The Supine in -u is used as an Ablative of Specification with facilis, difficilis, incredibilis, jucundus, optimus, etc.; also with fas est, nefas est, opus est; as,—­

    haec res est facilis cognitu, this thing is easy to learn;

    hoc est optimum factu, this is best to do.

  a.  Only a few Supines in -u are in common use, chiefly auditu, cognitu,
  dictu, factu, visu.

  b.  The Supine in -u never takes an Object.

* * * * *

CHAPTER VI.—­Particles.

COOeRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.

341.  Copulative Conjunctions.  These join one word, phrase, or clause to another.

1. a) et simply connects.

  b) -que joins more closely than et, and is used especially where the two
  members have an internal connection with each other; as,—­

    parentes liberique, parents and children;

    cum homines aestu febrique jactantur, when people are tossed about
    with heat and fever
.

c) atque (ac) usually emphasizes the second of the two things connected,—­and also, and indeed, and in fact.  After words of likeness and difference, atque (ac) has the force of as, than.  Thus:—­

    ego idem sentio ac tu, I think the same as you;

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    haud aliter ac, not otherwise than.

  d) neque (nec) means and not, neither, nor.

2. a) -que is an enclitic, and is appended always to the second of two
  words connected.  Where it connects phrases or clauses, it is appended to
  the first word of the second clause; but when the first word of the
  second clause is a Preposition, -que is regularly appended to the next
  following word; as,—­

    ob eamque rem, and on account of that thing.

  b) atque is used before vowels and consonants; ac never before vowels,
  and seldom before c, g, qu.

  c) et non is used for neque when the emphasis of the negative rests upon
  a special word; as,—­

    vetus et non ignobilis orator, an old and not ignoble orator.

  d) For and nowhere, and never, and none, the Latin regularly said
  nec usquam, nec umquam, nec ullus, etc.

3.  Correlatives.  Copulative Conjunctions are frequently used correlatively; as,—­

    et ... et, both ... and;

    neque (nec) ... neque (nec), neither ... nor;

    cum ... tum, while ... at the same time;

    tum ... tum, not only ... but also.

  Less frequently:—­

    et ... neque; neque ... et.

  a.  Note that the Latin, with its tendency to emphasize antithetical
  relations, often uses correlatives, especially et ... et, et ... neque,
  neque ... et, where the English employs but a single connective.

4.  In enumerations—­

  a) The different members of a series may follow one another without
  connectives (Asyndeton; see Sec. 346).  Thus:—­

    ex cupiditatibus odia, discidia, discordiae, seditiones, bella
    nascuntur, from covetous desires spring up hatred, dissension,
    discord, sedition, wars
.

  b) The different members may severally be connected by et (Polysyndeton). 
  Thus:—­

    horae cedunt et dies et menses et anni, hours and days and months and
    years pass away
.

  c) The connective may be omitted between the former members, while the
  last two are connected by -que (rarely et); as,—­

    Caesar in Carnutes, Andes Turonesque legiones deducit, Caesar leads
    his legions into the territory of the Carnutes, Andes, and Turones
.

342.  Disjunctive Conjunctions indicate an alternative.

1. a) aut must be used when the alternatives are mutually exclusive; as,—­

    cita mors venit aut victoria laeta, (either) swift death or glad
    victory comes
.

  b) vel, -ve (enclitic) imply a choice between the alternatives; as,—­

    qui aether vel caelum nominatur, which is called aether or heaven.

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2.  Correlatives.  Disjunctive Conjunctions are often used correlatively; as,—­

    aut ... aut, either ... or;

    vel ... vel, either ... or;

    sive ... sive, if ... or if.

343.  Adversative Conjunctions.  These denote opposition.

1. a) sed, but, merely denotes opposition.

  b) verum, but, is stronger than sed, but is less frequently used.

  c) autem, but on the other hand, however, marks a transition.  It is
  always post-positive.

DEFINITION.  A post-positive word is one that cannot begin a sentence, but is placed after one or more words.

  d) at, but, is used especially in disputation, to introduce an opposing
  argument.

  e) atqui means but yet.

  f) tamen, yet, usually stands after the emphatic word, but not always.

  g) vero, however, indeed, in truth, is always post-positive.

2.  Note the correlative expressions:—­

    non solum (non modo) ... sed etiam, not only ... but also;

    non modo non ... sed ne ... quidem, not only not, but not even; as,—­

    non modo tibi non irascor, sed ne reprehendo quidem factum tuum, I not
    only am not angry with you, but I do not even blame your action
.

  a.  But when the sentence has but one verb, and this stands with the
  second member, non modo may be used for non modo non; as,—­

    adsentatio non modo amico, sed ne libero quidem digne est, flattery is
    not only not worthy of a friend, but not even of a free man.

344.  Illative Conjunctions.  These represent the statement which they introduce as following from or as in conformity with what has preceded.

1. a) itaque = and so, accordingly.

  b) ergo = therefore, accordingly.

  c) igitur (regularly post-positive[58]) = therefore, accordingly.

2.  Igitur is never combined with et, atque, -que, or neque.

345.  Causal Conjunctions.  These denote cause, or give an explanation.  They are nam, namque, enim (post-positive), etenim, for.

346.  Asyndeton.  The conjunction is sometimes omitted between cooerdinate members, particularly in lively or impassioned narration.  Thus:—­

  a) A copulative Conjunction is omitted; as,—­

    avaritia infinita, insatiabilis est, avarice is boundless (and)
    insatiable
;

    Cn.  Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey
    (and) Marcus Crassus
.

    The conjunction is regularly omitted between the names of consuls when
    the praenomen (Marcus, Gaius, etc.) is expressed.

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  b) An Adversative Conjunction may be omitted; as,—­

    rationes defuerunt, ubertas orationis non defuit, arguments were
    lacking, (but) abundance of words was not
.

ADVERBS.

347. 1.  The following particles, sometimes classed as Conjunctions, are more properly Adverbs:—­

  etiam, also, even.

  quoque (always post-positive), also.

  quidem (always post-positive) lays stress upon the preceding word.  It is
  sometimes equivalent to the English indeed, in fact, but more
  frequently cannot be rendered, except by vocal emphasis.

  ne ... quidem means not even; the emphatic word or phrase always stands
  between; as, ne ille quidem, not even he.

  tamen and vero, in addition to their use as Conjunctions, are often
  employed as Adverbs.

2.  Negatives.  Two negatives are regularly equivalent to an affirmative as in English, as non nulli, some; but when non, nemo, nihil, numquam, etc., are accompanied by neque ... neque, non ... non, non modo, or ne ... quidem, the latter particles simply take up the negation and emphasize it; as,—­

    habeo hic neminem neque amicum neque cognatum, I have here no one,
    neither friend nor relative
.

    non enim praetereundum est ne id quidem, for not even that must be
    passed by.

  a.  Haud in Cicero and Caesar occurs almost exclusively as a modifier of
  Adjectives and Adverbs, and in the phrase haud scio an.  Later writers use
  it freely with verbs.

* * * * *

CHAPTER VII.—­Word-order and Sentence-Structure.

A. WORD-ORDER.

348.  In the normal arrangement of the Latin sentence the Subject stands at the beginning of the sentence, the Predicate at the end; as,—­

    Darius classem quingentarum navium comparavit, Darius got ready a
    fleet of five hundred ships
.

349.  But for the sake of emphasis the normal arrangement is often abandoned, and the emphatic word is put at the beginning, less frequently at the end of the sentence; as,—­

    magnus in hoc bello Themistocles fuit, GREAT was Themistocles in this
    war
;

    aliud iter habemus nullum, other course we have NONE.

SPECIAL PRINCIPLES.

350. 1.  Nouns.  A Genitive or other oblique case regularly follows the word upon which it depends.  Thus:—­

  a) Depending upon a Noun:—­

    tribunus plebis, tribune of the plebs;

    filius regis, son of the king;

    vir magni animi, a man of noble spirit.

  Yet always senatus consultum, plebis scitum.

  b) Depending upon an Adjective:—­

    ignarus rerum, ignorant of affairs;

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    digni amicitia, worthy of friendship;

    plus aequo, more than (what is) fair.

2.  Appositives.  An Appositive regularly follows its Subject; as,—­

    Philippus, rex Macedonum, Philip, king of the Macedonians;

    adsentatio, vitiorum adjutrix, flattery, promoter of evils.

Yet flumen Rhenus, the River Rhine; and always in good prose urbs Roma, the city Rome.

3.  The Vocative usually follows one or more words; as,—­

    audi, Caesar, hear, Caesar!

4.  Adjectives.  No general law can be laid down for the position of Adjectives.  On the whole they precede the noun oftener than they follow it.

  a.  Adjectives of quantity (including numerals) regularly precede
  their noun; as,—­

    omnes homines, all men;

    septingentae naves, seven hundred vessels.

  b.  Note the force of position in the following:—­

    media urbs, the middle of the city;

    urbs media, the middle city,

    extremum bellum, the end of the war;

     bellum extremum, the last war.

  c.  Romanus and Latinus regularly follow; as,—­

    senatus populusque Romanus, the Roman Senate and People;

    ludi Romani, the Roman games;

    feriae Latinae, the Latin holidays.

  d.  When a Noun is modified both by an Adjective and by a Genitive, a
  favorite order is:  Adjective, Genitive, Noun; as,—­

    summa omnium rerum abundantia, the greatest abundance of all things.

5.  Pronouns.

  a.  The Demonstrative, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns regularly
  precede the Noun; as,—­

    hic homo, this man;

    ille homo, that man;

    erant duo itinera, quibus itineribus, etc., there were two routes, by
    which
, etc.

    qui homo? what sort of man?

  b.  But ille in the sense of ‘that well known,’ ‘that famous,’ usually
  stands after its Noun; as,—­

    testula illa, that well-known custom of ostracism;

    Medea illa, that famous Medea.

  c.  Possessive and Indefinite Pronouns usually follow their Noun; as,—­

    pater meus, my father;

    homo quidam, a certain man;

    mulier aliqua, some woman.

  But for purposes of contrast the Possessive often precedes its Noun;
  as,—­

    meus pater, MY father (i.e. as opposed to yours, his, etc.).

  d.  Where two or more Pronouns occur in the same sentence, the Latin is
  fond of putting them in close proximity; as,—­

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    nisi forte ego vobis cessare videor, unless perchance I seem to you to
    be doing nothing
.

6.  Adverbs and Adverbial phrases regularly precede the word they modify; as,—­

    valde diligens, extremely diligent;

    saepe dixi, I have often said;

    te jam diu hortamur, we have long been urging you;

    paulo post, a little after.

7.  Prepositions regularly precede the words they govern.

  a.  But limiting words often intervene between the Preposition and its
  case; as,—­

    de communi hominum memoria, concerning the common memory of men;

    ad beate vivendum, for living happily.

  b.  When a noun is modified by an Adjective, the Adjective is often placed
  before the preposition; as,—­

    magno in dolore, in great grief;

    summa cum laude, with the highest credit;

    qua de causa, for which cause;

    hanc ob rem, on account of this thing.

  c.  For Anastrophe, by which a Preposition is put after its case, see Sec.
  144, 3.

8.  Conjunctions.  Autem, enim, and igitur regularly stand in the second place in the sentence, but when combined with est or sunt they often stand third; as,—­

    ita est enim, for so it is.

9.  Words or Phrases referring to the preceding sentence or to some part of it, regularly stand first; as,—­

    id ut audivit, Corcyram demigravit, when he heard that (referring to
    the contents of the preceding sentence), he moved to Corcyra;

    eo cum Caesar venisset, timentes confirmat, when Caesar had come
    thither
(i.e. to the place just mentioned), he encouraged the timid.

10.  The Latin has a fondness for putting side by side words which are etymologically related; as,—­

ut ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc libro ad amicum amicissimus de amicitia scripsi, as I, an old man, wrote to an old man, on old age, so in this book, as a fond friend, I have written to a friend, concerning friendship.

11.  Special rhetorical devices for indicating emphasis are the following:—­

  a) Hyperbaton, which consists in the separation of words that regularly
  stand together; as,—­

    septimus mihi Originum liber est in manibus, the seventh book of my
    ‘Origines’ is under way
;

    recepto Caesar Orico proficiscitur, having recovered Oricus, Caesar
    set out
.

  b) Anaphora, which consists in the repetition of the same word or the
  same word-order in successive phrases; as,—­

    sed pleni omnes sunt libri, plenae sapientium voces, plena exemplorum
    vetustas, but all books are full of it, the voices of sages are full
    of it, antiquity is full of examples of it
.

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  c) Chiasmus,[59] which consists in changing the relative order of words
  in two antithetical phrases; as,—­

    multos defendi, laesi neminem, many have I defended, I have injured no
    one
;

    horribilem illum diem aliis, nobis faustum, that day dreadful to
    others, for us fortunate
.

  d) Synchysis, or the interlocked arrangement.  This is mostly confined to
  poetry, yet occurs in rhetorical prose, especially that of the Imperial
  Period; as,—­

    simulatam Pompejanarum gratiam partium, pretended interest in the
    Pompeian party
.

12.  Metrical Close.  At the end of a sentence certain cadences were avoided; others were much employed.  Thus:—­

  a) Cadences avoided.

    _ v v _ v or _ ; as, esse videtur (close of hexameter).

    _ v v v or _ ; as, esse potest (close of pentameter).

  b) Cadences frequently employed.

    _ v _ ; as, auxerant.

    _ v _ v ; as, comprobavit.

    _ v v v _ v ; as, esse videatur.

    v _ _ v _ ; as, rogatu tuo.

B. SENTENCE-STRUCTURE.

351. 1.  Unity of Subject.—­In complex sentences the Latin regularly holds to unity of Subject in the different members; as,—­

Caesar primum suo, deinde omnium ex conspectu remotis equis, ut aequato periculo spem fugae tolleret, cohortatus suos proelium commisit, Caesar having first removed his own horse from sight, then the horses of all, in order, by making the danger equal, to take away hope of flight, encouraged his men and joined battle.

2.  A word serving as the common Subject or Object of the main clause and a subordinate one, stands before both; as,—­

    Haedui cum se defendere non possent, legatos ad Caesarem mittunt,
    since the Haedui could not defend themselves, they sent envoys to
    Caesar
;

    ille etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen paci serviendum putavit,
    although he was burning with a desire to fight, yet he thought he
    ought to aim at peace
.

  a.  The same is true also

    1) When the Subject of the main clause is Object (Direct or Indirect)
    of a subordinate clause; as,—­

    Caesar, cum hoc ei nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe proficisci, when
    this had been reported to Caesar he hastened to set out from the city
.

    2) When the Subject of a subordinate clause is at the same time the
    Object (Direct or Indirect) of the main clause; as,—­

    L. Manlio, cum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius tribunus plebis diem
    dixit, M.  Pomponius, tribune of the people, instituted proceedings
    against Lucius Manlius, though he had been dictator
.

3.  Of subordinate clauses, temporal, conditional, and adversative clauses more commonly precede the main clause; indirect questions and clauses of purpose or result more commonly follow; as,—­

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    postquam haec dixit, profectus est, after he said this, he set out;

    si quis ita agat, imprudens sit, if any one should act so, he would be
    devoid of foresight
;

    accidit ut una nocte omnes Hermae deicerentur, it happened that in a
    single night all the Hermae were thrown down
.

4.  Sometimes in Latin the main verb is placed within the subordinate clause; as,—­

    si quid est in me ingeni, quod sentio quam sit exiguum, if there is
    any talent in me, and I know how little it is
.

5.  The Latin Period.  The term Period, when strictly used, designates a compound sentence in which the subordinate clauses are inserted within the main clause; as,—­

Caesar etsi intellegebat qua de causa ea dicerentur, tamen, ne aestatem in Treveris consumere cogeretur, Indutiomarum ad se venire jussit, though Caesar perceived why this was said, yet, lest he should be forced to spend the summer among the Treveri, he ordered Indutiomarus to come to him.

In the Periodic structure the thought is suspended until the end of the sentence is reached.  Many Roman writers were extremely fond of this sentence-structure, and it was well adapted to the inflectional character of their language; in English we generally avoid it.

6.  When there are several subordinate clauses in one Period, the Latin so arranges them as to avoid a succession of verbs.  Thus:—­

At hostes cum misissent, qui, quae in castris gererentur, cognoscerent, ubi se deceptos intellexerunt, omnibus copiis subsecuti ad flumen contendunt, but the enemy when they had sent men to learn what was going on in camp, after discovering that they had been outwitted, followed with all their forces and hurried to the river.

* * * * *

CHAPTER VIII.-Hints on Latin Style.

352.  In this chapter brief consideration is given to a few features of Latin diction which belong rather to style than to formal grammar.

NOUNS.

353. 1.  Where a distinct reference to several persons or things is involved, the Latin is frequently much more exact in the use of the Plural than is the English; as,—­

    domos eunt, they go home (i.e. to their homes);

    Germani corpora curant, the Germans care for the body;

    animos militum recreat, he renews the courage of the soldiers;

    dies noctesque timere, to be in a state of fear day and night.

2.  In case of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively, the Latin often employs the Plural where the English uses the Singular; as,—­

    omnia sunt perdita, everything is lost;

    quae cum ita sint, since this is so;

    haec omnibus pervulgata sunt, this is very well known to all.

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3.  The Latin is usually more concrete than the English, and especially less bold in the personification of abstract qualities.  Thus:—­

    a puero, a pueris, from boyhood;

    Sulla dictatore, in Sulla’s dictatorship;

    me duce, under my leadership;

    Romani cum Carthaginiensibus pacem fecerunt = Rome made peace with
    Carthage
;

    liber doctrinae plenus = a learned book;

    prudentia Themistoclis Graecia servata est = Themistocles’s foresight
    saved Greece
.

4.  The Nouns of Agency in -tor and -sor (see Sec. 147, 1) denote a permanent or characteristic activity; as,—­

    accusatores, (professional) accusers;

    oratores, pleaders;

    cantores, singers;

    Arminius, Germaniae liberator, Arminius, liberator of Germany.

  a.  To denote single instances of an action, other expressions are
  commonly employed; as,—­

    Numa, qui Romulo successit, Numa, successor of Romulus;

    qui mea legunt, my readers;

    qui me audiunt, my auditors.

5.  The Latin avoids the use of prepositional phrases as modifiers of a Noun.  In English we say:  ‘The war against Carthage’; ’a journey through Gaul’; ‘cities on the sea’; ‘the book in my hands’; ’the fight at Salamis’; etc.  The Latin in such cases usually employs another mode of expression.  Thus:—­

  a) A Genitive; as,—­

    dolor injuriarum, resentment at injuries.

  b) An Adjective; as,—­

    urbes maritimae, cities on the sea;

    pugna Salaminia, the fight at Salamis.

  c) A Participle; as,—­

    pugna ad Cannas facta, the battle at Cannae.

  d) A Relative clause; as,—­

    liber qui in meis manibus est, the book in my hands.

NOTE.—­Yet within certain limits the Latin does employ Prepositional phrases as Noun modifiers.  This is particularly frequent when the governing noun is derived from a verb.  The following are typical examples:—­

    transitus in Britanniam, the passage to Britain;

    excessus e vita, departure from life;

    odium erga Romanos, hatred of the Romans;

    liber de senectute, the book on old age;

    amor in patriam, love for one’s country.

ADJECTIVES.

354. 1.  Special Latin Equivalents for English Adjectives are—­

  a) A Genitive; as,—­

    virtutes animi = moral virtues;

    dolores corporis = bodily ills.

  b) An Abstract Noun; as,—­

    novitas rei = the strange circumstance;

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    asperitas viarum = rough roads.

  c) Hendiadys (see Sec. 374, 4); as,—­

    ratio et ordo = systematic order;

    ardor et impetus = eager onset.

  d) Sometimes an Adverb; as,—­

    omnes circa populi, all the surrounding tribes;

    suos semper hostes, their perpetual foes.

2.  Often a Latin Noun is equivalent to an English Noun modified by an Adjective; as,—­

    doctrina, theoretical knowledge;

    prudentia, practical knowledge;

    oppidum, walled town;

    libellus, little book.

3.  Adjectives are not used in immediate agreement with proper names; but an Adjective may limit vir, homo, ille, or some other word used as an Appositive of a proper name; as,—­

    Socrates, homo sapiens = the wise Socrates;

    Scipio, vir fortissimus = the doughty Scipio;

    Syracusae, urbs praeclarissima = famous Syracuse.

4.  An Adjective may be equivalent to a Possessive or Subjective Genitive; as,—­

    pastor regius, the shepherd of the king;

    tumultus servilis, the uprising of the slaves.

PRONOUNS.

355. 1.  In Compound Sentences the Relative Pronoun has a fondness for connecting itself with the subordinate clause rather than the main one; as,—­

    a quo cum quaereretur, quid maxime expediret, respondit, when it was
    asked of him what was best, he replied
. (Less commonly, qui, cum ab eo
    quaereretur, respondit.)

2.  Uterque, ambo.  Uterque means each of two; ambo means both; as,—­

    uterque frater abiit, each of the two brothers departed (i.e.
    separately);

    ambo fratres abierunt, i.e. the two brothers departed together.

  a.  The Plural of uterque occurs—­

    1) With Nouns used only in the Plural (see Sec. 56); as,—­

    in utrisque castris, in each camp.

    2) Where there is a distinct reference to two groups of persons or
    things; as,—­

    utrique duces clari fuerunt, the generals on each side (several in
    number) were famous.

VERBS.

356. 1.  In case of Defective and Deponent Verbs, a Passive is supplied:—­

  a) By the corresponding verbal Nouns in combination with esse, etc.;
  as,—­

    in odio sumus, we are hated;

    in invidia sum, I am envied;

    admirationi est, he is admired;

    oblivione obruitur, he is forgotten (lit. is overwhelmed by
    oblivion
);

    in usu esse, to be used.

  b) By the Passive of Verbs of related meaning.  Thus:—­

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    agitari as Passive of persequi;

    temptari as Passive of adoriri.

2.  The lack of the Perfect Active Participle in Latin is supplied—­

  a) Sometimes by the Perfect Passive Participle of the Deponent; as,—­

    adhortatus, having exhorted;

    veritus, having feared.

  b) By the Ablative Absolute; as,—­

    hostium agris vastatis Caesar exercitum reduxit, having ravaged the
    country of the enemy, Caesar led back his army
.

  c) By subordinate clauses; as,—­

    eo cum advenisset, castra posuit, having arrived there, he pitched a
    camp
;

    hostes qui in urbem irruperant, the enemy having burst into the city.

3.  The Latin agrees with English in the stylistic employment of the Second Person Singular in an indefinite sense (= ’one’). Cf. the English ’You can drive a horse to water, but you can’t make him drink.’ But in Latin this use is mainly confined to certain varieties of the Subjunctive, especially the Potential (Sec. 280), Jussive (Sec. 275), Deliberative (Sec. 277), and the Subjunctive in conditional sentences of the sort included under Sec. 302, 2, and 303.  Examples:—­

    videres, you could see;

    utare viribus, use your strength,

    quid hoc homine facias, what are you to do with this man?

    mens quoque et animus, nisi tamquam lumini oleum instilles,
    exstinguuntur senectute, the intellect and mind too are extinguished
    by old age, unless, so to speak, you keep pouring oil into the lamp
;

tanto amore possessiones suas amplexi tenebant, ut ab eis membra divelli citius posse diceres, they clung to their possessions with such an affectionate embrace, that you would have said their limbs could sooner be torn from their bodies.

PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE.

357. 1.  To denote ‘so many years, etc., afterwards or before’ the Latin employs not merely the Ablative of Degree of Difference with post and ante (see Sec. 223), but has other forms of expression.  Thus:—­

    post quinque annos, five years afterward;

    paucos ante dies, a few days before;

    ante quadriennium, four years before;

    post diem quartum quam ab urbe discesseramus, four days after we had
    left the city
;

    ante tertium annum quam decesserat, three years before he had died.

2.  The Latin seldom combines both Subject and Object with the same Infinitive; as,—­

    Romanos Hannibalem vicisse constat.

Such a sentence would be ambiguous, and might mean either that the Romans had conquered Hannibal, or that Hannibal had conquered the Romans.  Perspicuity was gained by the use of the Passive Infinitive; as,—­

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    Romanos ab Hannibale victos esse constat, it is well established that
    the Romans were defeated by Hannibal
.

PECULIARITIES IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OF THE DATIVE.

358. 1.  The English for does not always correspond to a Dative notion in Latin, but is often the equivalent of pro with the Ablative, viz. in the senses—­

  a) In defense of; as,—­

    pro patria mori, to die for one’s country.

  b) Instead of, in behalf of; as,—­

    unus pro omnibus dixit, one spoke for all;

    haec pro lege dicta sunt, these things were said for the law.

  c) In proportion to; as,—­

    pro multitudine hominum eorum fines erant angusti, for the population,
    their territory was small
.

2.  Similarly, English to when it indicates motion is rendered in Latin by ad.

    a.  Note, however, that the Latin may say either scribere ad aliquem, or
    scribere alicui, according as the idea of motion is or is not
    predominant.  So in several similar expressions.

3.  In the poets, verbs of mingling with, contending with, joining, clinging to, etc., sometimes take the Dative.  This construction is a Grecism.  Thus:—­

    se miscet viris, he mingles with the men;

    contendis Homero, you contend with Homer;

    dextrae dextram jungere, to clasp hand with hand.

PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE GENITIVE.

359. 1.  The Possessive Genitive gives emphasis to the possessor, the Dative of Possessor emphasizes the fact of possession; as,—­

    hortus patris est, the garden is my father’s;

    mihi hortus est, I possess a garden.

2.  The Latin can say either stulti or stultum est dicere, it is foolish to say; but Adjectives of one ending permit only the Genitive; as,—­

    sapientis est haec secum reputare, it is the part of a wise man to
    consider this
.

* * * * *

PART VI.

PROSODY.

360.  Prosody treats of metres and versification.

361.  Latin Verse.  Latin Poetry was essentially different in character from English.  In our own language, poetry is based upon accent, and poetical form consists essentially in a certain succession of accented and unaccented syllables.  Latin poetry, on the other hand, was based not upon accent, but upon quantity, so that with the Romans poetical form consisted in a certain succession of long and short syllables, i.e. of long and short intervals of time.

This fundamental difference in the character of English and Latin poetry is a natural result of the difference in character of the two languages.  English is a strongly accented language, in which quantity is relatively subordinate.  Latin, on the other hand, was a quantitative language, in which accent was relatively subordinate.

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QUANTITY OF VOWELS AND SYLLABLES

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

362.  The general principles for the quantity of vowels and syllables have been given above in Sec. 5.  The following peculiarities are to be noted here:—­

1.  A vowel is usually short when followed by another vowel (Sec. 5, A, 2), but the following exceptions occur:—­

  a) In the Genitive termination -ius (except alterius); as, illius,
  totius.  Yet the i may be short in poetry; as, illius, totius.

  b) In the Genitive and Dative Singular of the Fifth Declension; as, diei,
  aciei.  But fidei, rei, spei (Sec. 52, 1).

  c) In fio, excepting fit and forms where i is followed by er.  Thus: 
  fiebam, fiat, fiunt; but fieri, fierem.

  d) In a few other words, especially words derived from the Greek; as,
  dius, Aeneas, Darius, heroes, etc.

2.  A diphthong is usually long (Sec. 5, B, 2), but the preposition prae in composition is often shortened before a vowel; as, praeacutus.

3.  A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants (Sec. 5, B, 2) is long, even when one of the consonants is in the following word; as, terret populum.  Occasionally the syllable is long when both consonants are in the following word; as, pro segete spicas.

4.  Compounds of jacio, though written inicit, adicit, etc., have the first syllable long, as though written inj-, adj-.

5.  Before j, a and e made a long syllable, e.g. in major, pejor, ejus, ejusdem, Pompejus, rejecit, etc.  These were pronounced, mai-jor, pei-jor, ei-jus, Pompei-jus, rei-jecit, etc.  So also sometimes before i, e.g.  Pompe-i, pronounced Pompei-i; re-icio, pronounced rei-icio.

Quantity of Final Syllables.

A.  Final Syllables ending in a Vowel.

363. 1.  Final a is mostly short, but is long:—­

  a) In the Ablative Singular of the First Declension; as, porta.

  b) In the Imperative; as, lauda.

  c) In indeclinable words (except ita, quia); as, triginta, contra,
  postea, interea, etc.

2.  Final e is usually short, but is long:—­

  a) In the Ablative Singular of the Fifth Declension; as, die, re; hence
  hodie, quare.  Here belongs also fame (Sec. 59, 2, b).

  b) In the Imperative of the Second Conjugation; as, mone, habe, etc.; yet
  occasionally cave, vale.

  c) In Adverbs derived from Adjectives of the Second Declension, along
  with fere and ferme.  Bene, male, temere, saepe have e.

  d) In e, de, me, te, se, ne (not, lest), ne (verily).

3.  Final i is usually long, but is short in nisi and quasi.  Mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, have regularly i, but sometimes i; yet always ibidem, ibique, ubique.

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4.  Final o is regularly long, but is short:—­

  a) In ego, duo, modo (only), cito.

  b) Rarely in the First Person Singular of the Verb, and in Nominatives of
  the Third Declension; as, amo, leo.

  c) In a few compounds beginning with the Preposition pro, especially
  before f; as profundere, proficisci, profugere.

5.  Final u is always long.

B.  Final Syllables ending in a Consonant.

364. 1.  Final syllables ending in any other consonant than s are short.  The following words, however, have a long vowel:  sal, sol, Lar, par, ver, fur, dic, duc, en, non, quin, sin, sic, cur.  Also the adverbs hic, illic, istic.[60]

2.  Final syllables in -as are long; as, terras, amas.

3.  Final syllables in -es are regularly long, but are short:—­

a) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of dental stems (Sec. 33) of the Third Declension which have a short penult in the Genitive; as, seges (segetis), obses (obsidis), miles, dives.  But a few have -es; viz. pes, aries, abies, paries.

  b) In es (thou art), penes.

4.  Final -os is usually long, but short in os (ossis), compos, impos.

5.  Final -is is usually short, but is long:—­

  a) In Plurals; as, portis, hortis, nobis, vobis, nubis (Acc.).

  b) In the Second Person Singular Perfect Subjunctive Active; as,
  amaveris, monueris, audiveris, etc.  Yet occasional exceptions occur.

  c) In the Second Person Singular Present Indicative Active of the Fourth
  Conjugation; as, audis.

  d) In vis, force; is, thou goest; fis; sis; velis; nolis; vis, thou
  wilt
(mavis, quamvis, quivis, etc.).

6.  Final -us is usually short, but is long:—­

  a) In the Genitive Singular and in the Nominative, Accusative, and
  Vocative Plural of the Fourth Declension; as, fructus.

  b) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of those nouns of the Third
  Declension in which the u belongs to the stem; as, palus (-udis),
  servitus (-utis), tellus (-uris).

365.  Greek Nouns retain in Latin their original quantity; as, Aenea, epitome, Delos, Pallas, Simois, Salamis, Didus, Paridi, aer, aether, crater, heroas.  Yet Greek nouns in -omega-rho (-or) regularly shorten the vowel of the final syllable; as, rhetor, Hector.

VERSE-STRUCTURE.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

366. 1.  The metrical unit in versification is a short syllable, technically called a mora ( v ).  A long syllable ( _ ) is regarded as equivalent to two morae.

2.  A Foot is a group of syllables.  The following are the most important kinds of fundamental feet:—­

FEET OF THREE MORAE.     FEET OF FOUR MORAE.
_ v Trochee.            _ v v Dactyl.
v _ Iambus.             v v _ Anapaest.

3.  A Verse is a succession of feet.

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4.  The different kinds of verses are named Trochaic, Iambic, Dactylic, Anapaestic, according to the foot which forms the basis of their structure.

5.  Ictus.  In every fundamental foot the long syllable naturally receives the greater prominence.  This prominence is called ictus.[61] It is denoted thus:  _/ v v ; _/ v .

6.  Thesis and Arsis.  The syllable which receives the ictus is called the thesis; the rest of the foot is called the arsis.

7.  Elision.  Final syllables ending in a vowel, a diphthong, or -m are regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h.  In reading, we omit the elided syllable entirely.  This may be indicated as follows:  corpor^e in uno; mult^um ill^e et; monstr^um horrendum; caus^ae irarum.

  a.  Omission of elision is called Hiatus.  It occurs especially before and
  after monosyllabic interjections; as, O et praesidium.

8.  The ending of a word within a foot is called a Caesura (cutting) Every verse usually has one prominent caesura.  The ending of a word and foot together within the verse is called a diaeresis.

9.  Verses are distinguished as Catalectic or Acatalectic.  A Catalectic verse is one in which the last foot is not complete, but lacks one or more syllables; an Acatalectic verse has its last foot complete.

10.  At the end of a verse a slight pause occurred.  Hence the final syllable may be either long or short (syllaba anceps), and may terminate in a vowel or m, even though the next verse begins with a vowel.

11.  Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verses are further designated as dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, according to the number of dipodies (pairs of feet) which they contain.  Dactylic verses are measured by single feet, and are designated as tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, accordingly.

SPECIAL PECULIARITIES.

367. 1.  Synizesis (synaeresis).  Two successive vowels in the interior of a word are often united into a long syllable; as,—­

    aur{ei}s, d{ei}nde, ant{ei}re, d{ee}sse.

2.  Diastole.  A syllable usually short is sometimes long; as,—­

    videt, audit.

3.  Systole.  A syllable usually long is sometimes short; as,—­

    steterunt.

  a.  Diastole and Systole are not mere arbitrary processes.  They usually
  represent an earlier pronunciation which had passed out of vogue in the
  ordinary speech.

4.  After a consonant, i and u sometimes become j and v.  The preceding syllable then becomes long; as,—­

    abjete for abiete; genva for genua.

5.  Sometimes v becomes u; as,—­

    silua for silva; dissoluo for dissolvo.

6.  Sometimes a verse has an extra syllable.  Such a verse is called an Hypermeter.  The extra syllable ends in a vowel or -m, and is united with the initial vowel or h of the next verse by Synapheia.  Thus:—­

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  ... ignar^i hominumque locorum^que
  erramus.

7.  Tmesis (cutting).  Compound words are occasionally separated into their elements; as,—­

    quo me cumque rapit tempestas, for quocumque, etc.

8.  Syncope.  A short vowel is sometimes dropped between two consonants; as,—­

    repostus for repositus

THE DACTYLIC HEXAMETER.

368. 1.  The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theoretically of six dactyls.  But in all the feet except the fifth, a spondee ( _ _ ) may take the place of the dactyl.  The sixth foot may be either a spondee or a trochee, since the final syllable of a verse may be either long or short (syllaba anceps).  The following represents the scheme of the verse:—­

_/ vv (or _) ; _/ vv (or _) ; _/ vv (or _) ; _/ vv (or _) ; _/ vv ; _/ v (or _).

2.  Sometimes we find a spondee in the fifth foot.  Such verses are called Spondaic.  A dactyl usually stands in the fourth place, and the fifth and sixth feet are generally made up of a quadrisyllable; as,—­

    armatum^que auro circumspicit Oriona.

    cara deum suboles, magnum Jovis incrementum.

3.  Caesura.

  a) The favorite position of the caesura in the Dactylic Hexameter is
  after the thesis of the third foot; as,—­

    arma virumque cano || Trojae qui primus ab oris.

  b) Less frequently the caesura occurs after the thesis of the fourth
  foot, usually accompanied by another in the second foot; as,—­

    inde toro || pater Aeneas || sic orsus ab alt^o est.

  c) Sometimes the caesura occurs between the two short syllables of the
  third foot; as,—­

    O passi graviora || dabit deus his quoque finem.

  This caesura is called Feminine, as opposed to the caesura after a long
  syllable, which is called Masculine (as under a and b)

  d) A pause sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot.  This is called
  the Bucolic Diaeresis, as it was borrowed by the Romans from the Bucolic
  poetry of the Greeks.  Thus:—­

    solstitium pecori defendite; || jam venit aestas.

DACTYLIC PENTAMETER.

369. 1.  The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts, each of which contains two dactyls, followed by a long syllable.  Spondees may take the place of the dactyls in the first part, but not in the second.  The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word.  The scheme is the following:—­

_/ vv (or _) _/ vv (or _) _/ || _/ vv _/ vv v (or _).

2.  The Pentameter is never used alone, but only in connection with the Hexameter.  The two arranged alternately form the so-called Elegiac Distich.  Thus:—­

  Vergilium vidi tantum, neo amara Tibullo
    Tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.

IAMBIC MEASURES.

370. 1.  The most important Iambic verse is the Iambic Trimeter (Sec. 366, 11), called also Senarius.  This is an acatalectic verse.  It consists of six Iambi.  Its pure form is:—­

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v _ v _ v _ v _ v _ v _ Beatus ille qui procul negotiis.

The Caesura usually occurs in the third foot; less frequently in the fourth.

2.  In place of the Iambus, a Tribrach ( v v v ) may stand in any foot but the last.  In the odd feet (first, third, and fifth) may stand a Spondee, Dactyl, or Anapaest, though the last two are less frequent.  Sometimes a Proceleusmatic ( v v v v ) occurs.

3.  In the Latin comic writers, Plautus and Terence, great freedom is permitted, and the various equivalents of the Iambus, viz. the Dactyl, Anapaest, Spondee, Tribrach, Proceleusmatic, are freely admitted in any foot except the last.

* * * * *

SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.

I. JULIAN CALENDAR.

371. 1.  The names of the Roman months are:  Januarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprilis, Majus, Junius, Julius (Quintilis[62] prior to 46 B.C.), Augustus (Sextilis[62] before the Empire), September, October, November, December.  These words are properly Adjectives in agreement with mensis understood.

2.  Dates were reckoned from three points in the month:—­

  a) The Calends, the first of the month.

  b) The Nones, usually the fifth of the month, but the seventh in March,
  May, July, and October.

  c) The Ides, usually the thirteenth of the month, but the fifteenth in
  March, May, July, and October.

3.  From these points dates were reckoned backward; consequently all days after the Ides of any month were reckoned as so many days before the Calends of the month next following.

4.  The day before the Calends, Nones, or Ides of any month is designated as pridie Kalendas, Nonas, Idus.  The second day before was designated as die tertio ante Kalendas, Nonas, etc.  Similarly the third day before was designated as die quarto, and so on.  These designations are arithmetically inaccurate, but the Romans reckoned both ends of the series.  The Roman numeral indicating the date is therefore always larger by one than the actual number of days before Nones, Ides, or Calends.

5.  In indicating dates, the name of the month is added in the form of an Adjective agreeing with Kalendas, Nonas, Idus.  Various forms of expression occur, of which that given under d) is most common:—­

=======================================================
============== Days |March,May,July|January, August| April,June, | of the| October. | December | September, | February month.| | | November | ------+--------------+---------------+---------------+------
--------- 1 |KALENDIS |KALENDIS |KALENDIS |KALENDIS 2 |VI Nonas |IV Nonas |IV Nonas |IV Nonas 3 |V " |III " |III " |III " 4 |IV " |Pridie Nonas |Pridie Nonas |Pridie Nonas 5 |III " |NONIS |NONIS |NONIS

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6 |Pridie Nonas |VIII Idus |VIII Idus |VIII Idus 7 |NONIS |VII " |VII " |VII " 8 |VIII Idus |VI " |VI " |VI " 9 |VII " |V " |V " |V " 10 |VI " |IV " |IV " |IV " 11 |V " |III " |III " |III " 12 |IV " |Pr.  Idus |Pr.  Idus |Pr.  Idus 13 |III " |IDIBUS |IDIBUS |IDIBUS 14 |Pr.  Idus |XIX Kalend. |XVIII Kalend.|XVI Kalend. 15 |IDIBUS |XVIII " |XVII " |XV " 16 |XVII Kalend. |XVII " |XVI " |XIV " 17 |XVI " |XVI " |XV " |XIII " 18 |XV " |XV " |XIV " |XII " 19 |XIV " |XIV " |XIII " |XI " 20 |XIII " |XIII " |XII " |X " 21 |XII " |XII " |XI " |IX " 22 |XI " |XI " |X " |VIII " 23 |X " |X " |IX " |VII " 24 |IX " |IX " |VIII " |VI " 25 |VIII " |VIII " |VII " |V (bis VI)” 26 |VII " |VII " |VI " |IV (V) " 27 |VI " |VI " |V " |III (IV) " 28 |V " |V " |IV " |Pr.Kal.(III K.) 29 |IV " |IV " |III " |(Prid.  Kal.) 30 |III " |III " |Pr.  Kalend. |(Enclosed forms are 31 |Pr.  Kalend. |Pr.  Kalend. | |for leap-year.) ============================================================
========= * * * * *

II.  PROPER NAMES.

373. 1.  The name of a Roman citizen regularly consisted of three parts:  the praenomen (or given name), the nomen (name of the gens or clan), and the cognomen (family name).  Such a typical name is exemplied by Marcus Tullius Cicero, in which Marcus is the praenomen, Tullius the nomen, and Cicero the cognomen.  Sometimes a second cognomen (in later Latin called an agnomen) is added—­expecially in honor of military achievements; as,—­

    Gaius Cornelius Scipio Africanus.

2.  ABBREVIATIONS OF PROPER NAMES.

A.  = Aulus.               Mam.  = Mamercus. 
App.  = Appius.                N.  = Numerius. 
C.  = Gaius.                 P.  = Publius. 
Cn.  = Gnaeus.                Q.  = Quintus. 
D.  = Decimus.             Sex.  = Sextus. 
K.  = Kaeso.               Ser.  = Servius. 
L.  = Lucius.               Sp.  = Spurius. 
M.  = Marcus.                T.  = Titus. 
M’.  = Manius.               Ti.  = Tiberius.

* * * * *

III.  FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC.

A. Figures of Syntax.

374. 1.  Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words; as,—­

    quid multa, why (should I say) much?

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2.  Brachylogy is a brief or condensed form of expression; as,—­

    ut ager sine cultura fructuosus esse non potest, sic sine doctrina
    animus, as a field cannot be productive without cultivation, so the
    mind (cannot be productive) without learning.

Special varieties of Brachylogy are—­

  a) Zeugma, in which one verb is made to stand for two; as,—­

    minis aut blandimentis corrupta = (terrifed) by threats or corrupted
    by flattery.

  b) Compendiary Comparison, by which a modifier of an object is mentioned
  instead of the object itself; as,—­

    dissimilis erat Chares eorum et factis et moribus, lit. Chares was
    different from their conduct and character
i.e.  Chares’s conduct and
    character were different, etc.

3.  Pleonasm is an unnecessary fullness of expression; as,—­

    prius praedicam, lit. I will first say in advance.

4.  Hendiadys , (one through two) is the use of two nouns joined by a conjunction, in the sense of a noun modified by a Genitive or an Adjective; as,—­

    febris et aestus, the heat of fever;

    celeritate cursuque, by swift running.

5.  Prolepsis, or Anticipation, is the introduction of an epithet in advance of the action which makes it appropriate; as,—­

    submersas obrue puppes, lit. overwhelm their submerged ships, i.e.
    overwhelm and sink their ships.

  a.  The name Prolepsis is also applied to the introduction of a noun or
  pronoun as object of the main clause where we should expect it to stand
  as subject of a subordinate clause.  Thus:—­

    nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit, you know how slow Marcellus is (lit.
    you know Marcellus, how slow he is).

  Both varieties of Prolepsis are chiefly confined to poetry.

6.  Anacoluthon is a lack of grammatical consistency in the construction of the sentence; as,—­

    tum Anci filii ... impensius eis indignitas crescere, then the sons of
    Ancus ... their indignation increased all the more
.

7.  Hysteron Proteron consists in the inversion of the natural order of two words or phrases; as,—­

    moriamur et in media arma ruamus = let us rush into the midst of arms
    and die
.

B. Figures of Rhetoric.

375. 1.  Litotes (literally softening) is the expression of an idea by the denial of its opposite; as,—­

    haud parum laboris, no little toil (i.e. much toil);

    non ignoro, I am not ignorant (i.e. I am well aware).

2.  Oxymoron is the combination of contradictory conceptions; as,—­

    sapiens insania, wise folly.

3.  Alliteration is the employment of a succession of words presenting frequent repetition of the same letter (mostly initial); as,—­

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    sensim sine sensu aetas senescit.

4.  Onomatopoeia is the suiting of sound to sense; as,—­

    quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum, ’And shake with
    horny hoofs the solid ground
.’

* * * * *

INDEX OF THE SOURCES OF THE ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES CITED IN THE SYNTAX.[63]

Sec. 162. nonne videtis, Sest. 47. num exspectas, Phil. ii, 86. videsne, Vatin. 30. sensistine, Cat. 1, 8. a rebus, de Sen. 15. visne locum, Leg. ii, 1. estisne, Liv. i, 38, 2. jam ea, Ter.  Phor. 525. estne frater, Ter.  Ad. 569.

Sec. 166. decorum est, Hor.  Od. iii, 2, 13. opportune accidit Att. i, 17, 2.

Sec. 168.  Numa, Eut. i, 3. philosophia, Tusc.  Disp. ii, 16.

Sec. 169. assentatio, Lael. 89.  Corinthi, Tac.  H. ii, 1.

Sec. 171. audi tu, Livy, i, 24. nate, mea, Aen. i, 664.

Sec. 174. rumor est, Ter.  And. 185.

Sec. 175. galeam, Aen. ii, 392. cinctus, Ov.  Am. iii, 9, 61 nodo sinus, Aen. i, 320.

Sec. 176. idem gloriari, de Sen. 32. eadem peccat, N.D. i, 31. multa egeo, Gell. xiii, 24. multum valet, Hor.  Epp. i, 6, 52. nihil peccat, Stat. 161. minitantem vana, Sil. i, 306 acerba tuens, Lucr. v, 33. dulce loquentem, Hor.  Od. i, 22, 24. multum sunt, B.G. iv, 1, 8. servitutem, Pl.  Pers. 34 a. vitam, Ter.  Ad. 859. stadium Off. iii, 10, 42.  Olympia, de Sen. 14. piscis, Sen.  N.Q. iii, 18, 2. orationes, Brut. 82.

Sec. 177. homines, Rosc.  Am. 101.

Sec. 178. otium, Hor.  Od. ii, 16, 1. me duas, Att. ii, 7, 1. te litteras, Pis. 73. hoc te, Ter.  Hec. 766. me id, Pl.  Tr. 96. non te, Fam. ii, 16, 3. omnes artes, Liv. 25, 37. rogatus, de Dom. 16. multa, N.D. ii, 166.

Sec. 179. milites, B.C. i, 54.

Sec. 180. tremit, Lucr. iii, 489. nuda, Aen. i, 320. manus, Aen. ii, 57.

Sec. 181. hic locus, B.G. i, 49.

Sec. 182.  Thalam, Sall.  Jug. 75, 1.  Thurios in, Nep.  Alc. 4. cum Acen, Nep.  Dat. 5.  Italiam venit, Aen. i, 2.

Sec. 187. amicis, Sall.  C. 16, 4.  Orgetorix, B.G. i, 2. munitioni, B.G. i, 10.

Sec. 188. mihi ante, Verr. v, 123. illi, Tac.  Ag. 9. intercludere, Pl.  M.G. 223. oppidum, B.C. iii, 80 tu mihi, Verr. 3, 213. quid mihi, Hor.  Epp. i, 3, 15. erit ille, Ecl. i, 7. quae ista, Par. 41. honorem, Verr. iv, 25.  Caesar, Div. ii, 79. scintillam, Aen. i, 174.

Sec. 189. disputatio, Tusc.  Disp. ii, 2. honesta, Off. iii, 38.

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Sec. 191. castris, B.G. vii, 16. legiones, B.C. ii, 22. receptui, B.G. vii, 47. fortunae, Fam. vi, 5, 1. quibus, Flac. 19. hos tibi, Nep.  Paus. 2. me gerendo, Liv. i, 23. noxiae, Leg. iii, 11.

Sec. 192. it clamor, Aen. v, 451.

Sec. 193. dum Latio, Aen. i, 6.

Sec. 203. magni, Nep.  Cat. 1, 2. tantae molis, Aen. i, 33.

Sec. 204. viri, Tusc.  Disp. ii, 43. memoria, Or. 54.

Sec. 206.  Epicuri, F. v, 3. praeteritorum, Div. i, 63. nomina, Pl.  Poen. 1062. reminiscere, B.G. i, 13. reminiscens, Nep.  Alc. 6. mihi patriae, Sull. 19.

Sec. 207. te veteris, ad Her. iv, 24, 33. me admones, ad Att. v, 1, 3.

Sec. 208. pecuniae, Flacc. 43.

Sec. 209. miseremini, Verr. 1, 72.

Sec. 212. desine, Hor.  Od. ii, 9, 17. operum, Hor.  Od. iii, 17, 16.

Sec. 214. p. 142, curis, Marc. 34.  Caesar, B.G. 5, 51. caret, Hor.  Sat. i, 3, 66. urbem, Nep.  Thras. 1. abstinere, Plin.  Epp. i, 12, 9. hostes, B.G. i, 1, 4. praedones, Verr. iv, 144. dissentio, Planc. 9. secernantur, Cat. i, 32.

Sec. 215. ab Ulixe, Liv. i, 49, 9.

Sec. 216. a fortuna, B.G. v, 34, 2. a multitudine, B.G. iii, 2, 1.

Sec. 217. melle dulcior, de Sen. 31. patria, Cat. i, 27. amplius, B.G. vii, 15, 1. opinione, B.G. ii, 3, 1.

Sec. 218. munere, Aen. vi, 885. carne, Sall.  Jug. 89. castris, B.G. ii, 26, 4. opus est properato, Mil. 49. nititur, Aen. vi, 760 nervis, N.D. ii, 59 mortali, Lucr. v, 65. quid hoc, Sest. 29. quid mea, Fam. xiv, 4, 3. fossas, B.G. iii, 18. vinum, Juv. vii, 121. militibus, B.G. i, 8, 1.

Sec. 219. victoria, B.G. i, 14, 4. natura loci, B.G. iii, 9, 3.

Sec. 221. nulla est, Brut. 164. exstinguitur, Tac.  A. ii, 72. longo, Aen. v, 320.

Sec. 222A. cum febri, de.  Or. iii, 6. improbitas, de Or. ii, 237. aer calore, N.D. ii, 27. assuetus, de Or. iii, 58.

Sec. 224. puella, Pl.  Merc. 13. vir singulari, Pl.  Vid. 41. sunt specie, B.G. vi, 28, 1. scopulis, Aen. i, 166.

Sec. 226.  Helvetii, B.G. i, 2, 2. me dignor, Aen. i, 335.

Sec. 227.  Cn.  Pompeio, B.G. iv, 1. omnes virtutes, Fin. ii, 117. perditis, Fam. vi, 1, 4. nullo adversante, Tac.  A. i, 2. passis palmis, B.C. iii, 98. audito eum, Liv. xxviii, 7.

Sec. 228. stant litore, Aen. vi, 901.

Sec. 229. a Gergovia, B.G. vii, 59, 1.

Sec. 231. stella, N.D. ii, 52. biennio, Tac.  Agr. 14.

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Sec. 234. prima et, Tac.  A. i, 37. omnium rerum, Fam. vi, 21, 1.

Sec. 235. eadem alacritas, B.G. iv, 24, 4. res operae, B.G. v, 11, 5. stultitia, F. iii, 39. domus, uxor, Ter.  And. 891. pars, Sall.  Jug. 14, 15.

Sec. 240. senectus, de Sen. 55. exercitus, Livy, xxxix, 1.

Sec. 242. virtus, Lael. 100.

Sec. 244. me oravit, Phil. ii, 45. me oraverunt, Div.  Caec. 2. suum genium, Tac.  Dial. 9.  Hannibalem, Sest. 142. suus quemque, Rosc.  Am. 67.

Sec. 245.  Belgae, B.G. ii, 1, 1.  Galli, B.G. vi, 8, 1.

Sec. 246.  Themistocles, Nep.  Them. 9. illud intellego, Sall.  Jug. 85, 5. hic est, Pl.  Tr. 697.

Sec. 247.  Maximum, de Sen. 10. non is sum, B.G. v, 30, 2. non suspicabatur, Verr. i, 36. vincula, Cat. iv, 7.

Sec. 248. quod idem, Ac. ii, 52. bonus vir, Lael. 65.

Sec. 249. ipso terrore, B.G. iv, 33, 1. valvae se, Div. i, 74.  Persae, Nep.  Alc. 5. ea molestissime, Q.  Fr. i, 1, 2.

Sec. 250. carcer quae, Verr. v, 143.  Belgae, B.G. ii, 1, 1. nostra qui, Cat. i, 7. servili, B.G. i, 40. erant, B.G. i, 6. quam quisque, Tusc.  Disp. i, 41. non longe, B.G. i, 10, 1.  Themistocles, Nep.  Them. 4. 3. numquam digne, de Sen. 2.

Sec. 252. cognatio, Arch. 2. mors est, Tusc.  Disp. i, 27. justitia, F. i, 50. si quisquam, Lael. 9. potestne, Tusc.  Disp. iv, 54. si ullo, Att. xii, 23, 1. taetrior, Verr. iv, 123. quod cuique, Off. i, 21. quinto quoque, Verr. ii, 139. nemo Romanus, Liv. viii, 30, 3.

Sec. 253. alter exercitum, Planc. 86. alteri se, B.G. i, 26, 1. causidicus, de Or. i, 202.

Sec. 254.  Tarquinii, Liv. i, 34, 7. non omnis, Div. ii, 90.  Corioli, Liv. ii, 33, 8. duo milia, Curt. iii, 2, 5.

Sec. 255. temeritas, F. iii, 72. si tu, Fam. xiv, 5, 1.

Sec. 256. velatus, Ov.  Met. v, 110. tunica, Aen. viii, 457.

Sec. 259. virtus, Lael. 100. dum vitant, Hor.  Sat. i, 2, 24.  Caesar, B.G. vii, 90, 2. jam pridem, Att. ii, 5, 1.

Sec. 260.  Duilium, de Sen. 44. hostes, B.G. v. 9, 6. domicilium, Arch. 7.

Sec. 262.  Regulus, Off. iii, 100.

Sec. 263.  Caesar, B.G. iv, 17, 1.

Sec. 265. nihil habebam, Att. ix, 10, 1.

Sec. 268. videor, N.D. ii, 72.  Gallos, B.G. vii, 4, 4. honestum, F. ii, 49. si solos, Tusc.  Disp. i, 9. rex tantum, Nep.  Con. 4.  Verres, Verr.  Act.  Pr. 12. ardebat, Brut. 302.

Sec. 269.  Caesar, B.G. iii, 24, 1.

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Sec. 270. hoc jam, Cat. i, 5. dico me, Sull. 27.

Sec. 275. quare, Cat. 1, 32. isto bono, de Sen. 33.

Sec. 276. ne repugnetis, Cluent. 6 tu vero, Tusc.  Disp. i, 112. impii ne, Leg. ii, 41. cave ignoscas, Lig. 14.

Sec. 277. quid faciam, Pl.  Curc. 589. ego redeam, Ter.  Eun. 49. huic cedamus! Phil. xiii, 16. quid facerem, Ter.  Eun. 831. hunc ego, Arch. 18.

Sec. 278. ne sint, de Sen. 34. fuerit, Verr. i, 37.

Sec. 279. di istaec, Ter.  H.T. 1038. falsus utinam, Liv. xxi, 10, 10.

Sec. 280. dicat aliquis, Ter.  And. 640. fortunam, Pub.  Syr. 193. velim mihi, Fam. xiii, 75, 1. nolim putes, Fam. ix, 15, 4. dies deficat, N.D. iii, 81.

Sec. 281. egredere, Cat. i, 20. rem vobis, Verr. iv, 1. si bene, de Sen. 3. consules, Leg. iii, 8. hominem, Twelve Tables. amicitia, Liv. 38, 38, 1. quin equos, Liv. i, 57, 7.

Sec. 282. adjuta, Ter.  Eun. 150. portas, B.G. ii, 33 haec, And. 472. ut ne, Off. i, 103. ut non, Cat. i, 23. ut earum, B.G. iv, 17, 10.  Helvetii, B.G. i, 7, 3. haec habui, de Sen. 85. non habebant, B.G. iv, 38, 2. idoneus, Verr. iii, 41. dignus, Leg. iii, 5.

Sec. 283. multa, Tusc.  Disp. i, 80. sunt qui, Inv. ii, 144. nemo, Fam. i, 4, 2. sapientia, Fin. i, 43. quae, Lael. 23. non is sum, B.G. v, 30, 2. non longius, B.G. ii, 21, 3. o fortunate, Arch. 24. ut qui, Phil. xi, 30. egomet, de Or. i, 82. nemo est, Verr. iv, 115. nemo fuit, B.C. iii, 53, 3. quem audierim, Nep.  Ar. 1, 2.

Sec. 284. quis tam, Tusc.  Disp. iii, 71.  Siciliam, Verr.  Act.  Pr. 12. mons, B.G. i, 6, 1. non is, Cat. i, 22. nemo est, de Sen. 24. habetis, Cat. iv, 24. nihil, Ter.  H.T. 675. nemo est, B.G. vi, 39, 3.

Sec. 286.  Themistocles, Nep.  Them. 8, 3. neque, de Sen. 84. quoniam, Nep.  Milt. 7, 5. noctu, Tusc.  Disp. iv, 44.  Bellovaci, B.G. vii, 75. id feci, Caec. 101.  Crasso, Fam. xiii, 16, 3. hoc ita, Leg. iii, 31.  Haeduos, B.G. i, 16, 6. id omitto, Sall.  Jug. 110, 7.

Sec. 287.  Epaminondas, Nep.  Ep. 9, 4. id ut, Nep.  Them. 8, 3.  Caesar, B.G. iii, 9, 2. ubi de, B.G. i, 7, 3. ut quisque, Verr. v, 143. hostes, B.G. iv, 26, 2. id ubi, Liv. i, 32, 13. postquam occupatae, Liv. xxiv, 35, 4. postquam Romam, Sall.  Jug. 28, 2. postquam structi, Liv. i, 23, 6. posteaquam, Leg. ii, 64.

Sec. 288. an tum, Pis. 26. credo tum, Verr. iv, 46. eo tempore, Lig. 20. illo die, Mil. 38.  Lysander, Div. i, 96.  Pythagoras, N.D. iii, 88. jam Galli, B.G. vii, 26, 3.  Treveri, B.G. vi, 7, 1. cum ad, Verr. v, 27. cum equitatus, B.G. v, 19, 2. saepe cum, Nep.  Cim. 4, 2. cum procucurrissent, B.C. ii, 41, 6.

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Sec. 289. tum tua, Hor.  Epp. i, 18, 84. cum videbis, Pl.  Bacch. 145. stabilitas, Lael. 82.

Sec. 290. cum tacent, Cat. i, 21. cum te, Att. xiv, 17 A, 4.

Sec. 291. prius, Pl.  Merc. 456. nihil contra, Flacc. 51. non prius, Sall.  C. 51.

Sec. 291. priusquam, Liv. i, 24, 3. tempestas, Sen.  Ep. 103, 2. priusquam telum, B.C. ii, 34, 6. animum, Pl.  Amph. 240. sol antequam, Phil. xiv, 27.

Sec. 293.  Alexander, Quint.  Curt. iv, 6, 17. dum haec, B.G. iii, 17, 1. dum anima, Att. ix, 10, 3.  Lacedaemoniorum, Tusc.  Disp. i, 101.  Cato, Nep.  Cat. 2, 4. donec, Liv. xxiii, 31, 9. ferrum, Nep.  Ep. 9, 3. trepidationis, Liv. xxi, 28, 11. exspectavit, B.G. iv, 23, 4. dum litterae, Fam. xi, 23, 2.

Sec. 295. postulo, Ter.  And. 550. orat, Ter.  Ad. 882. milites, B.G. ii, 21, 2.  Helvetiis, B.G. i, 2, 1. huic, Rosc.  Am. 54. consuli, Liv. xxxv, 20, 4. ne lustrum, Liv. xxiv, 43, 4. prohibuit, Liv. xxv, 35, 6. nec quin, Liv. xxvi, 40, 4. constitueram, Att. xvi, 10, 1. decrevit, Cat. i, 4. convenit, Liv. x, 27, 2. fac ut, Pl.  Rud. 1218. cura ut, Cat. iii, 12. laborabat, B.G. vii, 31, 1. sequitur, N.D. ii, 81. eos moneo, Cat. ii, 20. huic imperat, B.G. iv, 21, 8.

Sec. 296. opto, Verr.  Act.  Pr. 50. vereor ne, Att. vii, 12, 2.

Sec. 297. ex quo, F. ii, 24. ita fit, Tusc.  Disp. ii, 16. est mos, Brut. 84.

Sec. 298. quis, Par. 48.

Sec. 299. illud, Off. iii, 111. hoc uno, de Or. i, 32. bene mihi, Tusc. 
Disp.
i, 97. quod, B.G. i, 44, 6. quod me, Nep.  Ep. 5, 6.

Sec. 300. oculis, B.G. i, 12, 1. bis bina, N.D. ii, 49. effugere, N.D. iii, 14. saepe autem, N.D. iii, 14.  Epaminondas, F. ii, 97. ex Socrate, Tusc.  Disp. v, 34. nescio, Pl.  Amph. 1056. conantur, B.G. i, 8, 4. pergit, Liv. i, 7, 6, quaeritur, N.D. i, 61. haud scio, Tusc.  Disp. ii, 41.

Sec. 302. naturam, Off. i, 100. memoria, de Sen. 21. si quis, B.G. i, 48, 6. si dicendo, Tac.  Dial. 19.

Sec. 303. mentiar, Lael. 10. haec si, Cat. i, 19.

Sec. 304. sapientia, F. i, 42. consilium, de Sen. 19.  Laelius, Arch. 16. num igitur, de Sen. 19. nisi felicitas, Tac.  Agr. 31. eum patris, Phil. ii, 99. si Sestius, Sest. 81. si unum, Liv. ii, 38, 5.

Sec. 305. non potestis, F. ii, 71. cras, Pl.  Merc. 770. haec reputent, Tusc.  Disp. i, 51. roges, F. iv, 69.

Sec. 306. ferreus, Fam. xv, 21, 3. dolorem, Phil. 12, 21. si feceris, Fam. v, 19, 2. hoc si, Fam. vii, 1, 6. hunc mihi, Cat. i, 18. nihil, Cat. ii, 10. nisi, Mil. 19.

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Sec. 307. sed quid, Div.  Caec. 14. serviam, Pl.  Men. 1101.

Sec. 308. sit fur, Verr. v, 4. haec sint, Ac. ii, 105. ne sit, Tusc.  Disp. ii, 14.

Sec. 309. homines, Phil. ii, 39. non est, Rep. i, 10. quamquam, Off. i, 56.  Caesar, B.G. iv, 31, 1.  Atticus, Nep.  Att. 6, 2. licet, Rosc.  Am. 31. quamquam quid, Cat. i, 22. quamquam, Liv. xxxvi, 34, 6. quamvis, multi, Tac.  Dial. 2. quamvis infesto, Liv. ii, 40, 7.

Sec. 310. multi, Off. iii, 82. omnia postposui, Fam. xvi, 21, 6. nil obstat, Hor.  Sat. i, 1, 40. oderint, Acc. 204. manent, de Sen. 22. nubant, Pl.  Aul. 491.

Sec. 312. quidquid, Aen. ii, 49. quidquid oritur, Div. ii, 60.

Sec. 314.  Regulus, Off. iii, 100. tum Romulus, Liv. i, 9, 2. nuntiatum, B.G. i, 38, 1. dixit, Nep.  Them. 7, 5.

Sec. 315.  Ariovistus, B.G. i, 44, 7.

Sec. 316. milites, B.G. iii, 5, 3.

Sec. 318.  Caesar, B.G. i, 14, 6.

Sec. 322. concursu, Tac.  Dial. 39.

Sec. 323. demonstrabantur, de Sen. 78.  Paetus, Att. ii, 1, 12.

Sec. 324. nemo, Par. 52. cum diversas, Tac.  Dial. 1, 4. mos est, Orat. 151. quod ego, Pl.  Capt. 961.

Sec. 327. dulce, Hor.  Od. iii, 2, 13. virorum, Tusc.  Disp. ii, 43. aliud est, Tusc.  Disp. iv, 27. impune, Sall.  Jug. 31, 26. licuit, Tusc.  Disp. i, 33.

Sec. 328.  Demosthenes, F. v, 5. beatus, N.D. i, 48.  Cato, Sall.  Cat. 54, 5.

Sec. 330. apertum est, F. v, 34.

Sec. 331.  Epicurei, Lael. 13.  Thales, N.D. i, 25.  Democritus, N.D. i, 20. nullo se, Lig. 3. nec mihi, de Sen. 85. eas res, B.G. i, 18. te tua, Brut. 331. cupio, Cat. i, 4.  Timoleon, Nep.  Tim. 3, 4. gaudeo, Pl.  Bacch. 456. non moleste, de Sen. 7.

Sec. 332.  Sestius, Sest. 95. traditum, Tusc.  Disp. v, 114.

Sec. 333. audax, Hor.  Od. i, 3, 25.

Sec. 334. huncine, Hor.  Sat. i, 9, 72.

Sec. 335. interim, B.G. i, 16, 1.

Sec. 336. assurgentem, Liv. iv, 19.

Sec. 337. gloria, Tusc.  Disp. iii, 3.  Conon, Nep.  Con. 4, 5. omne, Phil. v, 31. mente, Tusc.  Disp. v, 100.  Solon, de Sen. 26. sol, N.D. ii, 102. mendaci, Div. ii, 146. perfidiam, B.G. vii, 5, 5. eis Catonem, de Sen. 3.  Homerus, de Sen. 54. urbem, Liv. xxii, 20. equitatum, B.G. i, 15, 1. obliviscendum, Tac.  Hist. ii, 1. numquam, Verr. i, 38. suo cuique, N.D. iii, 1.  Caesar, B.G. i, 13, 1.

Sec. 338. scribendo, Fam. xv, 6, 2. mens, Off. i, 105.  Themistocles, Nep. 
Them.
2, 3. multa, F. i, 5.

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Sec. 339. ad pacem, Liv. xxi, 13. hostes, B.G. iii, 6, 2. legati, B.G. iv, 13, 5. quae ille, Sall.  Fr. i, 77, 11.

Sec. 340. legati, B.G. i, 30, 1. do (colloco), Pl.  Tr. 735. hoc est, Att. vii, 22, 2.

Sec. 341. cum homines, Cat. i, 31. discidia, F. i, 44. horae, de Sen. 69.  Caesar, B.G. ii, 35, 3.

Sec. 342. cita, Hor.  Sat. i, 1, 8. qui aether, N.D. ii, 41.

Sec. 343. adsentatio, Lael. 89.

Sec. 346.  Cn.  Pompeio, B.G. iv, 1, 1.

Sec. 348.  Darius, Nep.  Milt. 4, 1.

Sec. 349. magnus, Nep.  Them. 6, 1.

Sec. 350. erant duo, B.G. i, 6, 1. nisi forte, de Sen. 18. id ut, Nep.  Them. 8, 3. eo cum, B.G. vii, 7, 4. ut ad, Lael. 5. septimus, de Sen. 38. recepto, B.C. iii, 12, 1. sed pleni, Arch. 14. horribilem, Tusc.  Disp. i, 118. simulatam, Tac.  A. i, 10.

Sec. 351.  Caesar, B.G. i, 25, 1.  Haedui, B.G. i, 11, 2.  Caesar cum, B.G. i, 7, 1. accidit, Nep.  Alc. 3, 2. si quid, Arch. 1.  Caesar, B.G. v, 4, 1.

Sec. 356. hostium, B.G. iii, 29, 3. mens quoque, de Sen. 36. tanto, Sull. 59.

Sec. 358. pro multitudine, B.G. i, 2, 5.

Sec. 374. ut ager, Tusc.  Disp. ii, 13. minis, Tusc.  Disp. v, 87. dissimilis, Nep.  Chab. 3, 4. febris, Cat. i, 31. submersas, Aen. i, 69. nosti, Fam. viii, 10, 3. tum Anci, Liv. i, 40, 2. moriamur, Aen. ii, 353.

Sec. 375. quadrupedante, Aen. viii, 506.

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Ac., Cicero, Academica.  Acc., Accius. ad Her., ad Herennium.  Aen., Virgil, Aeneid.  Arch., Cicero, pro Archia.  Att., Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticus.  B.C., Caesar, de Bello Civili.  B.G., Caesar, de Bello Gallico.  Brut., Cicero, Brutus.  Caec., Cicero, pro Caecina.  Cat., Cicero, in Catilinam.  Cluent., Cicero, pro Cluentio.  Curt., Quintus Curtius de Dom., Cicero, de Domo Sua. de Or., Cicero, de Oratore. de Sen., Cicero, de Senectute.  D., Cicero, de Divinatione.  Div.  Caec., Cicero, Divinatio in Caecilium.  Ecl., Virgil, Eclogues.  Eut., Eutropius.  F., Cicero, de Finibus.  Fam., Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares.  Flac., Cicero, pro Flacco.  Gell, Aulus Gellius.  Hor., Horace. ——­ Epp., Epistles. ——­ Od., Odes. ——­ Sat., Satires.  Inv., Cicero, de Inventione.  Juv., Juvenal.  Lael., Cicero, Laelius, de Amicitia.  Leg., Cicero, de Legibus.  Lig., Cicero, pro Ligario.  Liv., Livy.  Lucr., Lucretius.  Marc., Cicero, pro Marcello

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Mil., Cicero, pro Milone.  N.D., Cicero, de Natura Deorum.  Nep., Nepos. ——­ Alc., Alcibiades. ——­ Ar., Aristides. ——­ Att., Atticus. ——­ Cat., Cato. ——­ Chab. Chabrias. ——­ Cim., Cimon. ——­ Con., Conon. ——­ Dat., Datames. ——­ Ep., Epaminondas. ——­ Milt., Miltiades. ——­ Paus., Pausanias. ——­ Them., Themistocles. ——­ Thras., Thrasybulus. ——­ Tim., Timoleon.  Off., Cicero, de Officiis.  Or., Cicero, Orator.  Ov., Ovid. ——­ Am., Amores, ——­ Met., Metamorphoses.  Par., Cicero, Paradoxa.  Phil., Cicero, Philippics.  Pis., Cicero, in Pisonem.  Planc., Cicero, pro Plancio.  Pl., Plautus. ——­ Amph., Amphitruo. ——­ Aul., Aulularia. ——­ Bacch., Bacchides. ——­ Capt., Captivi. ——­ Curc., Curculio. ——­ Men., Menaechmi. ——­ Merc., Mercator. ——­ M.G., Miles Gloriosus. ——­ Pers., Persa. ——­ Poen., Poenulus. ——­ Rud., Rudens. ——­ Tr., Trinummus. ——­ Vid., Vidularia.  Plin.  Epp., Pliny the Younger, Letters.  Pub.  Syr., Publilius Syrus.  Q.F., Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem.  Rosc.  Am., Cicero, pro Roscio Amerino.  Sall., Sallust. ——­ C., Catiline. ——­ Fr., Fragments. ——­ Jug., Jugurtha.  Sen., Seneca. ——­ Ep., Epistles. ——­ N.Q., Naturales Quaestiones.  Sest., Cicero, pro Sestio.  Sex.  Rosc., Cicero, pro Sexto Roscio.  Sil., Silius Italicus.  Stat., Caecilius Statius.  Sull., Cicero, pro Sulla.  Tac., Tacitus. ——­ A., Annals. ——­ Agr., Agricola. ——­ Dial., Dialogus de Oratoribus. ——­ Ger., Germania. ——­ H., Histories.  Ter., Terence. ——­ Ad., Adelphoi. ——­ And., Andria. ——­ Eun., Eunuchus. ——­ Hec., Hecyra. ——­ H.T., Hautontimoroumenos. ——­ Phor., Phormio.  Tusc.  Disp., Cicero, Tusculan Disputations.  Twelve Tables, Laws of the Twelve Tables.  Vatin., Cicero, in Vatinium.  Verr., Cicero, in Verrem.  Verr.  Act.  Pr., Cicero, Actio Prima in C. Verrem.

* * * * *

INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS

NOTE.—­Compounds are not given unless they present some special irregularity.  The references are to sections.

A.

abdo, 122, I, 4. abicio, 122, III. abnuo, 122, II. aboleo, 121, I. abstergeo, 121, III absum, 125. accendo, 122, I, 4. accidit, 138, III. accio, 121, I, N. accipio, 122, III. acquiro, 122, I, 6. acuo, 122, II. addo, 122, I, 2. adhaeresco, 122, IV, 2. adipiscor, 122, V. adolesco, 122, IV, 1. adsum, 125. advenio, 123, IV. affero, 129. afficio, 122, III. affligo, 122, I, 1, a. agnosco, 122, IV, 1. ago, 122, I, 3. algeo, 121, III. alo, 122, I, 5. amicio, 123, III. amo, 120, I. amplector, 122, V. ango, 122, I, 7. aperio, 123, II. appeto, 122, I, 6. arceo, 121, II, a. arcesso, 122, I, 6. ardeo, 121, III. aresco, 122, IV, 2. arguo, 122, II. ascendo, 122, I, 4. aspicio, 122, III. assentior, 123, VII. assuefacio, 122, III. assuefio, 122, III. audio, 123, I. aufero, 129. augeo, 121, III. aveo, 121, II, a, N. 2.

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C.

cado, 122, I, 2. caedo, 122, I, 2. calefacio, 122, III. calefio, 122, III. caleo, 121, II, a. calesco, 122, IV, 2. cano, 122, I, 2. capesso, 122, I, 6. capio, 122, III. careo, 121, II, a. carpo, 121, I, 1, a. caveo, 121, V. cedo, 122, I, 1, b. censeo, 121, II, b. cerno, 122, I, 6. cieo, 121, I. cingo, 122, I, 1, a. circumsisto, 122, I, 2. claudo, 122, I, 1, b. claudo, 122, I, 7. coemo, 122, I, 3. coepi, 133. coerceo, 121, II, a. cognosco, 122, IV, 1. cogo, 122, I, 3. colligo, 122, I, 3. colo, 122, I, 5. comminiscor, 122, V. comperio, 123, V. compleo, 121, I. concutio, 122, III. condo, 122, I, 2. confero, 129. confiteor, 121, VII. congruo, 122, II. consenesco, 122, IV, 2. consero, 122, I, 5. consero, 122, I, 6 (plant). consido, 122, I, 4. consisto, 122, I, 2. conspicio, 122, III. constat, 138, III. constituo, 122, II. consuesco, 122, IV, 1. consulo, 122, I, 5. contineo, 121, II, b. contingit, 138, III. coquo, 122, I, 1, a. crepo, 120, II. cresco, 122, IV, 1. cubo, 120, II. cupio, 122, III. curro, 122, I, 2.

D.

debeo, 121, II, a. decerno, 122, I, 6. decet, 138, II. dedecet, 138, II. dedo, 122, I, 2. defendo, 122, I, 4. deleo, 121, I deligo, 122, I, 3. demo, 122, I, 3. desero, 122, I, 5 desino, 122, I, 6. desum, 125. dico, 122, I, 1, a. differo, 129. diligo, 122, I, 3. dimico, 120, II. dirimo, 122, I, 3. diripio, 122, III. diruo, 122, II. discerno, 122, I, 6. disco, 122, IV, 1. dissero, 122, I, 5. distinguo, 122, I, 1, a., footnote 44. divido, 122, I, 1, b. do, 127. doceo, 121, II, b. doleo, 121, II, a. domo, 120, II. duco, 122, I, 1, a.

E.

edo, 122, I, 2. edo, 122, I, 3. effero, 129. effugio, 122, III. egeo, 121, II, a, N. 1. elicio, 122, III. emineo, 121, II, a, N. 1. emo, 122, I, 3. eo, 132. esurio, 123, VI. evado, 122, I, 1, b., footnote 45. evanesco, 122, IV, 3. excolo, 122, I, 5. excudo, 122, I, 4. exerceo, 121, II, a. experior, 123, VII. expleo, 121, I, N. explico, 120, II. exstinguo, 122, I, 1, a., footnote 44. extimesco, 122, IV, 2.

F.

facio, 122, III. fallo, 122, I, 2. fateor, 121, VII. faveo, 121, V. ferio, 123, VI. fero, 129. ferveo, 121, VI figo, 122, I, 1, b. findo,122, I, 2, N. fingo, 122, I, 1, a. fio, 131. flecto, 122, I, 1, b. fleo, 121, I. floreo, 121, II, a, N. 1. floresco, 122, IV, 2. fluo, 122, II. fodio, 122, III. foveo, 121, V. frango, 122, I, 3. fremo, 122, I, 5. frico, 120, II. frigeo, 121, II, a, N. 2. fruor, 122, V. fugio, 122, III. fulcio, 123, III. fulgeo, 121, III. fulget, 138, I. fundo, 122, I, 3. fungor, 122, V. furo, 122, I, 7.

G.

gemo, 122, I, 5. gero, 122, I, 1, a. gigno, 122, I, 5. gradior, 122, V.

H.

habeo, 121, II, a. haereo, 121, III. haurio, 123, III. horreo, 121, II, a, N. 1.

I.

ignosco, 121, IV, 2. illicio, 122, III. imbuo, 122, II. immineo, 121, II, a, N. 2. impleo, 121, I, N. implico, 120, II. incipio, 122, III. incolo, 122, I, 5. incumbo, 122, I, 5. indulgeo, 121, III. induo, 122, II. infero, 129. ingemisco, 122, IV, 2. insum, 125. intellego, 122, I, 3. interficio, 122, III. intersum, 125. invado, 122, I, 1, b., footnote 45. invenio, 123, IV. irascor, 122, V.

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J.

jaceo, 121, II, a. jacio, 122, III. jubeo, 121, III. jungo, 122, I, 1, a. juvo, 120, III.

L.

labor, 122, V. lacesso, 122, I, 6. laedo, 122, I, 1, b. lambo, 122, I, 7. largior, 123, VII. lateo, 121, II, a, N. 1. lavo, 120, III. lego, 122, I, 3. libet, 138, II. liceor, 121, VII. licet, 138, II. loquor, 122, V. luceo, 121, III. ludo, 122, I, 1, b. lugeo, 121, III. luo, 122, II.

M.

maereo, 121, II, a, N. 2. malo, 130. maneo, 121, III. maturesco, 122, IV, 3. medeor, 121, VII. memini, 133. mereo, 121, II, a. mereor, 121, VII. mergo, 122, I, 1, b. metior, 123, VII. metuo, 122, II. mico, 120, II. minuo, 122, II. misceo, 121, II, b. miseret, 138, II. misereor, 121, VII. mitto, 122, I, 1, b. molo, 122, I, 5. moneo, 121, II, a. mordeo, 121, IV. morior, 122, V. moveo, 121, V.

N.

nanciscor, 122, V. nascor, 122, V. necto, 122, I, 1, b. neglego, 122, I, 3. ningit, 138, . niteo, 121, II, a, N. 1. nitor, 122, V. noceo, 121, II, a. nolo, 130. nosco, 122, IV, 1. nubo, 122, I, 1, a.

O.

obduresco, 122, IV, 3. oblino, 122, I, 6. obliviscor, 122, V. obmutesco, 122, IV, 3. obruo, 122, II. obsolesco, 122, IV, 1. obsum, 125. obtineo, 121, II, b. odi, 133. offero, 129. oleo, 121, II, a, N. 1. operio, 123, II. oportet, 138, II. opperior, 123, VII. ordior, 123, VII. orior, 123, VII.

P.

paenitet, 138, II. palleo, 121, II, a, N. 1. pando, 122, I, 4. parco, 122, I, 2. pareo, 121, II, a. pario, 122, III. pasco, 122, IV, 1. pascor, 122, IV, 1. patefacio, 122, III. patefio, 122, III. pateo, 121, II, a, N. 1. patior, 122, V. paveo, 121, V. pellicio, 122, III. pello, 122, I, 2. pendeo, 121, IV. pendo, 122, I, 2. perago, 122, I, 3. percello, 122, I, 2, N. percrebresco, 122, IV, 3. perdo, 122, I, 2. perficio, 122, III. perfringo, 122, I, 3. perfruor, 122, V. perlego, 122, I, 3. permulceo, 121, III. perpetior, 122, V. pervado, 122, I, 1, b., footnote 45. peto, 122, I, 6. piget, 138, II. pingo, 122, I, 1, a. placeo, 121, II, a. plaudo, 122, I, 1, b. pluit, 138, I. polleo, 121, II, a, N. 2. polliceor, 121, VII. polluo, 122, II. pono, 122, I, 6. posco, 122, IV, 1. possido, 122, I, 4. possum, 126. poto, 120, I. praebeo, 121, II, a. praestat, 138, III. praesum, 125. prandeo, 121, VI. prehendo, 122, I, 4. premo, 122, I, 1, b. prodo, 122, I, 2. promo, 122, I, 3. prosum, 125. prosterno, 122, I, 6. pudet, 138, II. pungo, 122, I, 2.

Q.

quaero, 122, I, 6. quatio, 122, III. queror, 122, V. quiesco, 122, IV, 1.

R.

rado, 122, I, 1, b. rapio, 122, III. reddo, 122, I, 2. redimo, 122, I, 3. refercio, 123, III. refero, 129. refert, 138, II. rego, 122, I, 1, a. relinquo, 122, I, 3. reminiscor, 122, V. reor, 121, VII. reperio, 123, V. repo, 122, I, 1, a. resisto, 122, I, 2. respuo, 122, II. restinguo, 122, I, 1, a., footnote 44. retineo, 121, II, b. rideo, 121, III. rodo, 122, I, 1, b. rubeo, 121, II, a, N. 1. rumpo, 122, I, 3. ruo, 122, II.

Page 186

S.

saepio, 123, III. salio, 123, II. sancio, 123, III. sapio, 122, III. sarcio, 123, III. scindo, 122, I, 2, N. scisco, 122, IV, 2. scribo, 122, I, 1, a. sculpo, 122, I, 1, a. seco, 120, II. sedeo, 121, V. sentio, 123, III. sepelio, 123, I. sequor, 122, V. sero, 122, I, 6. serpo, 122, I, 1, a. sileo, 121, II, a, N. sino, 122, I, 6. solvo, 122, I, 4. sono, 120, II. spargo, 122, I, 1, b. sperno, 122, I, 6. splendeo, 121, II, a, N. 1. spondeo, 121, IV. statuo, 122, II. sterno, 122, I, 6. -stinguo, 122, I, 1, a. sto, 120, IV. strepo, 122, I, 5. strideo, 121, VI. stringo, 122, I, 1, a. struo, 122, II. studeo, 121, II, a, N. 1. suadeo, 121, III. subigo, 122, I, 3. subsum, 125. sum, 100. sumo, 122, I, 3. suo, 122, II. supersum, 125. sustineo, 121, II, b.

T.

taceo, 121, II, a. taedet, 138, II. tango, 122, I, 2. tego, 122, I, 1, a. temno, 122, I, 1, a. tendo, 122, I, 2. teneo, 121, II, b. tero, 122, I, 6. terreo, 121, II, a. texo, 122, I, 5. timeo, 121, II, a, N. 1. tingo, 122, I, 1, a. tollo, 122, I, 2, N. tonat, 138, I. tondeo, 121, IV. tono, 120, II. torpeo, 121, II, a, N. 1. torqueo, 121, III. torreo, 121, II, b. trado, 122, I, 2. traho, 122, I, 1, a. tremo, 122, I, 5. tribuo, 122, II. trudo, 122, I, 1, b. tueor, 121, VII. tundo, 122, I, 2.

U.

ulciscor, 122, V. unguo, 122, I, 1, a. urgeo, 121, III. uro, 122, I, 1, a. utor, 122, V.

V.

vado, 122, I, 1, b. valeo, 121, II, a. veho, 122, I, 1, a. vello, 122, I, 4. venio, 123, IV. vereor, 121, VII. vergo, 122, I, 7. verro, 122, I, 4. verto, 122, I, 4. vescor, 122, V. veto, 120, II. video, 121, V. vigeo, 121, II, a, N. 1. vincio, 123, III. vinco, 122, I, 3. vireo, 121, II, a, N. 1. viso, 122, I, 4. vivo, 122, I, 1, a. volo, 130. volvo, 122, I, 4. vomo, 122, I, 5. voveo, 121, V.

* * * * *

GENERAL INDEX.

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The references are to sections and paragraphs.

* * * * *

ABBREVIATIONS.—­Abl., ablative; acc., accusative; adj., adjective; adv., adverb, adverbial, or adverbially; cf., compare; comp., comparison or comparative; conj., conjunction or conjugation; const., constr., construction; dat., dative; decl., declension; gen., genitive; ind., indicative; indir. disc., indirect discourse; loc., locative; N., note; nom., nominative; plu., plural; prep., preposition; pron., pronoun or pronunciation; sing., singular; subj., subject; subjv., subjunctive; voc., vocative; w., with.

A.

a, vowel, 2, 1; ——­ pronunciation, 3, 1; ——­ development of a, before a single consonant, 7, 1, a; ——­ before two consonants, 7, 1, b; ——­ a as ending of nom. sing. of 1st decl., 20; ——­ in voc. sing. of Greek nouns in -es of 1st decl., 22; ——­ in nom. sing. of Greek nouns in -e of 1st decl., 22, 3; ——­ termination of nom. and acc. plu. of neuters, 23; 35;

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48; ——­ termination of nom. sing. of nouns of 3d decl., 28; ——­ gender of nouns in -a of 3d decl., 43, 3; ——­ ending of acc. sing. of Greek nouns of 3d decl., 47, 1; ——­ regular quantity of final a, 363, 1; ——­ exceptions to quantity of final a, 363, 1, a-c. a, pronunciation, 3, 1; ——­ arising by contraction, 7, 2; ——­ as ending of stem in 1st decl., 18; ——­ a-stems inflected, 20; ——­ in voc. sing. of Greek nouns of 1st decl., 22; ——­ in voc. sing. of Greek nouns in -as of 3d decl., 47, 4; ——­ distinguishing vowel of 1st conjugation, 98; ——­ ending of imperative act. of 1st conj., 101; ——­ final a long by exception, 363, 1, a-c. a, ab, abs, use, 142, 1; ——­ with town names, 229, 2. a to denote agency, 216. ——­ to denote separation, 214. ——­ place from which, 229. ——­ with town names, 229, 2. ——­ with abl. of gerund, 338, 4, b. a-stems, 20; 98; 101.  Abbreviations of proper names, 373.  Ablative case, 17; 213 f. ——­ in -abus, 21, 2, e. ——­ in -d in prons., 84, 3; 85, 3. ——­ formation of sing. of adjs. of 3d decl., 67, a; 70, 1-5. ——­ of i-stems, 37; 38. ——­ genuine abl. uses, 214 f. ——­ absolute, 227. ——­ of agent, 216. ——­ of accompaniment, 222. ——­ of accordance, 220, 3. ——­ of association, 222A. ——­ of attendant circumstance, 221; 227, 2, e). ——­ of cause, 219. ——­ of comparison, 217. ——­ of degree of difference, 223. ——­ of fine or penalty, 208, 2, b. ——­ of manner, 220. ——­ of material, 224, 3. ——­ of means, 218. ——­ of penalty, 208, 2, b. ——­ of place where, 228. ——­ of place whence, 229. ——­ of price, 225. ——­ of quality, 224. ——­ of separation, 214; ——­ ——­ with compounds of dis- and se-, 214, 3. ——­ of source, 215. ——­ of specification, 226. ——­ of time at which, 230. ——­ of time during which, 231, 1. ——­ of time within which, 231. ——­ of way by which, 213, 9. ——­ with contineri, consistere, constare, 218, 4. ——­ with special phrases, 218, 7. ——­ with jungere, miscere, mutare, etc., 222A. ——­ with facio, fio, 218, 6 ——­ with prepositions, 142; 213 f. ——­ with verbs of filling, 218, 8. ——­ with verbs and adjs. of freeing, 214, I, a, and N. 1. ——­ with adjs. of plenty, 218, 8. ——­ with utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, 218, 1. ——­ with opus and usus, 218, 2 ——­ with nitor, innixus, and fretus, 218, 3. abs, 142, 1. absens, 125.  Absolute, ablative, 227. ——­ time, of participles, 336, 4. ——­ use of verbs, 174, a.  Abstract nouns, 12, 2, b); ——­ plural of, 55, 4, c). -abus, 21, 2, e). ac, 341, 2, b); ——­ = as, than, 341, 1, c).  Acatalectic verses, 366, 9. accedit ut, 297, 2.  Accent, 6; ——­ in gen. of nouns in -ius and -ium, 25, 1 and 2. accidit ut, 297, 2. accidit quod, 299, 1, b.  Accompaniment, abl. of, 222.  Accordance, abl. of, 220, 3.  Accusative case, 17; ——­ in -an and -en of Greek nouns, 22; ——­ in -om in 2d decl., 24; ——­ in -on and -on in Greek nouns, 27; ——­ in -a in sing. of Greek nouns, 47, 1; ——­ in -as in plu., 47, 3; ——­ in -im and -is in i-stems, 37; 38; ——­ acc. sing. neut. as adv., 77, 3; 176, 3; 172 f. ——­ of duration of time, 181. ——­ of

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result produced, 173, B; 176. ——­ of extent of space, 181. ——­ of limit of motion, 182 f. ——­ of neut. prons. or adjs., 176, 2. ——­ of person or thing affected, 173, A; 175. ——­ in exclamations, 183. ——­ as subj. of inf., 184. ——­ with admoneo, commoneo, etc., 207. ——­ with adv. force, 176, 3. ——­ with compounds, 175, 2. ——­ with impersonal verbs, 175, 2, c. ——­ with intransitive verbs, 175, 2, a. ——­ with passive used as middle, 175, 2, d). ——­ with verbs of remembering and forgetting (memini, obliviscor,
    reminiscor), 206, 1; 2.
——­ with verbs expressing emotion, 175, 2, b. ——­ with verbs of tasting and smelling, 176, 5. ——­ with verbs of making, choosing, calling, regarding, etc., 177. ——­ with verbs of asking, requesting, demanding, teaching, concealing,
    178, 1-5.
——­ with adjs. (propior, proximus), 141, 3. ——­ with adverbs (propius, proxime), 141, 3; ——­ ——­ clam, pridie, 144, 2. ——­ Genavam ad oppidum, 182, 2, a. ——­ cognate acc., 176, 4. ——­ Greek acc., 180. ——­ synecdochical acc., 180. ——­ two accs., direct obj. and pred. acc., 177; ——­ ——­ person affected and result produced, 178; ——­ ——­ with compounds of trans, 179; ——­ ——­ with other compounds, 179, 2. ——­ with prepositions, 141; 179 f. ——­ retained in pass., 178, 2.  Accusing, verbs of, constr., 208 f. accuso, constr., 178, 1, d). acer, decl., 68; ——­ compared, 71, 3.  Acquitting, verbs of, constr., 208 f. ac si with subjv., 307, 1. ad, ‘toward,’ ‘in vicinity of,’ 182, 3; ——­ with acc. alternating with dat., 358, 2. ——­ compounds of ad governing dat., 187, III; 188, 2, d. ——­ with gerund denoting purpose, 338, 3. -ades, patronymic ending, 148, 6, a. adg- = agg-, 9, 2.  Adjectives, 62 f; 354; ——­ derivation of, 150 f. ——­ of 1st and 2d decl., 63 ff. ——­ in -ius, gen. sing., 63, a. ——­ of 3d decl., 67, ff; ——­ ——­ in abl., 70, 5. ——­ comparison of adjs., 71 f.; ——­ ——­ in -er, 71, 3; ——­ ——­ in -ilis, 71, 4; ——­ ——­ comparative lacking, 73, 3; ——­ ——­ defective comparison, 73; ——­ ——­ not admitting comparison, 75; ——­ ——­ comparison by magis and maxime, 74. ——­ numerals, 78 f. ——­ syntax, 233 ff.; ——­ ——­ attributive and predicate adjs., 233, 2. ——­ agreement, 234, f. ——­ used substantively, 236 f. ——­ denoting part of an object, 241, 1. ——­ with force of adverbs, 239. ——­ force of comp. and superl., 240, 1. ——­ not followed by infinitive, 333. ——­ not used with proper names, 354, 3. ——­ equivalent to a poss. gen., 354, 4. ——­ special Latin equivalents of Eng. adjs., 354, 1. ——­ equiv. to rel. clause, 241, 2. ——­ as pred. acc., 177, 2. ——­ position of adj., 350, 4. ——­ pronominal adjs., 92. ——­ governing gen., 204. ——­ governing dat., 192. ——­ governing acc., 141, 3. ——­ construed with abl., 214, 1, d; 217, 1; 218, 8; 223; 226, 2; 227, 1. ——­ with supine in -u, 340, 2. adl- = all-, 9, 2. admoneo, constr., 207.  Admonishing, const. of verbs of, 207. adr- = arr-, 9, 2. ads- = ass-, 9, 2. ad sensum, constr., 235, B, 2, c; 254, 4. adulescens, spelling, 9, 2. adulter, decl., 23, 2. adultus, force,

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114, 2.  Adverbs, defined, 140; ——­ formation and comparison, 76 f.; 140; 157. ——­ in -iter from adjs. in -us, 77, 4. ——­ in -tus and -tim, 77, 5. ——­ in o and -o, 77, 2. ——­ numeral, 79. ——­ as preps., 144, 2. ——­ derivation of, 157. ——­ with gen., 201, 2; 3; and a. ——­ special meanings, 347. ——­ position, 350, 6.  Adversative clauses, 309. ——­ conjunctions, 343. adversus, prep. with acc., 141. ae, how pronounced, 3, 2; ——­ phonetic changes, 7, 1, d. aedes, plu., 61. aequalis, abl. sing. of, 70, 5, a; ——­ as subst., 238. aequor, decl., 34. aequum est = aequum sit, 271, 1, b). aes, in plu., 55, 4, b; ——­ lacks gen. plu., 57, 7. aetas, decl., 40, 1, e); ——­ id aetatis, 185, 2. -aeus, suffix, 152, 3. aevom, decl., 24.  Affected, acc. of person or thing, 175.  Agency, dat. of, 189; ——­ abl., 216.  Agent, abl., 216; ——­ with names of animals, 216, 2. ager, decl., 23.  Agreement, nouns, 166; 168; 169, 2; 3; 4. ——­ adjs., 234; ——­ ——­ in gender, 235, B; ——­ ——­ in number, 235, A; ——­ prons., 250; ——­ verbs, with one subj., 254, 1; ——­ ——­ with two or more subjs., 255, 1. -ai, case-ending, gen. sing., 1st decl., poet., 21, 2, b). ain, 135, N. ajo, 135; ——­ quantity of first syllable, 362, 5. -al, declension of nouns in, 39. alacer, decl., 68, 1; ——­ comp., 73, 4. aliqua, 91, 2. aliqui, 91; 91, 2. aliquis, 91; 252, 2; ——­ aliquis dicat, dixerit, 280, 1. -alis, suffix, 151, 2. aliter ac, 341, 1, c. alius, 66; 92, 1; ——­ used correlatively, 253, 1. alius ac, ‘other than,’ 341, 1, c).  Allia, gender of, 15, 3, N. allicio, conj., 109, 2, b).  Alliteration, 375, 3.  Alphabet, 1. alter, decl., 66; 92, 1; ——­ used correlatively, 253, 1.  Alternative questions, 162, 4; ——­ indirect, 300, 4. alteruter, decl., 92, 2. alvus, gender of, 26, 1, b. amandus sum, conj., 115. amaturus sum, conj., 115. amb- (ambi-), 159, 3, N. ambo, 80, 2, a; ——­ usage, 355, 2. amo, conj., 101. amplius = amplius quam, 217, 3. amussis, -im, 38, 1. an, 162, 4, and a); 300, 4; ——­ haud scio an, nescio an, 300, 5.  Anacoluthon, 374, 6.  Anapaest, 366, 2.  Anaphora, 350, 11, b).  Anastrophe of prep., 141, 2; 142, 3; 144, 3. anceps (syllaba anceps), defined, 366, 10.  Androgeos, decl., 27. animal, decl., 39.  Animals, as agents, 216, 2. animi, locative, 232, 3. annon, in double questions, 162, 4.  Answers, 162, 5. ante, prep. w. acc., 141; ——­ as adv., 144, 1; ——­ dat. w. verbs compounded w. ante, 187, III; ——­ in expressions of time, 357, 1; 371, 5; ——­ ante diem, 371, 5; 6.  Antecedent of rel., 251. ——­ attraction of, 251, 4. ——­ incorporated with rel., 251, 4.  Antecedent omitted, 251, 1. ——­ repeated with rel., 251, 3.  Antepenult, 6, 2. antepono, with dat., 187, III, 2. antequam, with ind., 291; ——­ with subjv., 292.  Anticipation, denoted by subjv., w. antequam and priusquam, 292; ——­ by subjv. with dum, donec, quoad, 293, III, 2; 374, 5. -anus, suffix, 151, 2; 152, 1; 3.  Aorist tense, see Historical perfect.  Apodosis, 301 ff. ——­ in conditional sent. of 1st type, 302, 4; ——­ result clauses as apodoses, 322; ——­

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quin- clauses as apodoses, 322; ——­ ind. questions as apodoses, 322, b; ——­ potuerim in apodosis, 322, c; ——­ apodosis in indir. disc., 319-321; ——­ in expressions of obligation, ability, etc., 304, 3, a; ——­ with periphrastic conjugations, 304, 3, b.  Apposition, 169; ——­ agreement, 169, 2; ——­ partitive, 169, 5; ——­ with voc. in nom., 171, 2; ——­ genitive w. force of appositive, 202; ——­ id as appositive of clause, 247, 1, b; ——­ inf. as appositive, 326; 329; ——­ subst. clauses as appositives, 282, 1, f; 294; 297, 3.  Appositive of locative, 169, 4; ——­ with acc. of limit of motion, 182, 2, a; ——­ with town names, in abl. of place whence, 229, 2. ——­ position of, 350, 2. aptus, w. dat., 192, 2. apud, prep. w. acc., 141.  Archias, declension of, 22. -ar, declension of nouns in, 39. arguo, constr., 178, 1, d). -aris, suffix, 151, 2. -arium, suffix, 148, 3. -arius, suffix, 151, 2. armiger, decl., 23, 2.  Arrangement of words, 348-350; ——­ of clauses, 351.  Arsis, defined, 366, 6. artus, dat. and abl. plu. of, 49, 3. arx, decl., 40. -as, acc. plu. in Greek nouns, 47, 3. -as, old gen. sing., 1st decl., case-ending, 21, 2, a). ——­ ending of Greek nouns, nom. sing. in, 22. ——­ gender of nouns in -as, 43, 2; 45, 1. ——­ voc. of Greek nouns in -as, antis, 47, 4. ——­ -atis, abl. of patrials in, 70, 5, c).  Asking, case const, with verbs of, 178, 1, c; ——­ subst. clauses w., 295, 1; ——­ ind. questions, 300, 1.  Aspirates, 2, 3, c.  Assimilation of consonants, 8, 4 f.; 9, 2.  Association, abl. of, 222A.  Asyndeton, 341, 4, a); 346. at, 343, 1, d). -atim, suffix, 157, 2.  Atlas, decl., 47, 4. atomus, gender of, 26, 1, c). atque, 341, 2, b); ——­ = as, 341, 1, c). atqui, 343, 1, e).  Attendant circumstance, abl. of, 221:  227, 2, e).  Attraction of demonstratives, 246, 5; ——­ of relatives, 250, 5; ——­ subjunctive by attraction, 324; ——­ of adjectives, 327, 2, a; 328, 2.  Attributive adjs., 233, 2. -atus, its force as suffix, 151, 4. audacter, formation and comparison, 76, 2. audeo, conj., 114, 1. audio, conj., 107; ——­ with pres. partic., 337, 3. aulai, archaic gen., 21, 2, b. ausus, force as participle, 336, 5. aut, 342, 1, a). autem, 343, 1, c); 350, 8.  Auxiliary omitted in infin., 116, 5:  ——­ ——­ in finite forms, 166, 3. auxilium, auxilia, 61. -ax, suffix, 150, 2.

B.

balneum, balneae, 60, 2. barbitos, decl., 27.  Believing, verbs of, with dat., 187, II. belli, locative, 232, 2. bellum, decl., 23. bene, comparison, 77, 1.  Benefiting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. benevolus, comparison, 71, 5, a). -ber, declension of month names in, 68, 1. -bilis, suffix, 150, 4. bonus, decl., 63; comparison, 72. bos, decl., 41.  Brachylogy, 374, 2.  Bucolic diaeresis, 368, 3, d -bulum, suffix, 147, 4. -bundus, suffix, 150, 1. buris, decl., 38, 1

C.

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C., for G. as abbreviation of Gaius, 373. caedes, decl., 40.  Caesura, 366, 8:  ——­ in dactylic hexameter 368, 3. calcar, decl., 39.  Calendar, 371; 372.  Calends, 371, 2, a). campester, decl., 68, 1 canis, decl., 38, 2. capio, conj., 110 carbasus, gender of, 26, 1 b). carcer, carceres, 61.  Cardinals, defined. 78, 1; ——­ list of, 79; ——­ decl., 80; ——­ with and without et, 81, 1; 3; ——­ expressed by subtraction, 81, 2; ——­ replaced by attributives in poetry, 81, 4, d. care, comparison, 76, 2. caro, decl., 42. carrus, carrum, 60, 1.  Cases, 17; ——­ alike in form, 19; 170 ff.  Case-endings, 17, 3. castrum, castra, 61.  Catalectic verses, 366, 9. causa, with gen., 198, 1; ——­ nulla causa est cur, with subjv., 295, 7.  Causal clauses, 285; 286; ——­ clause of characteristic with accessory notion of cause, 283, 3. ——­ conjunctions, 345.  Cause, abl. of, 219; 227, 2, d) cave, cave ne in prohibitions, 276, b. -ce, 6, 3 f.; 87, footnote 23. cedo, cette, 137, 3. cedo, with dat. 187, II. celeber, decl., 68, 1. celer, decl., 68, 2. celo, constr., 178, 1, e). cenatus, force, 114, 2. cetera, adverbial acc., 185, 2. ceteri, use, 253, 4.  Characterstic, clauses of, 283; ——­ denoting cause or opposition (’although’), 283, 3; ——­ gen. of, 208, 1; ——­ abl., 224.  Charge, gen. of, 208, 1; 2.  Chiasmus, 350, 11, c).  Choosing, const. w. verbs of, 177, 1-3. circa, circiter, circum, preps. w. acc., 141. circum, compounds of, w. dat., 187, III. circumdo, const., 187, 1, a.  Circumstance, abl. of attendant, 221. cis, prep. w. acc., 141. citerior, comparison, 73, 1. cito, 77, 2, a. citra, prep. w. acc., 141. civitas decl., 40, 1, e. clam, with acc., 144, 2.  Clauses, cooerd. and subord., 164, 165.  Clauses of characteristic, 283; ——­ purpose, 282; ——­ result, 284; ——­ causal, 285; ——­ temporal with postquam, ut, ubi, simul ac, etc., 287; ——­ with cum, 288; ——­ substantive clauses, 294 f.; ——­ condition, 301 f.; ——­ conditional comparison, 307; ——­ concessive, 308; ——­ adversative, 309; ——­ wish or proviso, 310; ——­ relative, 311 f.; 283 f. clavis, decl., 38, 1.  Clinging, construction of verbs of, 258, 3. clipeus, clipeum, 60, 1.  Close of sentences, cadences used, 350, 12. coepi, conj., 133; ——­ coeptus est, 133, 1.  Cognate acc., 176, 4. cognomen, 373. cogo, w. acc., 178, 1, d); ——­ w. infin., 331, VI.  Collective nouns, 12, 2, a); ——­ w. plu. verb, 254, 4. colus, gender of, 26, 1, b). com-, compounds of, w. dat., 187, III. comedo, conj., 128, 2. cometes, decl., 22. comitia, as time expression, 230, 1.  Commanding, dat. w. verbs of, 187, II; ——­ subst. clause w. verbs of, 295, 1; ——­ commands expressed by jussive subjv., 275; ——­ ——­ by imperative, 281.  Common gender, 15, B, N. 1. ——­ nouns, 12, 1. ——­ syllables, 5, B, 3. commonefacio, w. gen, and acc., 207. commoneo, w. gen. and acc., 207. communis, w. gen., 204, 2; ——­ with dat., 204, 2, a. commuto, w. abl., 222A.  Comparatives, decl., 69; ——­ w. abl., 217; ——­ w. quam, 217, 2; ——­ occasional meaning, 240.

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——­ two required in Latin, 240, 4.  Comparison of adjs., 71 f.; ——­ of adverbs, 76; 77. ——­ participles as adjs., 71, 2. ——­ adjs. in -dicus, -ficus, -volus, 71, 5. ——­ defective, 73. ——­ abl. of, 217.  Comparison, conditional, 307.  Compendiary comparison, 374, 2, b); ——­ w. result clauses, 284, 4; ——­ w. clauses of characteristic, 283, 2, a.  Completed action, tenses expressing, 262-4; 267, 3.  Compounds, 158 f.; ——­ spelling of, 9, 2.  Compound sentences, 164. ——­ verbs governing acc., 175, 2, a; ——­ governing dat., 187, III; 188, 2, d.  Conative uses of pres., 259, 2; ——­ of imperf., 260, 3; ——­ of pres. partic., 336, 2, a.  Concessive clauses, 308; ——­ ‘although’ as accessory idea to clause of characteristic, 283, 3. ——­ subjunctive, 278.  Conclusion, see Apodosis.  Concrete nouns, 12, 2, a).  Condemning, verbs of, constr., 208, f.  Conditional clauses of comparison, 307. ——­ sentences, 1st type (nothing implied), 302; ——­ ——­ in indir. disc., 319; ——­ ——­ 2d type (’should’-’would’), 303; ——­ ——­ in indir. disc., 320; ——­ ——­ 3d type (contrary to fact), 304; ——­ ——­ in indir. disc., 321; ——­ ——­ abl. abs. equivalent to, 227, 2, b); ——­ ——­ introduced by relative pronouns, 312; ——­ ——­ general conditions, 302, 2; 3; ——­ ——­ indicative in contrary-to-fact apodoses, 304, 3; ——­ ——­ protasis omitted or implied, 305, 1; ——­ ——­ protasis contained in imperative, or jussive subjv., 305, 2; ——­ ——­ employment of nisi, si non, sin, si minus, 306; ——­ ——­ conditional relative sentences, 312, 2. confido, w. abl., 219, 1, a.  Conjugation, 11; 93 f.; ——­ the four conjugations, 98; ——­ periphrastic, 115; ——­ peculiarities of conj., 116.  Conjunctions, 145, 1; 341 f. conor, with inf., 295, 5, a.  Consecutive clauses, see Result clauses. consistere, with abl., 218, 4.  Consonant stems, nouns, 29 f.; ——­ adjs., 70, 1. ——­ partially adapted to i-stems, 40.  Consonants, 2, 2 f.; ——­ pronunciation, 3, 3. ——­ double, 2, 9. ——­ combinations of, in division into syllables, 4, 2 f.  Consonant changes, 8; ——­ omission of finals 8, 3; ——­ assimilation of, 8, 4 f. ——­ stems, 29; ——­ ——­ following analogy of i-stems, 40. conspicio, conj., 109, 2, b). constare, w. abl., 218, 4.  Construction acc. to sense, 254, 4; 235, B, 2, c). consuetudo est, with subjv. substantive clause, 297, 3. consuevi = pres., 262, A. consularis, abl. sing. of, 70, 5, a.  Contending, verbs of, with dat., 358, 3. contentus, w. abl., 219, 1. contineri, with abl., 218, 4. contingit ut, 297, 2.  Continued action, tenses for, 257, 1, b. contra, prep. w. acc., 141; ——­ as adv., 144, 1.  Contraction, 7, 2. ——­ length of vowel as result of, 5, A, 1, b).  Contrary-to-fact conditions, 304.  Convicting, verbs of, constr., 208 f.  Cooerdinate clauses, 165. ——­ conjunctions, 341 f. copia, copiae, 61.  Copulative conjunctions, 341. cor, lacks gen. plu., 57, 7. cornu, decl., 48.  Correlative conjunctions, 341, 3; 342, 2. ——­ adverbs, 140. cottidie, spelling, 9, 2.  Countries, gender of, 26, 1, a.  Crime, gen. of, 208, 1; 2. -crum,

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suffix, 147, 4. -culum, suffix, 147, 4. -culus (a, um), suffix, 148, 1. cum, appended, 142, 4. cum (conj.), ‘when,’ 288-290; ——­ ‘whenever,’ 288, 3. ——­ adversative, 309, 3. ——­ causal, 286, 2. ——­ explicative, 290. ——­ to denote a recurring action, 288, 3; 289, a. ——­ inversum, 288, 2. com ... tum, 290, 2. cum primum, 287, 1. cum, spelling of, 9, 1. cum (prep.), with abl. of manner, 220; ——­ with abl. of accompaniment, 222; ——­ appended to prons., 142, 4. -cundus, suffix, 150, 1. cupio, conj, 109, 2, a); ——­ with subst. clause developed from optative, 296; ——­ w. inf., 331, IV, and a. cur, nulla causa est cur, w. subjv., 295, 7. curo, with gerundive const as obj., 337, 8, b, 2.  Customary action, 259, 1; 260, 2.

D.

D, changed to s, 8, 2; ——­ d final omitted, 8, 3; ——­ assimilated, 8, 4.  Dactyl, 366, 2.  Dactylic hexameter, 368. ——­ pentameter, 369. dapis, defective, 57, 6.  Daring, verbs of, with obj. inf., 328, 1.  Dates 371, 2-5; ——­ as indeclinable nouns, 371, 6; ——­ in leap year, 371, 7.  Dative 17; ——­ irregular, 1st decl., 21, 2, c); ——­ 3d decl., 47, 5; ——­ 4th decl., 49, 2; 3; ——­ 5th decl., 52, 1 and 3; 186 ff. ——­ in the gerundive const., 339, 7. ——­ of agency, 189. ——­ of direction and limit of motion, 193. ——­ of indir. obj., 187. ——­ of advantage or disadvantage, so called, 188, 1. ——­ of local standpoint, 188, 2, a). ——­ of person judging, 188, 2, c). ——­ of possession, 190; 359, 1. ——­ of purpose or tendency, 191; 339, 7. ——­ of reference, 188. ——­ of separation, 188, 2, d). ——­ of the gerund, 338, 2. ——­ with adjs., 192; ——­ with proprius, communis, 204, 2; ——­ with similis, 204, 3. ——­ with compound verbs, 187, III. ——­ with intrans. verbs, 187, II. ——­ with nomen est, 190, 1. ——­ with impersonal pass. verbs, 187, II, b. ——­ with trans. verbs, 187, I. ——­ with verbs of mingling, 358, 3. ——­ ethical dat., 188, 2, b). de, prep. w. abl., 142; ——­ with abl. instead of gen. of whole, 201, 1, a; ——­ with verbs of reminding, 207, a; ——­ compounds of de governing dat., 188, 2, d; ——­ de vi, with verbs of accusing and convicting, 208, 3; ——­ with gerund and gerundive, 338, 4, b. dea, deabus, 21, 2, e). debebam, debui in apodosis, 304, 3, a). debeo, governing obj. inf., 328, 1. debui, with pres inf., 270, 2. decemvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b). decerne, w. subst. clause developed from volitive, 295, 4. decet, w. acc., 175, 2, c).  Declarative sentences, defined, 161, 1; ——­ in indir. disc., 314.  Declension, 11; ——­ heteroclites, 59. ——­ stems and gen. terminations, 18. ——­ 1st decl., 20-22; ——­ 2d decl., 23-27; ——­ 3d decl., 28-47; ——­ 4th decl., 48-50; ——­ 5th decl., 51-53; ——­ of Greek nouns, 22; 27; 47; ——­ of adjs., 62-69; ——­ of prons., 84-90.  Decreeing, verbs of, w. subjv., 295, 4. dedecet, 175, 2, c).  Defective verbs, 133 f.; ——­ nouns, 54 f.; 52, 4; 57; ——­ comparison, 73.  Definite perfect, see Present perfect.  Degree of difference, abl. of, 223.  Degrees of comparison, 71 ff. delectat, w. inf. as subj.,

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327, 1. delector, w. abl. of cause, 219.  Deliberative subjv., 277; ——­ in indir. questions, 300, 2; ——­ in indir. disc., 315, 3.  Demanding, verbs of, w. two accs., 178, 1; ——­ w. subst. clause, 295, 1.  Demonstrative pronouns, 87; 246; ——­ of 1st, 2d, and 3d persons, 87; ——­ position of demonstratives, 350, 5, a.  Denominative verbs, 156.  Dental mutes, 2, 4; ——­ stems, 33.  Dependent clauses, 282 ff.  Deponent verbs, 112; ——­ forms with passive meanings, 112, b); ——­ semi-deponents, 114.  Depriving, verbs of, w. abl, 214, 1, b.  Derivatives, 147 f. -des, patronymics in, 148, 6.  Description, imperf. as tense of, 260, 1, a.  Desideratives, 155, 3.  Desire, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, 1; ——­ verbs of, w. subst. clauses, 296, 1. deterior, 73, 1. deus, decl., 25, 4. devertor, 114, 3. dexter, decl, 65, 1. di-, 159, 3, N. Diaeresis, 366, 8; ——­ bucolic d., 368, 3, d).  Diastole, 367, 2. dic, 116, 3. dicitur, dictum est, w. inf., 332, note. dico, accent of compounds of, in imperative, 116, 3. -dicus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5.  Dido, decl, 47, 8. dies, decl., 51; ——­ gender, 53.  Difference, abl of degree of, 223. difficile est = Eng. potential, 271, 1, b). difficilis, comp., 71, 4. dignor, with abl., 226, 2. dignus, 226, 2; ——­ in rel. clauses of purpose, 282, 3.  Dimeter, verses, 366, 11.  Diminutives, 148, 1.  Diphthongs, 2, 1; 3, 2; ——­ diphthong stems, 41; ——­ diphthongs shortened, 362, 2. diphthongus, gender of, 26, 1. c).  Dipodies, 366, 11.  Direct reflexives, 244, 1. ——­ object, 172. ——­ quotation, 313. ——­ discourse, 313. ——­ questions, 162. dis-, in compounds, 159, 3, N. Disjunctive conjunctions, 342. dissimilis, comp., 71, 4.  Distributives, 63, 2; 78, 1; 79; 81, 4. diu, compared, 77, 1. dives, decl., 70, 1; ——­ compared, 71, 6. dixti, 116, 4, c. do, conj., 127. doceo, with acc., 178, 1, b); ——­ with inf., 331, VI. domi, locative, 232, 2. domo, 229, 1, b). domos, 182, 1, b. domum, 182, 1, b); ——­ ‘house,’ in acc., 182, N. domus, decl., 49, 4; ——­ gender, 50. donec, with ind., 293; ——­ with subjv., 293, III, 2. dono, constr., 187, 1, a. dos, gender, 44, 3.  Double consonants, 2, 9. ——­ questions, 162, 4; ——­ ——­ indirect, 300, 4.  Doubting, verbs of, w. quin, 298.  Dubitative subjunctive, see Deliberative. dubito, dubium est, non dubito, non dubium est, with quin, 298; ——­ non dubito w. inf., 298, a. duc, 116, 3. duco, accent of compounds of, in imper., 116, 3. duim, duint, 127, 2. -dum, 6, 3. dum, temporal with ind., 293; ——­ with subjv., 293, III, 2; ——­ in wishes and provisos, 310. dummodo, 310. duo, decl, 80, 2.  Duration of time, 181, 2.  Duty, expressed by gerundive, 189, 337, 8; ——­ verbs of duty in conclusion of cond. sentences contrary-to-fact,
    304, 3, a;
——­ subst. clauses dependent on verbs of, 295, 6; ——­ inf. w. verbs of duty, 327, 1; 328, 1; 330; ——­ ‘it is the duty of,’ 198, 3; ——­ ’I perform a duty, 218, 1. duumvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b). dux, decl, 32.

E.

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e, as vowel, 2, 1; ——­ as second member of diphthongs, 2, 1; ——­ sound of, 3, 1; ——­ change, to i, 7, 1, a; ——­ for a, 7, 1, c; ——­ in voc. sing, of 2d decl., 23; ——­ in abl. sing, of 3d decl., 31; ——­ dropped in nom. of neuters of 3d decl., 39; ——­ -e for -i in abl. of mare, 39; ——­ alternating w. i in abl. sing. of i-stems, 37, 38; ——­ for e in gen. sing. of 5th decl., 52, 1; ——­ in abl. sing. of adjs. of 3d decl., 70, 1; ——­ in bene and male, 77, 1; ——­ distinguishing vowel of 3d conj., 98; ——­ before j, 362, 5; ——­ for -e in imperatives, 363, 2, b; ——­ in temere and saepe, 363, 2, c. e, pronunciation, 3, 1; ——­ by contraction, 7, 2; ——­ as ending of Greek nouns, 22; ——­ e-stems, 51; ——­ ending of dat. of 5th decl., 52, 3; ——­ distinguishing vowel of 2d conj., 98; ——­ -e in fame 363, 2, a; ——­ ——­ in adverbs, 363, 2, c e, ex, use, 142; see ex. ecquis, 91, 6. edic, 116, 3.  Editorial ‘we,’ 242, 3. edo, 128. educ, 116, 3. efficio ut, 297, 1. efficitur ut, 297, 2.  Effort, subjv. w. verbs of, 295, 5. egeo, w. abl., 214, 1, c. ego, 84. egomet, 84, 2. ei, diphthong, 2, 1; 3, 2. -ei, gen. of 5th decl., 52, 1. -eis, 148, 6, b). ejus, as poss., 86, 1; ——­ quantity, 362, 5.  Elegiac distich, 369, 2.  Elision, 266, 7.  Ellipsis, 374, 1. -ellus (a, um), 148, 1.  Emphasis, 349.  Enclitics, accent of preceding syllable, 6, 3. ——­ -met, 84, 2; ——­ -pte, 86, 3; ——­ cum as enclitic, 142, 4 End of motion, see Limit.  Endings, case endings, 17, 3; ——­ personal, of verb, 96; ——­ in formation of words, 147 f. enim, 345. -ensimus (-ensumus), 79, N. -ensis, 151, 2; 152, 3.  Envy, verbs of, with dat., 187, II eo, 132; ——­ cpds., 132, 1.  Epexegetical genitive, 202.  Epistolary tenses, 265. epistula, spelling, 9, 2. epitome, decl., 22. epulum, epulae, 60, 2. equabus, 21, 2, e). equester, decl., 68, 1. equos, decl., 24. -er, decl., of nouns in, 23; ——­ adjs., 63; 64; 65; ——­ adjs. in -er compared, 71, 3. erga, prep. w. acc., 141. ergo, 344, 1, b). -ernus, suffix, 154. -es, gender of nouns in, 43, 1; ——­ ——­ exception, 44, 5; ——­ in nom. plu. of Greek nouns of 3d decl., 47, 2. -es, ending of Greek nouns, nom. sing. in, 22. ——­ gen. -is, decl. of nouns in, 40, 1, a). esse, conjugation of, 100; ——­ compounds of, 125; 126; ——­ esse omitted, 116, 5. est qui, with subj., 283, 2. et, 341, 1, a; ——­ in enumerations, 341, 4, c). et is, 247, 4. et ... neque, 341, 3.  Ethical dative, 188, 2, b). etiam, in answers, 162, 5. et non, 341, 2, c). etsi, ‘although,’ 309, 2; ——­ etsi, ‘even if,’ 309, 2, a. -etum, suffix, 148, 3. -eus, inflection of Greek nouns in, 47, 6; ——­ adj. suffix, 151, 1. evenit ut, 297, 2. ex, 142, 2; ——­ with abl., instead of gen. of whole, 201, 1, a; ——­ compounds of, with dat., 188, 2, d; ——­ with abl. of source, 215, 1.  Exchanging, verbs of, with abl. of association, 222A.  Exclamation, acc. of, 183.  Exclamatory sentences, 161, 3.  Expectancy, clauses denoting, in subjv., 292, 1; 293, III, 2. exposco, constr., 178, 1, a). exsisto, spelling, 9, 2. exspecto, spelling, 9, 2. exteri, xterior, 73, 2. extremus, use, 241, 1. exuo, w. abl., 214, 1, b.

F.

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f, pronunciation, 3, 3; ——­ nf, quantity of vowel before, 5, 1, a. fac, 116, 3; ——­ with subjv., 295, 5. facile, 77, 3. facilis, comp., 71, 4. facio, 109, 2, a); ——­ pass. of, 131. ——­ in imper., 116, 3. falsus, comparison, 73, 3. fame, 59, 2, b).  Familiarity, adjs. of, w. gen., 204. 1. familias, 21, 2, a. fari, 136. fas, indeclinable, 58. fauces, decl., 40, 1, d.  Favor, verbs signifying, with dat., 187, II.  Fearing, verbs of, constr. 296, 2. febris, decl. 38, 1. felix, 70.  Feminine, see Gender.  Feminine caesura, 368, 3, c. femur, decl. 42, 4. -fer, decl. of nouns in; adjs., 23, 2; ——­ adjs. 65, 1. fero, and its compounds, 129. -ficus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5. fidei, 52, 1. fido, 114, 1; ——­ with abl., 219, 1, a. fidus, compared, 73, 3. fierem, fieri 362, 1, c; ——­ fieri potest ut, 298, 2.  Fifth decl., 51 f.  Figures of rhetoric, 375. ——­ of syntax, 374. fili, 25, 3. filia, filiabus, 21, 2, e Filling, verbs of, w. abl., 218, 8.  Final clauses, see Purpose clauses.  Final consonant omitted, 8, 3.  Final syllables, quantity, 363, 364. finis, fines, 61.  Finite verb, 95. fio, conj., 131. fio, with abl., 218, 6.  First conj., 101; ——­ principal parts of verbs of, 120; ——­ deponents of 1st conj., 113.  First decl., 20 f.; ——­ peculiarities, 21; ——­ Greek nouns of 1st decl., 22. fit ut, 297, 2. flagito, constr., 178, 1, a. fodio, conj., 109, 2, a.  Foot, in verse, 366, 2.  ‘For,’ its Latin equivalents, 358, 1. fore, 100, footnote 32. fore ut, 270, 3; ——­ 297, 2. forem, fores, etc., 100, footnote 31. foris, 228, 1, c.  Formation of words, 146 f. fors, forte, 57, 2, a. fortior, decl., 69. fortis, 69. fortuna, fortunae, 61.  Fourth conj., 107.  Fourth decl., 48; ——­ dat. in -u, 49, 2; ——­ gen. in -i, 49, 1; ——­ dat. abl. plu. in -ubus, 49, 3. fraude, abl. of manner, 220, 2.  Free, abl. w. adjs. signifying, 214, 1, d.  Freeing, abl. w. verbs of, 214, 1, a. frenum, plu. of, 60, 2.  Frequentatives, 155, 2. fretus w. abl., 218, 3.  Fricatives, 2, 7.  Friendly, dat. w. adjs. signifying, 192, 1. fructus, decl., 48. frugi, compared, 72; 70, 6. frugis, 57, 6. fruor, with abl., 218, 1; ——­ in gerundive constr., 339, 4. fugio, conj., 109, 2, a). fui, fuisti, etc., for sum, es, etc., in compound tenses, 102, footnotes
    36, 37. 
Fullness, adjs. of, w. abl., 218, 8; ——­ w. gen., 204, 1. fungor, w. abl., 218, 1; ——­ in gerundive constr., 339, 4. fur, decl., 40, 1, d. furto, abl. of manner, 220, 2.  Future tense, 161; ——­ w. imperative force, 261, 3. ——­ time in the subjv., 269. ——­ perfect, 264; ——­ ——­ with future meaning, 133, 2; ——­ ——­ inf., 270, 4. ——­ imperative, 281, 1. ——­ infinitive, 270; ——­ ——­ periphrastic fut. inf., 270, 3, and a. ——­ participle, 337, 4. futurum esse ut, with subjv., 270, 3.

G.

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gaudeo, semi-deponent, 114, 1. gemo, w. acc., 175, 2, b.  Gender 13-15; ——­ in 1st decl., 20; 21; ——­ in 2d decl., 23; ——­ exceptions, 26; ——­ in 3d decl., 43 f.; ——­ in 4th decl., 50; ——­ in 5th decl., 53; ——­ determined by endings, 14; ——­ ——­ by signification, 15, A; ——­ heterogeneous nouns, 60. gener, decl, 23, 2.  General relatives, 312, 1; ——­ general truths, 259, 1; 262, B, 1; ——­ ‘general’ conditions, 302, 2; 3.  Genitive, 17; ——­ in -i for -ii, 25, 1 and 2; ——­ of 4th decl., in -i, 49, 1; ——­ of 5th decl. in -i, 52, 2; ——­ of 5th decl. in -ei, 52, 1; ——­ ——­ in -e, 52, 3; ——­ of 1st decl. in -ai, 21, 2, b; ——­ of 1st decl. in -as, 21, 2, a; ——­ gen. plu. -um for -arum, 21, 2 d); ——­ ——­ -um for orum, 25, 6; 63, 2; ——­ ——­ -um for -ium, 70, 7; ——­ gen. plu. lacking, 57, 7; ——­ syntax of, 194 f. ——­ of characteristic, 203, 1. ——­ of charge with judicial verbs, 208. ——­ of indefinite price, 203, 4. ——­ of indefinite value, 203, 3. ——­ of material, 197. ——­ of measure, 203, 2. ——­ of origin, 196. ——­ of possession, 198. ——­ of quality, 203. ——­ of the whole, 201. ——­ appositional, 202. ——­ objective, 200. ——­ of separation, 212, 3. ——­ subjective, 199. ——­ with adjs., 204; ——­ ——­ with participles, 204, 1, a. ——­ with causa, gratia, 198, 1. ——­ with verbs, 205 f.; ——­ ——­ of plenty and want, 212; ——­ ——­ with impers. verbs, 209. ——­ position of gen., 350, 1. genus, decl. 36; ——­ id genus, 185, 1. -ger, decl. of nouns in, 23, 2; ——­ adjs., 65, 1.  Gerund, 95, 1; ——­ 1st conj., 101; ——­ 2d conj., 103; ——­ 3d conj., 105; ——­ 4th conj., 107; ——­ syntax, 338; ——­ with object, 338, 5.  Gerundive, 95, 1; ——­ 1st conj., 102; ——­ 2d conj., 104; ——­ 3d conj., 106; ——­ 4th conj., 108; ——­ in periphrastic conj., 115; 337, 8.  Gerundive, const., 339, 1-6; ——­ in passive periphrastic conj., 337, 8 f.; ——­ gen. denoting purpose, 339, 6; ——­ with dat. of purpose, 191, 3; 339, 7. gnarus, not compared, 75, 2.  Gnomic present, 259, 1; ——­ perfect, 262, 1. gradior, conj., 109, 2, c.  Grammatical gender, 15. gratia, with gen., 198, 1; ——­ gratia, gratiae, 61.  Greek nouns, 1st decl., 22; ——­ 2d decl., 27; ——­ ——­ exceptions in gender, 26, 1, c); ——­ 3d decl., 47; ——­ Greek acc., 180; ——­ Greek nouns in verse, 365. grus, decl., 41, 2. gu = gv, 3, 3.  Guttural mutes, 2, 4. ——­ stems, 32.

H.

h, pron., 3, 3; ——­ ph, ch, th, 2, 4; 3, 3. habeo, with perf. pass. partic., 337, 6.  Hadria, gender, 21, 1.  Happening, verbs of, w. ind., 299, 1, 2; ——­ w. subjv., 297, 2.  Hard consonants, 2, 3, a), footnote 4.  Hardening, 367, 4. haud, use, 347, 2, a; ——­ haud scio an, 300, 5. have, 137, 5.  Help, verbs signifying, w. dat. 187, II.  Hendiadys, 374, 4. heri, locative, 232, 2.  Heteroclites, 59.  Heterogeneous nouns, 60.  Hexameter, dactylic, 368.  Hiatus, 366, 7, a. hic, 87; 246, 1; 246, 2; ——­ hic, 364, footnote 60. hiems, 35, footnote 13.  Hindering, verbs of, with subjv., 295, 3.  Historical tenses, 258; ——­ historical present,

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259, 3; 268, 3; ——­ historical perfect, 262, B; ——­ historical infinitive, 335. honor, decl., 36.  Hoping, verbs of, w. inf., 331, I. Hortatory subjv., 274. hortus, decl., 23. hoscine, 87, footnote 23 hostis, decl., 38. hujusce, 87, footnote 23 humi, locative, 232, 2. humilis, comp., 71, 4. humus, gender of, 26, 1, b. huncine, 87, footnote 23 Hyperbaton, 350, 11, a.  Hypermeter, 367, 6.  Hysteron proteron, 374, 7.

I.

i, 1, 1; ——­ in diphthongs, 2, 1; ——­ pron., 3, 1; ——­ from e, 7, 1, a; ——­ from a, 7, 1, b; ——­ dropped by syncope, 7, 4; ——­ for u in some words, 9, 1; ——­ changes to e, 39; ——­ dropped, 39; ——­ final i short, 363, 3; ——­ becomes j, 367, 4. i-stems, 37; 39; ——­ not always ending in -is, 38, 3. -i, gen. and voc. of 2d decl. nouns in -ius and -ium in, 25, 1 and 2. ——­ gen. of 4th decl. nouns in -us, 49, 1. ——­ gen. of 5th decl. nouns, 52, 2. i-stem, vis, 41. i, in abl., 3d decl., 38, 1; 39; ——­ in adjs., 67, 3, a; 70, 5; ——­ participles, 70, 3; ——­ patrials, 70, 5, c); ——­ nom. plu., of is, 87; ——­ as characteristic of 4th conj., 98. -ia, 149.  Iambus, 366, 2.  Iambic measures, 370. ——­ trimeter, 370. -ianus, suffix, 152, 1. -ias, suffix, 148, 6, b). -ibam, in imperf., 116, 4, b). -ibo, in future, 116, 4, b).  Ictus, 366, 5. -icus, suffix, 151, 2; 152, 2. id aetatis, 185, 2. id genus, 185, 1. id quod 247, 1, b. id temporis, 185, 2.  Ideal ‘you’; see Indefinite second person. idem, 87; 248. idem ac, 248, 2.  Ides, 371, 2, c). -ides, suffix, 148, 6, a). -ides, suffix, 148, 6, a). -ido, suffix, 147, 3, c). idoneus, not compared, 74, 2; ——­ w. dat., 192, 2.; ——­ w. ad and acc., 192, 2 and N.; ——­ with rel. clause of purpose, 282, 3. -idus, suffix, 150, 3.  Idus, fem. by exception, 50. -ie, in voc. sing. of adjs. in -ius, 63, 1. iens, pres. partic. from eo, 132. -iens, as ending of numeral adverbs, 97 and N. -ier, inf. ending, 116, 4, a. -ies, nouns in, 51. igitur, 344, 1, c). ignis, decl., 38. -ii, in gen, sing. of io-stems, 25, 2. iis, in dat. and abl. plu. of is, 87. -ile, suffix, 148, 3.  Ilion, decl., 27. -ilis, suffix, 151, 2. -ilis, suffix, 150, 4.  Illative conjunctions, 344. ille, 87; ——­ ‘the following,’ 246, 2; ——­ ‘the former,’ 246, 1; ——­ ‘the well-known,’ 246, 3; ——­ position, 350, 5, b. illuc, 87, footnote 25. -illus (a, um), diminutive suffix, 148, 1. -im, in acc., 3d decl., 38, 1. -im, -is in subjv., 116, 4, d. impedimentum, impedimenta, 61.  Imperative, 281; ——­ tenses in, 94, 3; 281, 1; ——­ future indic. with force of, 261, 3. ——­ as protasis of a conditional sent., 305, 2; ——­ ——­ as apodosis, 302, 4. ——­ sent. in indir disc., 316.  Imperfect tense, 260; ——­ conative, 260, 3; ——­ inceptive, 260, 3; ——­ with jam, etc., 260, 4; ——­ epistolary imp., 265.  Imperfect subjv. in conditional sent. referring to the past, 304, 2.  Impersonal verbs, 138; ——­ gen. with, 209; ——­ dat. with, 187, II, b; ——­ in passive, 256, 3; ——­ with substantive clauses developed from volitive, 295, 6; ——­

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of result, 297, 2; ——­ with infin., 327, 1; 330. impetus, defective, 57, 4.  Implied indir. disc., 323. imus, ‘bottom of,’ 241, 1. in, prep., 143; ——­ verbs compounded w. in governing acc., 175, 2, a, 2; ——­ verbs compounded w. in governing dat., 187, III. in with abl. of place, 228; ——­ with abl. of time, 230, 2; 231. -ina, suffix, 148, 5.  Inceptives, 155, 1.  Inchoatives, 155, 1.  Incomplete action, 257, 1, b; 267, 3.  Indeclinable adjs., 70, 6; 80, 6. ——­ nouns, 58; ——­ ——­ gender of, 15, 3.  Indefinite price, 225, 1; 203, 4.  Indefinite pronouns, 91, 252; ——­ in conditions, 302, 3.  Indefinite second person, 280, 3; 356, 3; 302, 2.  Indefinite value, 203, 3.  Indicative, equivalent to Eng. subjv., 271. ——­ in apodosis of conditional sent. of 3d type, 304, 3, a) and b). indigeo, constr., 214, 1, N. 2. indignus, with abl., 226, 2; ——­ with rel. clause of purpose, 282, 3.  Indirect discourse, defined, 313 f.; ——­ ——­ mood in, 313 ff.; ——­ ——­ tenses in 317-18; ——­ ——­ declarative sentences in, 314; ——­ ——­ interrog. sentences in, 315; ——­ ——­ imperative sentences in, 316; ——­ ——­ conditional sentences in, 319-22; ——­ ——­ verbs introducing, 331, 1; ——­ ——­ verb of saying, etc., implied, 314, 2; ——­ ——­ ind. in subord. clauses of indir. disc., 314, 3; ——­ ——­ inf. for subjv. in indir. disc., 314, 4; ——­ ——­ subj. acc. omitted, 314, 5; ——­ ——­ implied indir. disc., 323. ——­ questions, 300; ——­ ——­ particles introducing, 300, 1, a; ——­ ——­ deliberative subjv. in indir. quest., 300, 2; ——­ ——­ indir. quest. w. si, 300, 3; ——­ ——­ double indir. questions, 300, 4; ——­ ——­ in indir. quest., 300, 6; ——­ ——­ in conditional sents. of 3d type, 322, b. ——­ reflexives, 244, 2. ——­ object, 187. inferum, inferior, 73, 2. infimus, 241, 1.  Infinitive, gender of, 15, A 3; ——­ in -ier, 116, 4, a; ——­ force of tenses in, 270; 326 ff. ——­ fut. perf. inf., 270, 4; ——­ ——­ periphrastic future, 270, 3. ——­ without subj. acc., 326-328; 314, 5. ——­ with subj. acc., 329-331. ——­ as obj., 328; 331, ——­ as subj., 327; 330. ——­ with adjs., 333. ——­ denoting purpose, 326, N. ——­ in abl. abs., 227, 3. ——­ in exclamations, 334. ——­ historical inf., 335. infitias, constr., 182, 5.  Inflection, 11.  Inflections, 11 ff. infra, prep. w. acc., 141. ingens, comp., 73, 4. injuria, abl. of manner, 220, 2. injussu, defective, 57, 1; ——­ the abl., 219, 2. inl- = ill-, 9, 2. innixus, w. abl., 218, 3. inops, decl., 70, 2. inquam, conj., 134.  Inseparable prepositions, 159, 3, N. insidiae, plu. only, 56, 3. instar, 58.  Instrumental uses of abl., 213; 218 ff.  Intensive pron., 88.  Intensives (verbs), 155, 2. inter, prep. w. acc., 141; ——­ compounded w. verbs, governing dat. 187, III; ——­ to express reciprocal relation, 245. interdico, const., 188, 1, a. interest, constr., 210; 211. interior, comp., 73, 1.  Interjections, 145.  Interlocked order, 350, 11, d.  Interrogative pronouns, 90. ——­ sentences, 162; ——­ particles, 162, 2; ——­ ——­ omitted, 162, 2, d); ——­ in indir. disc., 315. intra, prep. w. acc., 141. 

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Intransitive verbs, with cognate acc., 176, 4; ——­ in passive, 256, 3; 187, II, b; ——­ impersonal intransitives, 138, IV. -inus, suffix, 151, 2; 152, 1; 152, 3. -io, verbs of 3d conj., 109. -ior, ius, comparative ending, 71. ipse, 88; 249; ——­ as indir. reflexive, 249, 3. ipsius and ipsorum, with possessive pronouns, 243, 3. -ir, decl. of nouns in, 23.  Irregular comparison, 72 ff.; ——­ nouns, 42; ——­ verbs, 124 f. is, 87; 247; ——­ as personal pron., 247, 2. -is, as patronymic ending, 148, 6, b); ——­ nouns in -is of 3d decl., 37 f.; ——­ adjs. in -is, 69. -is, acc. plu., 3d decl., 37; 40. ——­ -itis, abl. of patrials in, 70, 5, c). istaec, 87, footnote 24. iste, 87; 246, 4. istic, 6, 4. istuc, 6, 4; 87, footnote 24. ita, in answers, 162, 5. itaque, 344, 1, a). iter, 42, 1. -itia, 149. -ito, frequentatives in, 155, 2, a. -ium, gen. of nouns in, 25, 2; ——­ ending of gen. plu., 3d decl., 37 f.; 39; 40; 147, 3, b); 148, 2. -ius, gen. and voc. sing. of nouns in, 25, 1 and 2; ——­ of adjs., 63, a; 151, 2; 152, 2; 152, 3; ——­ -ius for -ius, 362, 1, a). -ivus, suffix, 151, 2.

J.

j, 1, 2. jacio, conj., 109, 2, a); ——­ compounds of, 9, 3; 362, 5. jam, etc., with present tense, 259, 4; ——­ with imperfect, 260, 4. jecur, decl., 42, 3. joco, abl. of manner, 220, 2. jocus, plu. of, 60, 2.  Joining, verbs of, construction, 358, 3. jubeo, constr., 295, 1, a:  331, II. judicor, w. inf., 332, c. jugerum, 59, 1.  Julian calendar, 371. jungo, w. abl., 222A.  Juppiter, decl., 41. juratus, 114, 2. jure, abl. of manner, 220, 2. jus est, with substantive clause, 297, 3. jussu, 57, 1; ——­ the abl., 219, 2.  Jussive subjv., 275; ——­ equiv. to a protasis, 305, 2. juvat, w. acc., 172, 2, c); ——­ with inf., 327, 1.  Juvenale, abl., 70, 5, b. juvenis, a cons. stem, 38, 2; ——­ comparison, 73, 4. juvo, with acc., 187, II, N. juxta, prep. w. acc., 141.

K.

k, 1, 1. 
Knowing, verbs of, w. inf., 331, I.
Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 204.

L.

l, pron., 3, 3.  Labial mutes, 2, 4. ——­ stems, 31; ——­ ——­ gender of, 43, 3; 46, 1. lacer, decl., 65, 1. lacus, decl., 49, 3. laedo, w. acc., 187, II, N. laetus, w. adverbial force, 239. lapis, decl., 33. largior, 113.  Latin period, 351, 5.  Length of syllables, 5, B. Length of vowels, 5, A. -lentus, suffix, 151, 3. leo, decl., 35.  Liber, decl, 23, 2. liber, adj., decl., 65, 1. libero, constr., 214, 1, N. 1. liberta, libertabus, 21, 2, e). liberum, gen. plu., 25, 6, c). licet, with subjv., 295, 6 and 8; 308, a; ——­ with inf., 327, 1; 330. licet, adversative, 309, 4.  Likeness, adjs. of, w. dat., 192, 1.  Limit of motion, acc. of., 182.  Lingual mutes, 2, 4. linter, decl., 40.  Liquids, 2, 5. ——­ stems, 34. lis, decl., 40, 1, d).  Litotes, 375, 1. littera, litterae, 61.  Locative, 17, 1; ——­ in -ae, 21, 2, c); ——­ in -i, 25, 5; ——­ syntax, 232; ——­ apposition with, 169, 4; ——­ loc. uses of abl., 213; 228 f. loco, locis, the abl., 228, 1, b. locus, plurals of, 60, 2.  Long syllables, 5, B, 1. ——­ vowels, 5, A, 1. longius = longius quam, 271, 3. longum est = Eng. potential, 217, 1, b. lubet, lubido, spelling, 9, 1. ludis, the abl., 230, 1. -lus, -la, -lum, diminutives in, 148, 1. lux, 57, 7.

M.

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m, pron., 3, 3; ——­ changed to n before d, c, 8, 5, c; ——­ m-stem, 35, footnote 13; ——­ m-final in poetry, 366, 10. maereo, w. acc., 175, 2, b. magis, comparison, 77, 1; ——­ comparison with, 74. magni, gen. of value, 203, 3. magnopere, compared, 77, 1. magnus, compared, 72.  Making, verbs of, w. two accusatives, 177. male, comparison, 77, 1. maledicens, comparison, 71, 5, a). malim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a. mallem, potential subjv., 280, 4. malo, 130; ——­ with inf., 331, IV, and a; ——­ with subjv., 296, 1, a. malus, comparison, 72. mane, indeclinable, 58.  Manner, abl. of, 200. mare, decl., 39, 2; ——­ mari, 228, 1, c). mas, decl., 40, 1, d).  Masculine, see Gender.  Masculine caesura, 368, 3, c.  Material, abl. of, 224, 3. materies, materia, 59, 2, a). mature, compared, 77, 1. maturus, compared, 71, 3. maxime, adjs. compared with, 74. maximi, as gen. of value, 203, 3. maxumus, 9, 1.  Means, abl. of, 218; ——­ abl. abs. denoting, 227, 2; ——­ denoted by partic., 337, 2, d. med, for me, 84, 3.  Mediae (consonants), 2, 3, b), footnote 5. medius, ‘middle of’, 241, 1. mei, as objective gen., 242, 2. melior, comparison, 72. melius est = Eng. potential, 271, 1, b). memini, 133; ——­ constr., 206, 1, a; 2, a. memor, decl., 70, 2. -men, -mentum, suffixes, 147, 4. mensis, 38, 2, footnote 14. mentem (in mentem venire), 206, 3. -met, enclitic, 6, 3; 84, 2.  Metrical close of sent., 350, 12. metuo, w. subjv., 296, 2. mi, dat., 84, 1. mi, voc. of meus, 86, 2.  Middle voice, verbs in, 175, 2, d). miles, decl., 33. militiae, locative, 232, 2. mille, milia, decl., 80, 5. minime, comparison, 77, 1; ——­ in answers, 162, 5, b). minimus, comparison, 72. minor, comparison, 72. minoris, gen. of value, 203, 3; ——­ of price, 203, 4. minus, comparison 77, 1; ——­ = minus quam, 217, 3; ——­ quo minus, 295, 3; ——­ si minus, 306, 2 and a. miror, conj., 113. mirus, comparison, 75, 2. miscere, with abl., 222A; ——­ with dat., 358, 3. misereor, with gen., 209, 2. miseresco, with gen., 209, 2. miseret, constr., 209.  Mixed stems, 40. modium, gen. plu., 25, 6, a). modo, in wishes and provisos, 310. moneo, 103; ——­ constr., 178, 1, d). months, gender of names of, 15, 1; ——­ decl. 68, 1; ——­ abl., of month names, 70, 5, a); ——­ names, 371, 1.  Moods, 94, 2. ——­ in independent sentences, 271 f. ——­ in dependent clauses, 282 f.  Mora, 366, 1. morior, conj. 109, 2, c); mos, decl., 36; ——­ mores, 61. mos est, with subjv. clause, 297, 3. muliebre secus, constr., 185, 1.  Multiplication, distributives used to indicate, 81, 4, c. multum, 77, 3; ——­ compared, 77, 1. multus, compared, 72; ——­ with another adj., 241, 3. mus decl., 40, 1, d). mutare, with abl., 222A.  Mutes, 2, 3.  Mute stems, 30.

N.

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n, pronunciation, 3, 3; ——­ n-stems, 35. n adulterinum, 2, 6. -nam, appended to quis, 90, 2, d.  Names, Roman, 373.  Naming, verbs of, w. two accusatives, 117, 1.  Nasals, 2, 6.  Nasal stems, 35. natu, 57, 1; ——­ maximus natu, minimus natu, 73, 4, footnotes 20, 21; 226, 1.  Natural gender, 14. natus, constr., 215. navis, decl., 41, 4. nd, vowel short before, 5, 2, a. -ne, 6, 3 f; 162, 2, c); 300, 1, b); ——­ -ne ... an, 162, 4; ——­ ——­ in indir. double questions, 300, 4. ne, in prohibitions, 276; ——­ with hortatory subjv., 274; ——­ with concessive, 278; ——­ with optative, 279; ——­ in purpose clauses, 282; ——­ in substantive clauses, 295 f., 296; ——­ in provisos, 310. ne, ‘lest,’ 282, 1; 296, 2. ne non for ut after verbs of fearing, 296, 2, a. ne ... quidem, 347, 1; 2.  Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 192, 1. nec, 341, 1, d); ——­ nec usquam, 341, 2, d). necesse est, w. subjv., 295, 8. necne, in double questions, 162, 4. nefas, indeclinable, 58.  Negatives, 347, 2; ——­ two negatives strengthening the negation, 347, 2. nemo, defective, 57, 3; ——­ use, 252, 6. nequam, indeclinable, 70, 6; ——­ compared, 72. neque, 341, 1, d); ——­ neque in purpose clauses, 282, 1, e. nequeo, conj., 137, 1. ne quis, use, 91, 5. nequiter, compared, 77, 1. nescio an, 300, 5. nescio quis, as indef. pron., 253, 6.  Neuter, see Gender. neuter, decl., 66; ——­ use, 92, 1. neve (neu), in purpose clauses, 282, 1, d. nf, quantity of vowel before, 5, 1, a. nihil, indeclinable, 58. nihil est cur, quin, 295, 7. ningit, ‘it snows,’ 138, 1. nisi, 306, 1 and 4. nisi forte, 306, 5. nisi si, 306, 5. nisi vero, 306, 5. nitor, constr., 218, 3. nix, decl., 40, 1, d).  No, in answers, 162, 5, b. -no, class of verbs, 117, 4. noli, with inf., in prohibitions, 276, b. nolim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a. nollem, potential subjv., 280, 4. nolo, 130; ——­ with inf., 331, IV and a; 276, 2, a; ——­ with subjv., 296, 1, a. nomen, decl., 35; ——­ nomen est, constr., 190, 1; ——­ nomen, as part of Roman name, 373.  Nominative, 17; 170; ——­ used for voc., 171, 1; ——­ nom. sing. lacking, 57, 6; ——­ pred. nom., 168.  Nones, 371, 2, b). non, in answers, 162, 5, b); ——­ with poten. subjv., 280; ——­ with deliberative, 277. non dubito quin, with subjv., 298; ——­ non dubito, w. inf., 298, a; b. non modo for non modo non, 343, 2, a. nonne, 162, 2, a); 300, 1, b), N. non quia, with ind., 286, 1, c; ——­ with subjv., 286, 1, b. non quin, with sujbv., 286, 1, b. non quod, with ind., 286, 1, c; ——­ with subjv., 286, 1, b. nos = ego, 242, 3. nostri, as objective gen., 242, 2. nostrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2; ——­ as possessive gen., 242, 2, a.  Nouns, 12 ff.; 353; ——­ derivation of, 147 f. ——­ in -is not always i-stems, 38, 1. ——­ of agency, force, 353, 4. ——­ used in plu. only, 56. ——­ used in sing. only, 55. ——­ used only in certain cases, 57. ——­ indeclinable, 58. ——­ with change of meaning in plural, 61. ——­ syntax, 166 f. ——­ predicate, agreement of, etc., 167 f. ——­ appositives, agreement of, etc., 169 f. 

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Noun and adj. forms of the verb, 95, 2. novi, as pres., 262, A. novus, compared, 73, 3. ns, quantity of vowel before, 5, 1, a. -ns, decl. of nouns in, 40, 1, c). nt, quantity of vowel before, 5, 2, a. nubes, decl., 40, 1, a nulla causa est cur, quin, 295, 7. nullus, decl., 66; 57, 3; ——­ use, 92, 1. num, 162, 2, b); 300, 1, b).  Number, 16; 94, 4.  Numerals, 78 f.; ——­ peculiarities in use of, 81. numquis, decl., 91, 5. nuper, compared, 77, 1. -nus, suffix, 151, 2.

O.

o, vowel, 2, 1; ——­ as element in dipthong oe, 2, 1; ——­ pron., 3, 1; ——­ alternating w. u in certain classes of words, 9, 1; 2; 4; ——­ o-stems, 23; 24; ——­ in cito, 77, 2, a; ——­ in duo, 80, 2; ——­ in ego, 84; 363, 4, a; ——­ in modo, 363, 4, a; ——­ in compounds of pro-, 363, 4, c; ——­ in amo, leo, etc., 363, 4, b. o, pron. 3, 1; ——­ for au, 7, 1, e; ——­ by contraction, 7, 2; ——­ in abl. sing. of 2d decl., 23; ——­ in nom. sing. of 3d decl., 35; ——­ in Greek nouns, 47, 8; ——­ in adverbs, 77, 2; ——­ in ambo, 80, 2, a; ——­ in personal endings, 96. ob, prep. w. acc., 141; ——­ verbs compounded w. governing dat., 187, III.  Obeying, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.  Object, direct, 172 f.; ——­ two objects w. same verb, 177; 178; ——­ indirect, 187 f.; ——­ inf. as obj., 326; 328; 329; 331.  Objective gen., 200.  Obligation, verb in expression of, 304, 3, a; ——­ see also Duty.  Oblique cases, 71, 2. obliviscor, constr., 206, 1, b; 2. octodecim (for duodeviginti), 81, 2. odi, 133. oe, 2, 1; ——­ pron., 3, 2.  Old forms, familias, 21, 2, a; ——­ aulai, 21, 2, b; ——­ servos, aevom, equos, etc., 24; ——­ med, ted, 84, 3; ——­ sed, 85, 3. olle, archaic for ille, 87. -olus (a, um), 148, 1. -om, later -um in 2d decl., 23. -on, Greek nouns, 2d decl. in, 27.  Onomatopoeia, 375, 4. opera, operae, 61.  Operations of nature, impersonal verbs expressing, 138, 1. opinione with comparatives, 217, 4. opis, 57, 6; ——­ opes, 61. oportet, 138; ——­ w. subjv., 295, 6; 8; ——­ w. inf., 327, 330. oportuit, with pres. inf. ‘ought to have’, 270, 2; ——­ with perf. inf., 270, 2, a. oppidum (Genavam ad oppidum), 182, 2, a.  Optative subjv., 272; 279; ——­ substantive clauses developed from, 296. optimates, decl., 40, 1, d. optimus, comp., 72. opto, w. subst. cl. developed from optative, 296, 1. optumus, spelling, 9, 1. opus est, w. abl., 218, 2; ——­ w. partic., 218, 2, c. -or, nouns in, 34; ——­ -or for -os, 36; ——­ gender of nouns in, 43, 1; ——­ exceptions in gender, 44, 2; ——­ as suffix, 147, 2.  Oratio Obliqua, 313 f.  Order of words, 348 f.  Ordinals, 78, 1; 79. orior, conjugation, 123, VII. oriundus, constr., 215, 2. oro, with acc., 178, 1, a Orpheus, decl., 47, 6.  Orthography, peculiarities, 9. ortus, constr., 215. os, decl., 57, 7. os, decl., 42. -os, later -us in 2d decl., 23. -os, later -or in 3d decl., 36, 1. ——­ -os, Greek nouns, 2d decl. in, 27. -osus, form of suffix, 151, 3. ovis, decl., 38, 1.  Oxymoron, 375, 2.

P.

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p, pron., 3, 3; ——­ by assimilation, 8, 4; ——­ by partial assimilation, 8, 5. paenitet, 138, II; ——­ with gen., 209 palam, as prep. w. abl., 144, 2.  Palatal mutes, 2, 4. paluster, decl., 68, 1.  Parasitic vowels, 7, 3. paratus, with infin., 333.  Pardon, verbs signifying, w. dat., 187, II. pario, 109, 2, a). pars, partes, 61. parte, abl. of place, 228, 1, b. partem, adverbially used, 185, 1.  Participation, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, 1.  Participial stem, 97, III; ——­ formation, 119.  Participles, in -ans and -ens, 70, 3; ——­ gen. plu. of in -um, 70, 7; ——­ pres. act. partic., 97, I, 5; 101; 103; 105; 107; 110; 113; ——­ fut. act. partic., 97, III; ——­ as one of the principal parts of the verb, 99, footnote 28; 100;
    101; 103; 105; 107; 110; 113;
——­ perf. pass. partic., 97, III; 102; 104; 106; 108; 111; 113;; ——­ gerundive, see Gerundive; ——­ fut. act., peculiar formation of, 119, 4; ——­ perf. pass., w. act. or neuter meaning, 114, 2; ——­ of deponents, 112, b; ——­ syntax, 336 ff.  Participles, fut. act., 119, 4; ——­ ——­ denoting purpose, 337, 4. ——­ perf. act., how supplied, 356, 2. ——­ perf. pass. 336, 3; ——­ ——­ as pres., 336, 5. ——­ pres. partic., 336, 2; ——­ ——­ with conative force, 336, 2, a. ——­ perf. pass., with active meaning, 114, 2; ——­ pred. use of partic., 337, 2; ——­ participles equivalent to subordinate clauses, 337, 2; ——­ ——­ to cooerdinate clauses, 337, 5; ——­ w. opus est, 218, 2, c; ——­ with noun, equivalent to abstract noun, 337, 6; ——­ with habeo, 337, 7. ——­ with video, audio, facio, etc., 337, 3.  Particles, 139 f.; 341 f.  Partitive apposition, 169, 5.  Partitive gen., so called, 201.  Parts of speech, 10. parum, comparison, 77, 1. parvi, gen. of value, 203, 3. parvus, comparison, 72.  Passive, verbs in, with middle meaning, 175, 2, d; 256; ——­ verbs governing dat. used in pass. only impersonally, 187, II, b; ——­ constr. of passive verbs of saying, etc., 332 and note; ——­ how supplied when missing, 356, 1. patior, conj., 109, 2, c; 113; ——­ with inf., 331, III.  Patrial adjs., 70, 5, c.  Patronymics, 148, 6. paulum, formation, 77, 3. paulus, spelling, 9, 2. pauper, decl.,, 70, 1. pedester, decl., 68, 1. pejor, quantity of first syllable, 362, 5. pelagus, gender of, 26, 2.  Penalty, abl. of, 208, 2, b. penates, decl., 40, 1, d). penes, prep. w. acc., 141.  Pentameter, dactylic, 369.  Penult, 6, 2. per, prep. w. acc., 141; ——­ with acc. of time and space, 181, 2.  Perceiving, verbs of, w. inf., 331, I. Perfect active ptc., how supplied in Latin, 356, 2.  Perfect pass. partic., force of w. deponent verbs, 112, b; ——­ dat. of agency sometimes used w., 189, 2; ——­ opus, 218, 2, c.  Perfect stem, 97, II; ——­ ——­ formation, 118. ——­ in -avi, -evi, -ivi contracted, 116, 1. ——­ historical perf., 262. ——­ with force of pres. 262; 133, 2; ——­ pres. perf. and hist. perf. distinguished, 237, 1 and 2; ——­ gnomic perf., 262, 1; ——­ perf. subjv. as historical tense, 268, 6 and 7, b; ——­ perf. inf. w. oportuit, 270,

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2; ——­ perf. prohibitive, 279, a; ——­ perf. potential, 280, 1 and 2; ——­ perf. concessive, 278; ——­ sequence of tenses after perf. inf., 268, 2.  Periodic structure, 351, 5.  Periphrastic conj., 115; 269, 3; ——­ in conditional sentences of the 3d type, 304, 3, b); ——­ in indir. disc., 322; ——­ in passive, 337, 8, b, 1. ——­ fut. inf., 270, 3.  Persons, 95, 4; ——­ 2d sing, of indefinite subject, 356, 3.  Personal pronouns 84; 242; ——­ ——­ as subject, omission of, 166, 2; ——­ ——­ as objective genitives, 242, 2. ——­ endings, 96. persuadeo, with dat., 187, II, a; ——­ with subjv., 295, 1.  Persuading, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. ph, 2, 3, c; 2, 4; 3, 3. piget, with gen., 209.  Pity, verbs of, w. gen., 209, 1 and 2.  Place to which, 182; ——­ whence, 229; ——­ place where, 228. placitus, force, 114, 2.  Pleasing, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II, a; ——­ w. acc., 187, II, a, N. plebes, heteroclite, 59, 2, d). plebi, gen., 52, 2.  Plenty and Want, verbs of, constr., 212; cf. 218, 8. plenus, w. gen., 218, 8, a.  Pleonasm, 374, 3. pleraque, 6, 5. pluit, 138, I. Pluperfect tense, formation, 100; ——­ syntax, 263; 265; 287, 2; 288, 3; ——­ with imperfect meaning, 133, 2.  Plural, 16; ——­ in 5th decl., 52, 4; ——­ of proper names, 55, 4, a); ——­ of abstract nouns, 5, 4, c); ——­ nouns used in, only, 56; ——­ with change of meaning, 61; ——­ stylistic use, 353, 1, 2.  Pluralia tantum, 56; 81, 4, b). pluris, gen. of value, 203, 3; ——­ of price, 203, 4. plus, decl., 70; 70, 4; ——­ = plus quam, 217, 3. poema, decl., 47, 5.  Polysyndeton, 341, 4, b). por-, inseparable prep., 159, 3, e. porticus, gender, 50. portus, decl., 49, 3. posco, constr., 178, 1, a).  Position of clauses, 351, 3. ——­ of words, 348; 350; 351.  Possessive dat., 190; ——­ gen., 198; ——­ ——­ contrasted with dat. of poss., 359, 1.  Possessive pronouns, 86, 243; ——­ = objective gen., 243, 2; ——­ position of, 243, 1, a.  Possibility, verbs of, put in indic. in cond. sentences, 304, 3, a. possum, 126; ——­ with present infin., ‘I might,’ 271, 1, a; ——­ in cond. sentences, 304, 3, a. post, prep. w. acc., 144, 1; ——­ in expressions of time, 357, 1.  Post-positive words, 343, 1, c). posteaquam, 287; ——­ separated, 287, 3; ——­ with imperf. ind., 287, 4; ——­ w. pluperf. ind., 287, 3; ——­ with subjv., 287, 5. posterus, posterior, comp., 73, 2. postremus, use, 241, 2. postridie, with gen., 201, 3, a. postulo, constr., 178, 1, a.  Potential subjv., 272; 280. potior, with gen., 212, 2; ——­ with abl., 218, 1; ——­ in gerundive constr., 339, 4. ——­ adj., 73, 1. potius, compared, 77, 1. potui, poteram, in apodosis of conditional sent. of 3d type, 304, 3, a); ——­ in indir. disc., 322, c. potui, with pres. inf. = ‘could have,’ 270, 2. potuerim, in dependent apodosis, 322, c. potus, force, 114, 2. prae, prep, w. abl., 142; ——­ verbs compounded with governing dat., 187, III; ——­ short in praeacutus, etc., 362, 2.  Praenomen, 373. praesens, 125. praesum, w. dat., 187, III. pransus, force, 114, 2. preci, -em, -e, 57, 5, a.  Predicate, 163. ——­

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gen., 198, 3; 203, 5.  Predicate nouns, 167; 168; ——­ in acc., 177; ——­ predicate nouns or adjs. attracted to dat., 327, 2, a; ——­ ——­ to nom., 328, 2. ——­ adjectives, 232, 2; 177, 2.  Prepositions, assimilation of, in compounds, 8, 4; 9, 2; ——­ with acc., 141; ——­ with abl., 142; ——­ as adverbs, 144; ——­ inseparable prepositions, 159, 3, N.; ——­ position, 350, 7; ——­ prepositional phrases as attributive modifiers, 353, 5; ——­ anastrophe of, 144, 3; 141, 2; 142, 3; ——­ usage with abl. of sep., 214 f; ——­ with abl. of source, 215.  Present tense, 259; ——­ gnomic, 259, 1; ——­ conative, 259, 2; ——­ historical, 259, 3; ——­ with jam pridem, jam diu, etc., 259, 4; ——­ with dum, ‘while,’ 293, I; ——­ in Repraesentatio, 318; ——­ pres. subjv., in -im, 127, 2; ——­ pres. partic., see Participle. ——­ stem, 97, I; ——­ ——­ formation, 117. ——­ perf., 257, 1 and 2.  Preventing, verbs of, w. subjv. clause, 295, 3.  Price, indefinite, special words in gen. 203, 4; also 225, 1. ——­ abl. of, 225. pridie, with gen., 201, 3, a; ——­ with acc., 144, 2.  Primary tenses, see Principal tenses. primus, ‘first who,’ 241, 2. princeps, decl., 31.  Principal parts, 99; ——­ list, p. 251. ——­ tenses, 258 f. prior, compared, 73, 1. prius, compared, 77, 1. priusquam, with ind., 291; ——­ with subjv., 292; ——­ separated, 292.  Privation, verbs of, w. abl., 214, 1, b and c. pro, prep. w. abl., 142. procul, as prep. w. abl., 144, 2. prohibeo, w. abl., 214, 2; ——­ w. subjv. clause, 295, 3.  Prohibitions, method of expressing, 276.  Prohibitive subjv., 276.  Prolepsis, 374, 5.  Pronominal adjs., 253.  Pronouns, defined, 82; ——­ classes, 83; ——­ personal, 84; ——­ reflexive, 85; ——­ possessive, 86; ——­ demonstrative, 87; ——­ intensive, 88; ——­ relative, 89; ——­ interrogative, 90; ——­ indefinite, 91; ——­ pronominal adjs., 92; ——­ personal, omission of, as subject, 166, 2; ——­ syntax, 242 f.; ——­ ——­ personal, 242 f.; ——­ ——­ possess., 243 f.; ——­ ——­ reflex., 244 f.; ——­ ——­ reciprocal, 245 f.; ——­ ——­ demonstrative, 246 f.; ——­ ——­ relative, 250 f.; ——­ ——­ indef., 252 f.; ——­ position, 350, 5; 355.  Pronunciation, Roman, 3. prope, compared, 77, 1.  Proper names, abbreviated, 373. ——­ nouns, 12, 1. propior, compared, 73, 1; ——­ with acc., 141, 3. proprius, with dat., 204, 2, a; ——­ with gen., 204, 2. propter, prep. w. acc., 141.  Prosody, 360 f. prosper, decl., 65, 1. prosum, conj., 125, N. Protasis, 301; ——­ denoting repeated action, 302, 3; ——­ without si, 305; ——­ of indef. 2d sing., 302, 2; ——­ see Conditions.  Provisos, 310. proxime, -us, comp., 73, 1; 77, 1; ——­ with acc., 141, 3. prudens, decl., 70. -pte, 86, 3. pudet, with gen, 209; ——­ w. inf., 327, 1. puer, decl., 23. pulcher, comp., 71, 3. puppis, decl., 38, 1.  Purpose, dat. of purpose, 191; ——­ with dat. and gerundive, 191, 3; ——­ w. ad and acc., 192, 2; ——­ subjv. of purp., 282, 1; ——­ ——­ w. quo, 282, 1, a; ——­ ——­ w. ut ne, 282, 1, b; ——­ ——­ with non in purpose clause, 282, 1, c; ——­ ——­ neve (neu) in purpose clauses,

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292, 1, d; ——­ ——­ neque, 282, 1, e; ——­ rel. clauses of purpose, 282, 2; ——­ ——­ w. dignus, indignus, idoneus, 282, 3; ——­ independent of principal verb, 282, 4; ——­ inf., denoting purpose, 326, N.; ——­ fut. partic., denoting purpose, 337, 4; ——­ gerund, w. ad, 338, 3; ——­ gerundive, 339, 2; ——­ supine, 340.

Q.

qu, pron., 3, 3;
——­ both letters consonants, 74, a.
quaero, w. indir. questions, 300, 1, b), N.
quaeso, 137, 2. 
Quality, gen., 203;
——­ abl., 224.
quam, in comparisons, 217, 2;
——­ with superl., 240, 3;
——­ ante ... quam, post ... quam, prius ... quam, see antequam,
postquam, priusquam; quam qui, 283, 2, a.
quam si, 307, 1.
quam ut, with subjv., 284, 4.
quamquam, with ind., 309, 2;
——­ with subjv., 309, 6;
——­ = ‘and yet,’ 309, 5.
quamvis, with subjv., 309, 1; 6;
——­ denoting a fact, 309, 6.
quando, 286, 3, b.
quanti, as gen. of price, 203, 4;
——­ of value, 203, 3. 
Quantity, 5.
——­ of syllables, 5, B; 363 f.
——­ of vowels, 5, A; 362;
——­ ——­ in Greek words, 365.
quasi, 307, 1.
quatio, conj., 109, 2, a).
-que, accent of word preceding, 6, 3; 6, 5; 341, 1, b); 2, a); 4, c).
queo, 137, 1. 
Questions, word, sentence, 162 f.;
——­ rhetorical, 162, 3;
——­ double (alternative), 162, 4;
——­ indirect, 300;
——­ questions in indir. disc., 315.
qui, rel., 89;
——­ interr., 90;
——­ indef., 91;
——­ for quis in indir. questions, 90, 2, b;
——­ with ne, si, nisi, num, 91, 5;
——­ in purpose clauses, 282, 2;
——­ abl., 90, 2, a.
quia, in causal clauses, 286, 1.
quicum, 89.
quicumque, decl., 91, 8.
quidam, decl, 91; syntax, 252, 3.
quidem, post-positive, 347, 1.
quilibet, decl., 91,
quin, in result clauses, 284, 3;
——­ in substantive clauses, 295, 3; 298;
——­ = qui non in clauses of characteristic, 283, 4;
——­ with ind., 281, 3;
——­ in indir. disc, 322 and a;
——­ nulla causa est quin, 295, 7.
quinam, 90, 2, d. 
Quintilis (= Julius), 371.
quippe qui, in clauses of characteristic, 283, 3. 
Quirites, decl., 40, 1, d.
quis, indef., 91;
——­ interr., 90; 90, 2, c.; 252, 1;
——­ nescio quis, 253, 6;
——­ with ne, si, nisi, num, 91, 5.
quis est qui, 283, 2.
quis = quibus, 89.
quisnam, inflection, 90, 2, d.
quispiam, inflection, 91.
quisquam, inflection, 91;
——­ usage, 252, 4.
quisque, inflection, 91;
——­ usage, 252, 5.
quisquis, inflection, 91, 8.
quivis, inflection, 91
quo, in purpose clauses, 282, 1, a..
quoad, with ind., 293;
——­ with subjv. 293, III, 2.
quod, in causal clauses, 286, 1;
——­ in substantive clauses, 299; 331, V, a;
——­ ‘as regards the fact,’ 299, 2.
quod audierim, 283, 5;
——­ quod sciam, 283, 5.
quod (si), adverbial acc., 185, 2.
quom, early form of cum, 9, 1.
quo minus, after verbs of hindering, 295, 3.
quoniam, in causal clauses, 286, 1.
quoque, post-positive, 347.
-quus, decl. of nouns in, 24.

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R.

r, pron., 3, 3; ——­ for s between vowels (’Rhotacism’), 8, 1. rapio, conj., 100, 2 a). rastrum, plurals of, 60, 2. ratus, ‘thinking,’ 336, 5.  Reciprocal pronouns, 85, 2; 245; cf. 253, 3.  Reduplication in perf., 118, 4, a); ——­ in pres., 117, 7.  Reference, dat. of, 188. refert, constr., 210; 211, 4.  Reflexive pronouns, 85; 244; 249, 3. rego, conj., 105.  Regular verbs, 101-113. rei, 362, 1, b). reicio, quantity, 362, 5.  Relative adverbs, in rel. clauses of purp., 282, 2. ——­ clauses, of purp., 282, 2; ——­ ——­ w. dignus, indignus, idoneus, 282, 3; ——­ ——­ of characteristic, 283; ——­ ——­ denoting cause or opposition, 283, 3; ——­ ——­ restrictive, 283, 5; ——­ ——­ introduced by quin, 283, 4; 284, 3; ——­ ——­ conditional rel. clauses, 311; 312, 1 and 2; ——­ ——­ relative as subj. of inf., 314, 4; ——­ ——­ rel. clause standing first, 251, 4, a. ——­ pronouns, inflection, 89; ——­ ——­ use, 250, ff.; ——­ ——­ = Eng. demonstrative, 251, 6; ——­ ——­ agreement, 250; ——­ ——­ not omitted as in Eng., 251, 5; ——­ ——­ fondness for subordinate clauses, 355. relinquitur ut, 297, 2. reliqui, use, 253, 5. reliquum est, with subjv., 295, 6. remex, decl., 32.  Remembering, verbs of, cases used w., 206.  Reminding, verbs of, const., 207. reminiscor, constr., 206, 2.  Removing, verbs of, w. abl., 214, 2. reposco, constr., 178, 1, a).  Repraesentatio, 318. requies, requiem, requietem, 59, 2, c). res, decl., 51.  Resisting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.  Restrictive clauses, 283, 5.  Result, acc. of, 173, B; 176; ——­ clauses of, 284; 297; ——­ ——­ in dependent apodosis, 322, and a; ——­ ——­ sequence of tense in, 268, 6. revertor, semi-deponent, 114, 3.  Rhetorical questions, 162, 3; 277, a; ——­ in indir. disc., 315, 2.  Rhotacism, 8, 1; 36, 1.  Rivers, gender of names of, 15, A, 1. rogatu, abl. of cause, 219, 2. rogo, constr., 178, 1, c); 178, 1, a).  Roman pronunciation, 3.  Root, 17, 3, footnote 12. -rs, decl. of nouns in, 40, 1, c). rure, abl., place from which, 229, 1, b. ruri, abl., place in which, 228, 1, c. rus, 57, 7; ——­ acc., limit of motion, 182, 1, b.

S.

s, pron., 3, 3;
——­ changed to r between vowels, 8, 1: 
——­ s, ss from dt, tt, ts, 8, 2.
-s, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded by one or more consonants, 40, 1,
b).
s-stems, 36.
sacer, decl., 65;
——­ comparison, 73, 3.
saepe, compared, 77, 1.
sal, 57, 7;
——­ sales, 61.
salubris, decl., 68, 3.
salutaris, comp., 73, 4.
salve, salvete, 137, 4. 
Samnites, 40, 1, d).
sane, in answers, 162, 5.
sapio, conj., 109, 2, a).
satur, decl., 65, 2. 
Saying, verbs of, w. inf. of ind. disc., 331, I.
scio, quod sciam, 283, 5.
-sco-class of verbs, 117, 6; 155.
scribere ad aliquem, 358, 2.
se, use, 244.
se-, compounds of, 159, 3, e. 
Second conj., 103;
——­ decl., 23;
——­ peculiarities, 25;
——­ second person indefinite, 280, 3; 356, 3; 302, 2. 
Secondary tenses, see Historical tenses.

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secundum, prep. w. acc., 141.
securis, decl., 38, 1.
secus, compared, 77, 1.
secus (virile secus), 185, 1; 58.
secutus, ‘following’, 336, 5.
sed, se, 85, 3.
sed-, compounds of, 159, 3, e.
sed, 343, 1, a).
sedile, decl., 39.
sementis, decl., 38, 1. 
Semi-deponent verbs, 114. 
Semivowels, 2, 8.
senex, decl., 42;
——­ compared, 73, 4. 
Sentences, classification, 160, f.;
——­ simple and compound, 164;
——­ sentence-structure, 351;
——­ sentence questions, 162, 2.
sententia, abl. of accordance, 220, 3. 
Separation, dat. of, 188, 2, d);
——­ gen., 212, 3;
——­ abl., 214. 
Sequence of tenses, 267; 268.
sequester, decl., 68, 1.
sequitur ut, 297, 2.
sequor, conj., 113. 
Serving, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
servos, decl., 24.
sese, decl., 85. 
Sextilis (= Augustus), 371. 
Sharing, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, 1. 
Short syllables, 5, B, 2;
——­ vowels, 5, A, 2. 
Showing, verbs of, w. two accs., 177.
si, with indir. questions, 300, 3;
——­ in protasis, 301;
——­ omitted, 305.
signifer, decl., 23, 2.
silentio, abl of manner, 220, 2.
silvester, decl., 68, 3.
similis, with dat., 204, 3;
——­ with gen., 204, 3;
——­ comp., 71, 4.
si minus, use, 306, 2. 
Simple sentences, 164.
simul, as prep., w. abl., 144, 2.
simul ac, w. ind., 287, 1; 2.
si non, usage, 306, 1 and 2.
sin, usage, 306, 3.
sin minus, 306, 2, a. 
Singular, second person indefinite, 280, 3; 356, 3; 302, 2.
sino with inf., 331, III.
sitis, decl., 38, 1. 
Smelling, verbs of, constr., 176, 5. 
Soft consonants, 2, 3, b), footnote 5.
-so, verbs in, 155, 2.
socer, decl., 23, 2.
socium, gen, plu., 25, 6, c).
sol, decl., 57, 7.
soleo, semi-dep., 114, 1.
solitus, used as present partic., 336, 5.
solus, 66;
——­ solus est qui with subjv., 283, 2. 
Sonant consonants, 2, 3, b), footnote 5. 
Soracte, decl., 39, 2. 
Sounds, classification, 2.
——­ of the letters, 3. 
Source, abl., 215. 
Space, extent of, 181. 
Sparing, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. 
Specification, abl. of, 226.
spei, quantity, 362, 1, b. 
Spelling, see Orthography. 
Spirants, 2, 7. 
Spondaic verses, 368, 2. 
Spondee, 368, 1.
sponte sua, abl. accordance, 220, 3.
spontis, -e, defective, 57, 2, b. 
Statutes, fut. imperative used in, 281, 1, b. 
Stem, 17, 3.
——­ verb, 97; 117. 
Structure of sentences, see Sentences. 
Style, hints on, 352 f.
su = sv, 3, 3.
sub, prep. with acc. and abl., 143;
——­ compounds of, w. dat., 187, III. 
Subject, 163;
——­ nom., 166;
——­ acc., 184;
——­ subject acc. of inf., 184;
——­ omitted, 314, 5;
——­ clauses as subject, 294; 295, 6;
——­ inf. as subj., 327; 330. 
Subjective gen., 199. 
Subjunctive, tenses in, 95, 3.
——­ in independent sentences, 272;
——­ by attraction, 324;

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——­ tenses of, 266 f.;
——­ method of expressing future time in, 269;
——­ volitive (hortatory, jussive, probibitive, deliberative,
concessive), 273 f.;
——­ optative (wishes), 279;
——­ potential, 280;
——­ in clauses of purpose, 282;
——­ of characteristic, 283;
——­ of result, 284;
——­ of cause, 286;
——­ temporal clauses with postquam, posteaquam, 287, 5;
——­ temporal clauses with cum, 288-290;
——­ with antequam and priusquam, 292;
——­ with dum, donec, quoad, 293, III, 2;
——­ substantive clauses, 294 f.;
——­ indir. questions, 300;
——­ in apodosis of first type conditions, 302, 4;
——­ jussive subjunctive as protasis of condition, 305, 2;
——­ with velut, tamquam, etc., 307;
——­ with necesse est, opportet, etc., 295, 6 and 8;
——­ with licet, 309, 4;
——­ with quamvis, quamquam, etsi, cum ‘although,’ 309 f.
sublatus, 129, N.
subm- = summ-, 9, 2. 
Subordinate clauses, 165. 
Substantive clauses, 294 f.;
——­ ——­ developed from the volitive, 295, 1-8;
——­ ——­ developed from the optative, 296;
——­ ——­ with non dubito, 298;
——­ ——­ indir. questions, 300;
——­ ——­ without ut, 295, 8;
——­ ——­ of result, 297;
——­ ——­ introduced by quod, 299.
——­ use of adjs., 236-238.
subter, prep, w. acc., 143, 1. 
Suffixes, 17, 3, footnote 12; 147 f.
sui, 85;
——­ as objective gen., 244, 2;
——­ = possessive gen., 244, 2.
sum, conj., 100;
——­ omitted when auxiliary, 166, 3.
summus, ‘top of,’ 241, 1.
sunt qui, with subjv., 283, 2.
suopte, suapte, 86, 3.
supellex, decl., 42, 2.
super, prep. w. acc., 143, 1. 
Superlative degree;
——­ of adjs., 71, 1;
——­ ——­ in -rimus, 91, 3;
——­ ——­ in -limus, 71, 4;
——­ ——­ irregular superl., 72; 73;
——­ ——­ lacking, 73, 4;
——­ ——­ formed w. maxime, 74;
——­ of adverbs, 76, 2;
——­ ——­ irregular, 77, 1;
——­ force of, 240, 2.
superus, compared, 73, 2. 
Supine, 340.
supra, prep. w. acc., 141.
-sura, suffix, 147, 3, a. 
Surd consonants, 2, 3, a), footnote 4.
sus, decl., 41.
sustuli, 129, N.
suus, decl., 86, 1; 244;
——­ suus quisque, 244, 4, a. 
Syllaba anceps, 366, 10. 
Syllables, division, 4;
——­ quantity of, 5, B.
Synapheia, 367, 6. 
Synaeresis, 367, 1. 
Synchysis, 350, 11, d. 
Syncope, 7, 4; 367, 8. 
Synecdochical acc., 180. 
Synizesis, 367, 1. 
Syntax, 160 f. 
Systole, 367, 3.

T.

t, pron., 3, 3; ——­ th, 2, 3, c; 3, 3; ——­ changes, 8, 2; ——­ dropped, 8, 3. taedet, 138, II; ——­ w. gen., 209.  Taking away, verbs of, w. dat., 188, 2, d. talentum, gen. plu., 25, 5, a. tamen, 343, 1, f. tametsi, 309, 2. tamquam, tamquam si, w. subjv., 307. tanton, 6, 4. -tas, 149; ——­ gen. -tatis, decl. of nouns in, 40, 1, e).  Tasting, verbs of, constr., 176, 5.  Teaching, verbs of, constr., 178, 1, b. ted = te, 84, 3.  Temporal clauses,

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w. postquam, ut, ubi, simul ac, 287; ——­ w. cum, 288; 289; ——­ w. antequam and priusquam, 291; 292; ——­ with dum, donec, quoad, 293. temporis (id temporis), 185, 2.  Tendency, dat. of, 191. tener, decl., 64.  Tenses, 94, 3; 257 ff.; ——­ of inf., 270; ——­ of inf. in indir. disc., 317; ——­ of participles, 336; ——­ of subjv., 266; ——­ sequence of, 266-268; ——­ in indir. disc., 317; 318.  Tenues (consonants), 2, 3, a), footnote 4. tenus, position, 142, 3.  Terminations, 17, 3. terni, how used, 81, 4, b. -ternus, 154. terra marique, 228, 1, c. terrester, 68, 3.  Tetrameter verses, 366, 11.  Thematic verbs, 101-113. ——­ vowels, 117, footnote 39.  Thesis, 366, 6.  Third conj., 105; 109 f.; ——­ decl., 28 f.; ——­ gender in, 43 f.  Threatening, verbs of, 187, II. -tim, adverbs in, 157, 2.  Time, at which, 230; ——­ during which, 181; 231, 1; ——­ within which, 231. timeo ne and ut, 296, 2. -tinus, suffix, 154. -tio, suffix, 147, 3.  Tmesis, 367, 7. -to as suffix of verbs, 155, 2. -tor, use of nouns in, 353, 4. totus, 66; ——­ preposition absent w., in expression of place relations, 228, 1,
    b). 
Towns, gender of names of, 15, 2; ——­ names of, denoting limit of motion, 182, 1, a; ——­ denoting place where, 228, 1, a; ——­ place from which, 229, 1, a; ——­ appositives of town names, 169, 4; 229, 2. traditur, traditum est, w. inf., 332, N. trans, prep, w. acc., 141; ——­ constr. of verbs compounded with, 179.  Transitive verbs, 174.  Trees, gender of names of, 15, 2. tres, decl., 80, 3.  Tribrach, 370, 2. tribus, decl., 49, 3; ——­ gender, 50.  Trimeter verses, 366, 11. trini, use, 81, 4, b). triumvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b). -trix, suffix, 147, 1.  Trochee, 366, 2. -trum, suffix, 147, 4.  Trusting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. tu, decl., 84. -tudo, suffix, 84. tui, as objective gen., 242, 2. -tura, suffix, 147, 3, a). tus, decl., 57, 7. -tus, suffix, 147, 3; 151, 4. tussis, decl., 38. tute, tutemet, tutimet, 84, 2.  Two accusatives, 177; 178.  Two datives, 191, 2.

U.

u, instead of i in some words, 9, 1; ——­ instead of a, 9, 1; 9, 4. u, becomes v 367, 4. u-stems, 48. u-stems, 41. -u, dat. sing., 4th decl, 49, 2. uber, decl., 70, 1. ubi, with ind., 287, 1; 2; ——­ with gen., 201, 3. -ubus, dat., plu., 4th decl., 49, 3. ullus, decl., 66. ulterior, compared, 73, 1. ultimus, use, 241, 2. ultra, prep. w. acc., 141. -ulus, diminutive ending, 150, 2; ——­ (a, um), 148, 1. -um, 1st decl., gen. plu. in, 21, 2, d); ——­ 2d decl., 25, 6; ——­ for -ium, 70, 7. -undus, -undi, in gerund and gerundive, 116, 2. unus, decl., 66; 92, 1; ——­ unus est qui, with subjv., 283, 2. -urio, ending of desiderative verbs, 155, 3. -urus, ending of fut. act. partic., 101; 103 ff.; ——­ -urus fuisse in apodosis of conditional sentences contrary-to-fact,
    in indir. disc., 321, 2;
——­ -urus fuerim in indir. questions serving as apodoses, 322, b. -us, neuter nouns of 2d decl. in, 26, 2; ——­ nom. in 3d decl., in -us, 36; ——­ gender of nouns in -us of 3d decl., 43, 3; ——­

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exceptions in gender, 46, 4. -us, nouns of 3d decl. in, 43, 2. usque ad, w. acc., 141, 1. usus est, with abl., 218, 2. ut, temporal, 287, 1; 2; ——­ ut, uti, in purpose clauses, 282; ——­ in result clauses, 284; ——­ in substantive clauses, 295 f.; ——­ substantive clauses without, 295, 8; ——­ with verbs of fearing, 296, 2. ut ne = ne, 282, 1, b; 295, 1, 4, 5. ut non instead of ne, 282, 1, c; ——­ in clauses of result, 284, 297. ut qui, introducing clauses of characteristic, 283, 3. ut si, w. subjv., 307, 1. uter, decl., 66; 92, 1. uter, decl., 40, 1, d). utercumque, decl., 92, 2. uterlibet, decl., 92, 2. uterque, decl., 92, 2; ——­ use, 355, 2. utervis, decl., 92, 2. utilius est = Eng. potential, 271, 1, b). utinam, with optative subjv., 279, 1 and 2. utor, with abl., 218, 1; ——­ in gerundive constr., 339, 4 utpote qui, introducing clauses of characteristic, 283, 3. utraque, 6, 5. utrum ... an, 162, 4; 300, 4.

V.

v, 1, 1; ——­ pron., 3, 3:  ——­ developing from u, 367, 4. v, becomes u, 367, 5. valde, by syncope, for valide, 7, 4. vale, 363, 2, b).  Value, indefinite, in gen., 203, 3. vannus, gender of, 26, 1, b).  Variations in spelling, 9. vas, decl., 59, 1. -ve, 6, 3; 342, 1, b). vel, 342, 1, b); ——­ with superl., 240, 3. velim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a. vellem, potential subjv., 280, 4. velut, velut si, w. subjv., 307, 1. venter, decl., 40, 1, d).  Verba sentiendi et declarandi, w. inf. of indir. disc., 331, I; ——­ passive use of these, 332.  Verbal adjs., 150, 1-4.  Verbs, 94 f.; ——­ personal endings, 96; ——­ deponent, 112; ——­ archaic and poetic forms, 116, 4; ——­ irregular, 124; ——­ defective, 133; ——­ impersonal, 138; ——­ with substantive clauses of result, 297, 2; ——­ omission of, 166, 3; ——­ transitive, 174; ——­ ——­ used absolutely, 174, a; ——­ passives used as middles, 175, 2, d); ——­ of smelling and tasting, constr., 176, 5; ——­ not used in passive, 177, 3, a; ——­ intransitives impersonal in passive, 187, II, b; 256, 3; ——­ compounded with preps., constr., 187, III; ——­ of judicial action, constr., 208; ——­ derivation of, 155 f.; ——­ inceptive or inchoative, 155, 1; ——­ frequentative or intensive, 155, 2; ——­ desiderative, 155, 3; ——­ denominative, 156; ——­ agreement of, 254 f.  Verb stems, 97; ——­ formation of, 117 f. vereor, conj., 113; ——­ with subst. clause in subjv., 296, 2.  Vergilius, gen. of, 25, 1. veritus, with present force; 336, 5. vero, 343, 1, g); ——­ in answers, 162, 5.  Verse, 366, 3.  Verse-structure, 366 f.  Versification, 361. versus, prep. w. acc., 141; ——­ follows its case, 141, 2. verum, 343, 1, b). vescor, with abl., 218, 1. vesper, decl., 23, 2. vesperi, locative, 232, 2. vestri, as obj. gen., 242, 2. vestrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2; ——­ as possessive gen., 242, 2, a. veto, with inf. 331, II. vetus, decl., 70; ——­ compared, 73, 3. vi, 220, 2. vicem, used adverbially, 185, 1; ——­ vicis, vice, 57, 5, b. victor, decl., 34. video, with pres. partic., 337, 3. vigil, decl., 34. violenter, formation,

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77, 4, a. vir, decl., 23. ——­ gen. plu. of nouns compounded with, 25, 6, b). virile seces, constr., 185, 1. virus, gender of, 26, 2. vis, decl., 41. viscera, used in plu. only, 56, 3.  Vocative case, 17; 19, 1; ——­ of Greek proper names in -as, 47, 4; ——­ of adjs. in -ius, 63, 1; 171; ——­ in -i for -ie, 25, 1; ——­ position of, 350, 3.  Voiced sounds, 2, 3, a).  Voiced consonants, 2, 3, b).  Voiceless consonants, 2, 3, a).  Voices, 94; 256; ——­ middle voice, 256, 1.  Volitive subjunctive, 272 f. volnus, spelling, 9, 1. volo, 130; ——­ with inf., 331, IV and a; 270, 2, a; ——­ with subjv., 296, 1, a. volt, spelling, 9, 1. voltus, spelling, 8, 1. volucer, decl., 68, 1. voluntate, 220, 2. -volus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5 Vowels, 2, 1; ——­ sounds of the, 3, 1; ——­ quantity of, 5, A; ——­ contraction of, 7, 2; ——­ parasitic, 7, 3.  Vowel changes, 7. vulgus, gender of, 26, 2. -vum, -vus, decl. of nouns in, 24.

W.

Want, verbs and adjs. of, w. abl., 214, 1, c; d.  Way by which, abl. of, 218, 9.  We, editorial, 242, 3.  Whole, gen. of, 201.  Wills, use of fut. imperative in, 281, 1, b.  Winds, gender of names of, 15, 1.  Wish, clauses with dum, etc., expressing a, 310.  Wishes, subjunctive in, 279; ——­ see Optative subjunctive.  Wishing, verbs of, with subst. clause 296, 1; ——­ with obj. inf., 331, IV.  Word-formation, 146 f.  Word-order, 348 f.  Word questions, 162, 1.

X.

x, 2, 9; ——­ = cs and gs, 32. -x, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded by one or more cons., 40, 1, b); ——­ gender of nouns in -x of 3d decl., 43, 2; ——­ exceptions, 45, 4.

Y.

y, 1, 1. 
Yes, how expressed, 162, 5. 
‘You,’ indefinite, 356, 3; 280, 3; 302, 2.

Z.

z, 1, 1; 2, 9. 
Zeugma, 374, 2, a).

* * * * *

FOOTNOTES

[1] Sometimes also called Aryan or Indo-Germanic.

[2] Cuneiform means “wedge-shaped.”  The name applies to the form of the strokes of which the characters consist.

[3] The name Zend is often given to this.

[4] For ‘voiceless,’ ‘surd,’ ‘hard,’ or ‘tenuis’ are sometimes used.

[5] For ‘voiced,’ ‘sonant,’ ‘soft,’ or ‘media’ are sometimes used.

[6] In this book, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above them; as, a, i, o, etc.  Vowels not thus marked are short.  Occasionally a curve is set above short vowels; as, e, u.

[7] To avoid confusion, the quantity of syllables is not indicated by any sign.

[8] But if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound, the preceding syllable is always long; as, abrumpo.

[9] Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.

[10] Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.

[11] The great majority of all Latin nouns come under this category.  The principles for determining their gender are given under the separate declensions.

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[12] The Stem is often derived from a more primitive form called the Root.  Thus, the stem porta- goes back to the root per-, por-.  Roots are usually monosyllabic.  The addition made to a root to form a stem is called a Suffix.  Thus in porta- the suffix is -ta.

[13] There is only one stem ending in -m:—­hiems, hiemis, winter.

[14] Mensis, month, originally a consonant stem (mens-), has in the Genitive Plural both mensium and mensum.  The Accusative Plural is menses.

[15] This is practically always used instead of alius in the Genitive.

[16] A Dative Singular Feminine alterae also occurs.

[17] Supplied by vetustior, from vetustus.

[18] Supplied by recentior.

[19] For newest, recentissimus is used.

[20] Supplied by minimus natu.

[21] Supplied by maximus natu.

[22] The final i is sometimes long in poetry.

[23] Forms of hic ending in -s sometimes append -ce for emphasis; as, hujusce, this ... here; hosce, hisce.  When -ne is added, -c and -ce become -ci; as huncine, hoscine.

[24] For istud, istuc sometimes occurs; for ista, istaec.

[25] For illud, illuc sometimes occurs.

[26] Sometimes quis.

[27] An ablative qui occurs in quicum, with whom.

[28] Where the Perfect Participle is not in use, the Future Active Participle, if it occurs, is given as one of the Principal Parts.

[29] The Perfect Participle is wanting in sum.

[30] The meanings of the different tenses of the Subjunctive are so many and so varied, particularly in subordinate clauses, that no attempt can be made to give them here.  For fuller information the pupil is referred to the Syntax.

[31] For essem, esses, esset, essent, the forms forem, fores, foret, forent are sometimes used.

[32] For futurus esse, the form fore is often used.

[33] Declined like bonus, -a, -um.

[34] The Imperfect also means I loved.

[35] For declension of amans, see Sec. 70, 3.

[36] Fui, fuisti, etc., are sometimes used for sum, es, etc.  So fueram, fueras, etc., for eram, etc.; fuero, etc., for ero, etc.

[37] Fuerim, etc., are sometimes used for sim; so fuissem, etc., for essem.

[38] In actual usage passive imperatives occur only in deponents (Sec. 112).

[39] Strictly speaking, the Present Stem always ends in a Thematic Vowel (e or o); as, dic-e-, dic-o-; ama-e-, ama-o-.  But the multitude of phonetic changes involved prevents a scientific treatment of the subject here.  See the author’s Latin Language.

[40] But the compounds of juvo sometimes have _-juturus_; as, adjuturus.

[41] Used only impersonally.

[42] So impleo, expleo.

[43] Compounds follow the Fourth Conjugation:  accio, accire, etc.

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[44] Fully conjugated only in the compounds:  exstinguo, restinguo, distinguo.

[45] Only in the compounds:  evado, invado, pervado.

[46] It will be observed that not all the forms of fero lack the connecting vowel.  Some of them, as ferimus, ferunt, follow the regular inflection of verbs of the Third Conjugation.

[47] For the Predicate Genitive, see Sec. 198, 3; 203, 5.

[48] Many such verbs were originally intransitive in English also, and once governed the Dative.

[49] This was the original form of the preposition cum.

[50] Place from which, though strictly a Genuine Ablative use, is treated here for sake of convenience.

[51] Especially:  moneo, admoneo; rogo, oro, peto, postulo, precor, flagito; mando, impero, praecipio; suadeo, hortor, cohortor; persuadeo, impello.

[52] Especially:  permitto, concedo, non patior.

[53] Especially:  prohibeo, impedio, deterreo.

[54] Especially:  constituo, decerno, censeo, placuit, convenit, paciscor.

[55] Especially:  laboro, do operam, id ago, contendo, impetro.

[56] Exclamations, also, upon becoming indirect, take the Subjunctive, as considera quam variae sint hominum cupidines, consider how varied are the desires of men. (Direct:  quam variae sunt hominum cupidines!)

[57] Tradituri fuerint and erraturus fueris are to be regarded as representing tradituri fuerunt and erraturus fuisti of Direct Discourse.  (See Sec. 304, 3, b.)

[58] Except in Sallust and Silver Latin.

[59] So named from a fancied analogy to the strokes of the Greek letter (chi).  Thus:—­

  multos laesi
          chi
  defendi neminem

[60] The pronouns hic, hoc, and the adverb huc, probably had a short vowel.  The syllable was made long by pronouncing hicc, hocc, etc.

[61] Ictus was not accent,—­neither stress accent not musical accent,—­but was simply the quantitative prominence inherent in the long syllables of fundamental feet.

[62] For explanation of the abbreviations, see p. 257.