d. The Tokharian. This language, only
recently discovered and identified as Indo-European,
was spoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea
(modern Turkestan). While in some respects closely
related to the three Asiatic branches of the Indo-European
family already considered, in others it shows close
relationship to the European members of the family.
The literature of the Tokharian, so far as it has
been brought to light, consists mainly of translations
from the Sanskrit sacred writings, and dates from
the seventh century of our era.
EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.
e. The Greek. The Greeks had apparently
long been settled in Greece and Asia Minor as far
back as 1500 B.C. Probably they arrived in these
districts much earlier. The earliest literary
productions are the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer,
which very likely go back to the ninth century B.C.
From the sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is
continuous. Modern Greek, when we consider its
distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably similar
to the classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries
B.C.
f. The Italic Group. The Italic Group embraces
the Umbrian, spoken in the northern part of the Italian
peninsula (in ancient Umbria); the Latin, spoken in
the central part (in Latium); the Oscan, spoken in
the southern part (in Samnium, Campania, Lucania,
etc.). Besides these, there were a number
of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc.
Of all these (barring the Latin), there are no remains
except a few scanty inscriptions. Latin literature
begins shortly after 250 B.C. in the works of Livius
Andronicus, Naevius, and Plautus, although a few brief
inscriptions are found belonging to a much earlier
period.
g. The Celtic. In the earliest historical times
of which we have any record, the Celts occupied extensive
portions of northern Italy, as well as certain areas
in central Europe; but after the second century B.C.,
they are found only in Gaul and the British Isles.
Among the chief languages belonging to the Celtic
group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul; the
Breton, still spoken in the modern French province
of Brittany; the Irish, which is still extensively
spoken in Ireland among the common people, the Welsh;
and the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders.
h. The Teutonic. The Teutonic group is very
extensive. Its earliest representative is the
Gothic, preserved for us in the translation of the
scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375
A.D.). Other languages belonging to this group
are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and
from which are descended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian,
Swedish, Danish; German; Dutch; Anglo-Saxon, from
which is descended the modern English.
