the violence and dissimulation of the Romans, as described by Livy, induced him to inculcate the principles on which they acted.  The scientific method followed by Aristotle in the Politics encouraged him in the adoption of a similar analysis; while the close parallel between ancient Greece and mediaeval Italy was sufficient to create a conviction that the wisdom of the old world would be precisely applicable to the conditions of the new.  These, however, are exculpations of the man rather than justifications of his theory.  The theory was false and vicious.  And the fact remains that the man, impregnated by the bad morality of the period in which he lived, was incapable of ascending above it to the truth, was impotent with all his acumen to read the deepest lessons of past and present history, and in spite of his acknowledged patriotism succeeded only in adding his conscious and unconscious testimony to the corruption of the country that he loved.  The broad common-sense, the mental soundness, the humane instinct and the sympathy with nature, which give fertility and wholeness to the political philosophy of men like Burke, are absent in Machiavelli.  In spite of its vigor, his system implies an inversion of the ruling laws of health in the body politic.  In spite of its logical cogency, it is inconclusive by reason of defective premises.  Incomparable as an essay in pathological anatomy, it throws no light upon the working of a normal social organism, and has at no time been used with profit even by the ambitious and unscrupulous.

CHAPTER VII.

THE POPES OF THE RENAISSANCE.

The Papacy between 1447 and 1527—­The Contradictions of the Renaissance
Period exemplified by the Popes—­Relaxation of their hold over the
States of the Church and Rome during the Exile in Avignon—­Nicholas
V.—­His Conception of a Papal Monarchy—­Pius II.—­The
Crusade—­Renaissance Pontiffs—­Paul II.—­Persecution of the
Platonists—­Sixtus IV.—­Nepotism—­The Families of Riario and Delia
Rovere—­Avarice—­Love of Warfare—­Pazzi Conspiracy—­Inquisition in
Spain—­Innocent VIII.—­Franceschetto Cibo—­The Election of Alexander
VI.—­His Consolidation of the Temporal Power—­Policy toward Colonna and
Orsini Families—­Venality of everything in Rome—­Policy toward the—­
Sultan—­The Index—­The Borgia Family—­Lucrezia—­Murder of Duke of Gandia
Cesare and his Advancement—­The Death of Alexander—­Julius II.—­His
violent Temper—­Great Projects and commanding Character—­Leo X.—­His
Inferiority to Julius—­S.  Peter’s and the Reformation—­Adrian VI.—­His
Hatred of Pagan Culture—­Disgust of the Roman Court at his
Election—­Clement VII.—­Sack of Rome—­Enslavement of Florence.