to pass through a refining and modifying process, and to obtain its name in France.  Its Norman characteristic is found in the young ecuyer or squire, of Chaucer, who aspires to equal his father in station and renown; while the English type of the man-at-arms (l’homme d’armes) is found in their attendant yeoman, the tiers etat of English chivalry, whose bills and bows served Edward III. at Cressy and Poictiers, and, a little later, made Henry V. of England king of France in prospect, at Agincourt.  Chivalry, in its palmy days, was an institution of great merit and power; but its humanizing purpose now accomplished, it was beginning to decline.

What a speaking picture has Chaucer drawn of the knight, brave as a lion, prudent in counsel, but gentle as a woman.  His deeds of valor had been achieved, not at Cressy and Calais, but—­what both chieftain and poet esteemed far nobler warfare—­in battle with the infidel, at Algeciras, in Poland, in Prussia, and Russia.  Thrice had he fought with sharp lances in the lists, and thrice had he slain his foe; yet he was

    Of his port as meke as is a mayde;
    He never yet no vilainie ne sayde
    In all his life unto ne manere wight,
    He was a very parfit gentil knight.

The entire paradox of chivalry is here presented by the poet.  For, though Chaucer’s knight, just returned from the wars, is going to show his devotion to God and the saints by his pilgrimage to the hallowed shrine at Canterbury, when he is called upon for his story, his fancy flies to the old romantic mythology.  Mars is his god of war, and Venus his mother of loves, and, by an anachronism quite common in that day, Palamon and Arcite are mediaeval knights trained in the school of chivalry, and aflame, in knightly style, with the light of love and ladies’ eyes.  These incongruities marked the age.

Such was the flickering brightness of chivalry in Chaucer’s time, even then growing dimmer and more fitful, and soon to “pale its ineffectual fire” in the light of a growing civilization.  Its better principles, which were those of truth, virtue, and holiness, were to remain; but its forms, ceremonies, and magnificence were to disappear.

It is significant of social progress, and of the levelling influence of Christianity, that common people should do their pilgrimage with community of interest as well as danger, and in easy, tale-telling conference with those of higher station.  The franklin, with white beard and red face, has been lord of the sessions and knight of the shire.  The merchant, with forked beard and Flaundrish beaver hat, discourses learnedly of taxes and ship-money, and was doubtless drawn from an existing original, the type of a class.  Several of the personages belong to the guilds which were so famous in London, and

    Were alle yclothed in o livere
    Of a solempne and grete fraternite.