[410] Charles Bradlaugh (1833-91), freethought advocate and politician.  His efforts were especially directed toward maintaining the freedom of the press in issuing criticisms on religious belief and sociological questions.  In 1880 he became a Member of Parliament, and began a long and finally successful struggle for the right to take his seat in Parliament without the customary oath on the Bible.

[411] John Henry Newman (1801-90) was the leader of the Oxford Movement in the English Church.  His Apologia pro Vita Sua (1864) was a defense of his religious life and an account of the causes which led him from Anglicanism to Romanism.  For his hostility to Liberalism see the Apologia, ed. 1907, pp. 34, 212, and 288.

[412] AEneid, I, 460.

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[413] The Reform Bill of 1832 abolished fifty-six “rotten” boroughs and made other changes in representation to Parliament, thus transferring a large share of political power from the landed aristocracy to the middle classes.

[414] Robert Lowe (1811-92), afterwards Viscount Sherbrooke, held offices in the Board of Education and Board of Trade.  He was liberal, but opposed the Reform Bill of that party in 1866-67.  His speeches on the subject were printed in 1867.

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[415] Jacobinism.  The Societe des Jacobins was the most famous of the political clubs of the French Revolution.  Later the term Jacobin was applied to any promulgator of extreme revolutionary or radical opinions.

[416] See ante, Note 2, p. 248.

[417] Auguste Comte (1798-1857), French philosopher and founder of Positivism.  This system of thought attempts to base religion on the verifiable facts of existence, opposes devotion to the study of metaphysics, and substitutes the worship of Humanity for supernatural religion.

[418] Richard Congreve (1818-99) resigned a fellowship at Oxford in 1855, and devoted the remainder of his life to the propagation of the Positive philosophy.

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[419] Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), philosopher and jurist, was leader of the English school of Utilitarianism, which recognizes “the greatest happiness of the greatest number” as the proper foundation of morality and legislation.

[420] Ludwig Preller (1809-61), German philologist and antiquarian.

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[421] Book of Job.  Arnold must have read Franklin’s piece hastily, since he has mistaken a bit of ironic trifling for a serious attempt to rewrite the Scriptures.  The Proposed New Version of the Bible is merely a bit of amusing burlesque in which six verses of the Book of Job are rewritten in the style of modern politics.  According to Mr. William Temple Franklin the Bagatelles, of which the Proposed New Version is a part, were “chiefly written by Dr. Franklin for the amusement of his intimate society in London and Paris.”  See Franklin’s Complete Works, ed. 1844, II, 164.