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The following sections, if they exist, are offprint from Beacham's Guide to Literature for Young Adults: "About the Author", "Overview", "Setting", "Literary Qualities", "Social Sensitivity", "Topics for Discussion", "Ideas for Reports and Papers". (c)1994-2005, by Walton Beacham.
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Why is it that for the purposes of English composition one word is not so good as another? To this question we shall get a general answer if we examine the effect of certain classes of expressions.
Present use.—Let us examine first the effect produced by three passages in the authorized version of the English Bible—a version made by order of King James in 1611:—
“For these two years hath the famine been in the land, and yet there are five years, in the which there shall neither be earing nor harvest” (Gen. xlv. 6).
“O ye sons of men, how long will ye turn my glory into shame? how long will ye love vanity, and seek after leasing?” (Psa. iv. 2).
“Now I would not have you ignorant, brethren, that oftentimes I purposed to come unto you, but was let hitherto” (Rom. i. 18).
See also Gen. xxv. 29; Matt. iii 8; Acts viii. 3; 1 Thess. iv. 15.
An ordinary reader of our time cannot without assistance fully understand these passages, because the words “earing,” “leasing,” and “let” convey to his mind either no idea at all or a wrong idea. Two hundred and eighty years ago, when this translation of the Bible was made, these words were common words with plain meanings; but “earing” and “leasing” have since dropped out of common use, and “let” has acquired a different meaning; consequently an ordinary reader of the present time must consult a dictionary before he can be sure what the passages mean. Words and meanings which have gone out of use are called obsolete. There is not much temptation to use obsolete words; but the temptation sometimes comes. Therefore we note, as our first conclusion, that a person who wishes to be understood must avoid expressions and meanings which are not in present use.
National use.—A boy from southern Pennsylvania was visiting in New York State. In the midst of some preparations for a fishing excursion he said to his host, “Shall I take my gums along?” His host burst out laughing and said, “Of course; did you think of taking them out of your mouth and leaving them at home?"[2] Unconsciously the boy had used a good English word in a sense peculiar to the district in which he lived; his host had understood the word in its proper sense.
On another occasion a gentleman who had just arrived at a hotel in Kennebunkport, Me., agreed to a proposal to “go down to the beach in the barge.” Going to his room, he prepared for a little excursion on the river which flowed by the hotel. When he returned, he was greatly surprised to find his friends about to start for the beach in a large omnibus. Another gentleman once asked a young lady to go “riding” with him. At the appointed hour he drove to her house in a buggy, and she came down to meet him in her riding habit.
These incidents show that if we use expressions that are only local, or use words in local senses, we are liable either to be misunderstood or not to be understood at all. Obscurity also arises from the use of words in senses which are peculiar to a certain class or profession. For example, to a person who is not familiar with commercial slang, this sentence from the market columns of a newspaper is a puzzle:—
“Java coffees are dull and easy, though they are statistically strong.”
The following directions for anchoring in a gale of wind are taken from a book called “How to Sail a Boat":—
“When everything is ready, bring the yacht to the wind, and let the sails shake in the wind’s eye; and, so soon as she gets stern-way, let go the best bower anchor, taking care not to snub her too quickly, but to let considerable of the cable run out before checking her; then take a turn or two around the knight-heads,” etc.
If a landsman’s safety depended on his understanding these directions, there would not be much hope for him.
The following extract is from a newspaper report of a game of ball:—
“In the eighth inning Anson jumped from one box into the other and whacked a wide one into extreme right. It was a three-base jolt and was made when Gastright intended to force the old man to first. The Brooklyns howled and claimed that Anson was out, but McQuaid thought differently. Both teams were crippled. Lange will be laid up for a week or so. One pitcher was batted out of the box.”
This narrative may seem commonplace to school-boys, but to their mothers and sisters it must seem alarming.
Our second conclusion, therefore, is that a person who wishes to be understood must avoid words and phrases that are not understood, and understood in the same sense, in every part of the country, and in every class or profession.[3]
REPUTABLE USE.—Let us examine now the effect produced by a third kind of expression, namely, words and phrases “not used by writers and speakers of established reputation."[4] Let us take as our illustrations the familiar expressions, “He done it” and “Please set in this seat.” Each of these expressions is common at the present time, and its meaning is instantly clear to any one who speaks English. But these expressions, not being used by well-informed and careful speakers, produce in the mind of a well-informed bearer an impression of vulgarity like that which we get from seeing a person eat with his knife. In language, as in manners and fashions, the law is found in the custom of the best people; and persons who wish to be classed as cultivated people must speak and write like cultivated people. There is no moral wrong in a person’s saying “Please set in this seat,” and if he does say it he will probably be understood; but persons who use this or any other expression which is not in reputable use run the risk of being classed as ignorant, affected, or vulgar.
GOOD USE.—It appears, therefore, that words and phrases, in order to be proper expressions for use in English prose, (1) must be in common use at the present time; (2) they must be used, and used in the same sense, in every part of the country, and in every class and profession; (3) they must be expressions used by writers and speakers of established reputation. In other words, our expressions must be in present, national, and reputable use. Expressions which fulfil these three conditions are said to be in good use.
The next question that presents itself to one who wishes to use English correctly is, How am I to know what words and expressions are in good use?
CONVERSATION AND GOOD USE.—Good use cannot be determined solely by observing the conversation of our associates; for the chances are that they use many local expressions, some slang, and possibly some vulgarisms. “You often hear it” is not proof that an expression is in good use.
NEWSPAPERS AND GOOD USE.—Nor can good use be learned from what we see in newspapers. Newspapers of high rank contain from time to time, especially in their editorial columns, some of the best modern prose, and much literature that has become standard was first printed in periodicals; but most of the prose in newspapers is written necessarily by contributors who do not belong to the class of “speakers or writers whom the world deems the best.” As the newspaper in its news records the life of every day, so in its style it too frequently records the slang of daily life and the faults of ordinary conversation. A newspaper contains bits of English prose from hundreds of different pens, some skilled, some unskilled; and this jumble of styles does not determine good use.
NO ONE BOOK OR WRITER DECISIVE.—Nor is good use to be learned from our favorite author, unsupported by other authority; not even, as we have seen, from the English Bible, when it stands alone. No writer, even the greatest, is free from occasional errors; but these accidental slips are not to be considered in determining good use. Good use is decided by the prevailing usage of the writers whose works make up permanent English literature, not by their inadvertencies. “The fact that Shakspere uses a word, or Sir Walter Scott, or Burke, or Washington Irving, or whoever happens to be writing earnestly in Melbourne or Sidney, does not make it reputable. The fact that all five of these authorities use the word in the same sense would go very far to establish the usage. On the other hand, the fact that any number of newspaper reporters agree in usage does not make the usage reputable. The style of newspaper reporters is not without merit; it is very rarely unreadable; but for all its virtue it is rarely a well of English undefiled."[5]
“Reputable use is fixed, not by the practice of those whom A or B deems the best speakers or writers, but by the practice of those whom the world deems the best,—those who are in the best repute, not indeed as to thought, but as to expression, the manner of communicating thought. The practice of no one writer, however high he may stand in the public estimation, is enough to settle a point; but the uniform or nearly uniform practice of reputable speakers or writers is decisive."[6]
GOOD READING THE FOUNDATION OF GOOD SPEAKING AND WRITING.—To the question how to become familiar with good use the first answer is, read the best literature. Language, like manners, is learned for the most part by imitation; and a person who is familiar with the language of reputable writers and speakers will use good English without conscious effort, just as a child brought up among refined people generally has good manners without knowing it. Good reading is indispensable to good speaking or writing. Without this, rules and dictionaries are of no avail. In reading the biographies of eminent writers, it is interesting to note how many of them were great readers when they were young; and teachers can testify that the best writers among their pupils are those who have read good literature or who have been accustomed to hear good English at home. The student of expression should begin at once to make the acquaintance of good literature.
THE USE OF DICTIONARIES.—To become acquainted with good literature, however, takes a long time; and to decide, by direct reference to the usage of the best writers, every question that arises in composition, is not possible for beginners. In certain cases beginners must go to dictionaries to learn what good use approves. Dictionaries do not make good use, but by recording the facts learned by professional investigators they answer many questions regarding it. To one who wishes to speak and write well a good dictionary is indispensable.
“THE FOUNDATIONS OF RHETORIC.”—Dictionaries, however, are not always a sufficient guide; for, being records, they aim to give all the senses in which a word is used, and do not always tell which sense is approved by the best usage. Large dictionaries contain many words which have gone out of good use and other words which have not yet come into good use. Moreover, they treat of words only, not of constructions and long expressions. Additional help in determining good use is required by beginners, and this help is to be found in such books as Professor A.S. Hill’s “Foundations of Rhetoric.” The investigations of a specialist are there recorded in a convenient form, with particular reference to the needs of beginners and of those who have been under the influence of bad models. Common errors are explained and corrected, and the fundamental merits of good expression are set forth and illustrated.
PURPOSE OF THESE EXERCISES.—In the following exercises, which are intended for drill on some of these elements of good expression, care has been taken to put the questions into the forms in which they arise in actual composition. The notes which precede the exercises are only hints; for full discussions of the principles involved the student must consult larger works.
Phrases that have gone out of use, said | to be ARCHAIC or OBSOLETE. | | Brand-new words which have not become | established in good use: as, “burglarize,” | “enthuse,” “electrocute.” | BARBARISMS: Words and | Phrases introduced from foreign countries phrases not English; _i.e.,_ | (called FOREIGNISMS, ALIENISMS), or not authorized by good | peculiar to some district or province English use. The name < (called PROVINCIALISMS). A phrase introduced comes from a Greek | from France is called a _Gallicism_; word meaning “foreign,” | from England, an _Anglicism_. A “strange.” | phrase peculiar to America is called an | _Americanism_. Similarly we have the | terms _Latinism, Hellenism, Teutonism_, | etc. All these names may be applied | also to certain kinds of Improprieties \and Solecisms.
IMPROPRIETIES: Good \ English words or phrases | Most errors in the use of English used in wrong senses: | are Improprieties, which are far more as, “I _guess_ I’ll go to > common than Barbarisms and Solecisms. bed;” “He is _stopping_ | No classification of them is here for a week at the Berkshire | attempted. Inn.”
SOLECISMS: Constructions not English, commonly called cases of “bad grammar” or “false syntax”: as, “She invited Mrs. Roe and I to go driving with her.” “Solecism” is derived from Soli, the name of a Greek tribe who lived in Cilicia and spoke bad Greek.
SLANG is a general name for current, vulgar, unauthorized language. It may take the form of barbarism, impropriety, or solecism.
A COLLOQUIALISM is an expression peculiar to familiar conversation.
A VULGARISM is an expression peculiar to vulgar or ignorant people.
[2] This and the two following incidents are from the writer’s own observation. [3] A.S. Hill: Foundations of Rhetoric, p. 28. [4] Ibid., p. 20. [5] Barrett Wendell: English Composition, p. 21. [6] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 16.
1. Make a list of the provincial expressions
you can think of, and give
their equivalents in national English.
2. Make a list of the slang or vulgar expressions
you can think of, and
give their equivalents in reputable
English.
3. Make a list of the words, forms, and phrases
not in present use which
you can find in the second chapter
of the Gospel of Matthew, authorized
version, and give their equivalents
in modern English.
Which word in the following pairs should an American prefer? Consult Hill’s “Foundations of Rhetoric,” pp. 28-29: Coal, coals; jug, pitcher; street railway, tramway; post-card, postal-card; depA’t, station.
1. Arrange the following words in two columns,
putting in the first column
words that are in good use, in the
second, words that are not in good
use. Consult Hill’s “Foundations
of Rhetoric,” pp. 27-29: Omnibus,
succotash, welkin, ere, nA(C)e,
depA’t, veto, function (in the sense of
social entertainment), to pan out,
twain, on the docket, kine,
gerrymander, carven, caucus, steed,
to coast (on sled or bicycle),
posted (informed), to watch out,
right (very).
2. Give good English equivalents for the words
which are not in good use.
OF ARTICLES
A or AN.[7]—The choice between these forms is determined by sound, not by spelling. Before a consonant sound “a” is used; before a vowel sound “an” is used.
[7] “Foundations,” pp. 32-36.
Put the proper form, “a” or “an,” before each of these expressions:—Elephant, apple, egg, union of states, uniform, uninformed person, universal custom, umpire, Unitarian church, anthem, unfortunate man, united people, American, European, Englishman, one, high hill, horse, honorable career, hypocrite, humble spirit, honest boy, hypothesis, history, historical sketch, heir, hundred, hereditary disease, household.
THE or A.[8]—“The” is a broken-down form of the old English thoet, from which we also get “that,” and is used to point out some particular person, thing, or class: as, “The headmaster of the school gave the boys permission.” When “the” is used before the name of a particular class of persons or things it is called the “generic” article (from genus, “a class"): as, “None but the brave deserve the fair”; “The eagle is our national bird.”
“An” ("a”) is a broken-down form of the old English word ane, meaning “one.” It is properly used when the object is thought of as one of a class: as, “There is an eagle in the zoological garden.” It cannot properly be used before a word which is used as a class name, because a class name includes in its meaning more than “one.”
SUPERFLUOUS and OMITTED ARTICLES.[9]—The use of a superfluous “a” or “an” before a class name, especially after the words “sort” and “kind,” is a common and obstinate error. We may say, “This is an eagle,” meaning “one eagle.” But we may not say, “An eagle is our national bird,” “This is a rare kind of an eagle,” or, “It is not worthy of the name of an eagle”; because in these sentences “eagle” is used as the name, not of a single bird, but of a class of birds, and includes in its meaning all the birds which belong to the class called “eagle.” The sentences are equivalent to: “The kind of bird called ‘eagle’ is our national bird;” “This is a rare species of the class of birds called ‘eagle;’” “It is not worthy of the name given to the birds which belong to the class called ‘eagle.’”
[8] Ibid., pp. 33-34.
Tell the difference in meaning between:—
1. The (a) house is on fire. 2. Yes, I
heard (the) shouts in the street. 3. About eight
o’clock (the) guests began to come. 4.
Yes, I heard (the) noises in the next room. 5.
The (an) elephant stood on a cask, and the (a) clown
sat on the
elephant’s back.
6. The President has appointed a commission to
investigate the
cause of (the) strikes.
7. Will he let us look at (the) stars through
the (a) telescope? 8. (The) teacher and (the) pupil
are interested in this question. 9. He told us
about an (the) accident. 10. Fire is beautiful.
The fire is beautiful. 11. He was a better scholar
than (an) athlete. 12. A young and (a) delicate
girl. 13. He liked the bread and (the) butter.
14. A pink and (a) lavender gown. 15. The
wise and (the) good. 16. Wanted, a cook and (a)
housemaid. 17. The black and (the) white cow.
18. The athlete, (the) soldier, (the) statesman,
and (the) poet. 19. A secretary and (a) treasurer.
20. The corresponding and (the) recording secretary.
21. The honest, (the) wise, and (the) patriotic
senators voted
against the bill.
22. A cotton and (a) silk umbrella. 23.
The tenth and (the) last chapter.
[9] “Foundations,” pp. 34-39.
Insert the proper article ("a,” “an,” or “the”) in each blank place in the following, if an article is needed; if no article is needed, leave the place blank:—
1. I began to suffer from ——
want of food. 2. There are two articles, the
definite and —— indefinite. 3.
He did not say what kind of —— horse
he wanted to buy. 4. Did Macaulay die of ——
heart disease? 5. Nouns have two numbers, ——
singular and —— plural. 6. ——
third and —— fourth page are to be
learned. 7. —— third and ——
fourth pages are to be learned. 8. Many names
of —— states are derived from ——
Indian tongues. 9. This is a curious species
of —— rose. 10. Study carefully
—— first and ——
second chapters. 11. A black and ——
white boy were walking together. 12. ——
violet is my favorite flower; ——
robin, my favorite bird. 13. There is an impenetrable
veil between —— visible and ——
invisible
world.
14. —— lion is ——
king of beasts. 15. Thackeray was a greater writer
than —— artist. Thackeray was
greater as ——
writer than as —— artist.
16. The bank closed its doors from ——
lack of ready money. 17. I despise not ——
giver, but —— gift. 18. ——
whole is greater than any of its parts. 19. He
is entitled to the name of —— scholar.
20. I do not use that sort of ——
pen. 21. In —— warm weather
you do not need so many wraps as in ——
cold
weather.
22. The Queen conferred on Tennyson the title
of —— baron. 23. It does not
matter what kind of —— man is appointed.
OF NOUNS
HOW TO FORM THE POSSESSIVE CASE.[10]—As a rule, the possessive of nouns in the SINGULAR number is formed by adding an apostrophe and “s” (’s): as, “The boy’s coat.” Often the pronunciation of the added “s” makes a new syllable; and if this additional syllable makes an unpleasant sound, the possessive is indicated by the apostrophe alone (’): as, “For goodness’ sake.” The putting in or the leaving out of the “s” in such cases is chiefly a matter of taste. If the “s” is sounded, it is always written; and whenever there is doubt, it is well to follow the regular rule: as, “Horace’s odes,” “Charles’s ball,” “Dickens’s David Copperfield.”
In the PLURAL number, when the nominative plural ends in “s,” the possessive case is formed by adding an apostrophe alone (’). If the nominative plural does not end in “s,” an apostrophe and an “s” (’s) are both added, as in the singular: as, “Men’s and boys’ shoes.”
The possessive case of COMPOUND nouns and expressions used as compound nouns is formed by adding the proper sign of the possessive to the end of the compound: as, “That is my sister-in-law’s pony,” “This is the Prince of Wales’s palace.”
[10] “Foundations,” pp. 41-43.
1. Write the possessive case, singular and plural,
of: Actor, king,
fairy, calf, child, goose, lady,
monkey, mouse, ox, woman, deer, eagle,
princess, elephant, man, witness,
prince, fox, farmer, countess, mouth,
horse, day, year, lion, wolf, thief,
Englishman.
2. Write the possessive case of: James, Dickens,
his sister Mary,
Miss Austen, the Prince of Wales,
Frederick the Great, Harper and
Brothers, father-in-law, Charles,
Jones, William the Conqueror,
Henry the Eighth, man-of-war, Douglas,
Eggleston and Company.
USE and MISUSE of the POSSESSIVE CASE.[12]—It is sometimes a question whether to use the possessive form or the preposition of. “As a general rule, the possessive case should be confined to cases of possession."[13]
[11] TO THE TEACHER.—To have its full value this should be given as a dictation exercise. [12] “Foundations,” pp. 43-44. [13] Ibid., p. 44.
Express relation between the words in the following pairs by putting one of them in the possessive case or by using the preposition “of,” as may seem best:—
Charles the Second, reign; witness, testimony; horse, hoof; the President, public reception; Partridge, restaurant; aide-de-camp, horse; General Armistead, death; Henry the Eighth, wives; Napoleon, Berlin decree; teacher, advice; eagle, talons; enemy, repulse;[14] book, cover; princess, evening gowns; France, army; Napoleon, defeat; Napoleon, camp-chest; Major AndrA(C), capture; Demosthenes, orations; gunpowder, invention; mountain, top; summer, end; Washington, sword; Franklin, staff; torrent, force; America, metropolis; city, streets; strike, beginning; church, spire; we (our, us), midst; year, events; Guiteau, trial; sea, bottom; Essex, death; Adams, administration; six months, wages; world, government.
[14] There is, properly, no “objective possessive” in English corresponding to the “objective genitive” in other languages. It seems best to say “The siege of Paris,” rather than “Paris’s siege.”
Distinguish between the following:— 1. The President’s reception. The reception of the President. 2. Mother’s love. Love of mother. 3. A sister’s care. Care of a sister. 4. A brother’s picture. The picture of a brother. 5. Clive’s reception in London. The reception of Clive in London. 6. Charles and Harry’s toys. Charles’s and Harry’s toys. 7. Let me tell you a story of Doctor Brown (Brown’s).
Correct the following, giving the reason for each correction:— 1. A dog and a cat’s head are differently shaped. 2. Whose Greek grammar do you prefer—Goodwin or Hadley? 3. It is neither the captain nor the manager’s duty. 4. I consulted Webster, Stormonth, and Worcester’s dictionary. 5. I like Hawthorne better than Irving’s style. 6. John, Henry and William’s nose resembled one another. 7. The novel is one of Scott. 8. I have no time to listen to either John or Joseph’s talk.
SINGULAR and PLURAL.[15]—In modern English most nouns form the plural by adding “s” to the singular. The following variations from this rule are important:—
1. When the added sound of “s” makes
an additional syllable, “es” is used:
as, box, boxes; church, churches.
2. NOUNS ENDING IN “O.” If the
final “o” is preceded by a vowel, the
plural is formed regularly, i.e.,
by adding “s”: as, cameo, cameos.
If
the final “o” is preceded
by a consonant, the tendency of modern usage
is to form the plural by adding
“es”: as, hero, heroes; potato,
potatoes. The following common
words, however, seem still to form the
plural by adding “s”
alone:—
canto lasso proviso torso duodecimo memento quarto tyro halo octavo solo junto piano stiletto
3. NOUNS ENDING IN “Y.” If the
“y” is preceded by a vowel, the plural
is regular: as, valley, valleys.
If the “y” is preceded by a consonant, “y” is changed to “i” and “es” is added to form the plural: as, lady, ladies; city, cities.
4. PROPER NOUNS are changed as little as possible:
as, Henry, Henrys;
Mary, Marys; Cicero, Ciceros; Nero,
Neros.
5. Most COMPOUND NOUNS form the plural by adding
the proper sign of the
plural to the fundamental part of
the word, i.e., to the part which
is described by the rest of the
phrase: as, ox-cart, ox-carts;
court-martial, courts-martial; aide-de-camp,
aides-de-camp.
Note the difference between the plural and the possessive of compound nouns,—forms which are often confounded. See page 16.
6. Letters, figures, and other symbols are made
plural by adding an
apostrophe and “s” (’s):
as, “There are more e’s than a’s
in this word”; “Dot
your i’s and cross your t’s.”
7. Some nouns have two plurals, which differ in meaning:—
Singular. Plural.
brother brothers (by birth), brethren (of a society). die dies (for coining or stamping), dice (for play). fish fishes (separate fish), fish (collective). index indexes (in books), indices (in algebra). penny pennies (separate coins), pence (sum of money). shot shots (discharges), shot (balls). staff staves (poles), staffs (bodies of assistants).
[15] “Foundations,” pp. 45-47.
Write the plural of: Lash, cage, race, buffalo, echo, canto, volcano, portfolio, ally, money, solo, memento, mosquito, bamboo, ditch, chimney, man, Norman,[17] Mussulman, city, negro, baby, calf, man-of-war, attorney, goose-quill, canon, quail, mystery, turkey, wife, body, snipe, knight-errant,[17] donkey, spoonful, aide-de-camp, Ottoman, commander-in-chief, major-general, pony, reply, talisman, court-martial, father-in-law, court-yard, man-trap, Brahman, journey, Henry, stepson, deer, mouthful, Miss Clark,[18] Mr. Jones, Dr. Brown, Dutchman, German, forget-me-not, poet-laureate, minister-plenipotentiary, hero, fish, trout, Mary, George, bill-of-fare.
[16] To THE TEACHER.—To have its full value this should be given as a dictation exercise. [17] Consult a dictionary for this and similar nouns. [18] Proper names preceded by a title are made plural by changing either the name or the title, and using “the” before the expression. We may say “the Miss Smiths” or “the Misses Smith,” “the Doctors Young” or “the Doctor Youngs.”
Distinguish between:—
1. Two dice (dies) were found in the prisoner’s pockets. 2. He was always kind to his brothers (brethren). 3. How many shot (shots) did you count? 4. He carried two pailfuls (pails full) of water up the hill. 5. I have two handfuls (hands full) of gold-dust. 6. He gave the beggar six pennies (pence). 7. There are serious errors in the indexes (indices) in this new Algebra. 8. Ten shot (shots) were fired from the gun in fifteen minutes.
Which of the following forms should be used? Consult Hill’s “Foundations,” pp. 45-47:—
1. The members of the committee were greatly
alarmed at this (these) news. 2. Tidings was
(were) brought to them of the massacre on Snake River.
3. The endowment of the college was greatly increased
by this (these)
means.
4. The widow’s means was (were) at first
large, but it was (they were) soon
exhausted by the prodigality of
her son.
5. The assets of the company are (is) $167,000.
6. The dregs in the cup was (were) found to be
very bitter. 7. The eaves of the new house are
(is) thirty-two feet above the ground. 8. Athletics
are (is) run into the ground in many schools. 9.
Politics is (are) like a stone tied around the neck
of literature. 10. The nuptials of Gratiano and
Nerissa were (was) celebrated at the same
time as those (that) of Bassanio
and Portia.
11. Ethics are (is) becoming more and more prominent
in the discussions of
political economists.
12. Have you seen my pincers? I have mislaid
it (them). 13. The proceeds was (were) given
to the hospital. 14. His riches took to themselves
(itself) wings. 15. This (these) scissors is
(are) not sharp. 16. Please pour this (these)
suds on the rose plants in the oval flowerbed. 17.
His tactics was (were) much criticised by old generals.
18. The United States has (have) informed Spain
that it (they) will not
permit Spanish interference
in the affairs of Central America.
NOUNS of FOREIGN ORIGIN.[19]—The following is a list of nouns of foreign origin in common use which have peculiar number forms:—
Singular. Plural. alumnus
(masculine) alumni alumna (feminine) alumnA|
analysis analyses bacterium
bacteria beau beaux
cherub cherubim (or cherubs) crisis
crises curriculum
curricula datum data genus (meaning
“class”) genera genius
{geniuses (persons or great ability)
{genii
(spirits)
hypothesis hypotheses oasis
oases parenthesis parentheses
phenomenon phenomena seraph
seraphim (or seraphs) stratum
strata tableau tableaux thesis
theses
[19] “Foundations,” pp. 47-48.
1. Write the plural of: Alumna, analysis,
beau, cherub, crisis,
curriculum, genus, genius, hypothesis,
nebula, oasis, parenthesis,
phenomenon, synopsis, seraph, stratum,
tableau.
2. Write the singular of: Alumni, curricula,
data, bacteria,
cherubim, oases, phenomena, seraphim,
strata, theses.
GENDER.—The following nouns of different genders are sometimes confounded or otherwise misused:—
Masculine. Feminine. abbot abbess actor actress bachelor spinster, maid buck doe (fallow deer) bullock heifer czar czarina drake duck duke duchess earl countess Francis Frances gander goose hero heroine lion lioness marquis, marquess marchioness monk nun ram ewe stag, hart hind (red deer) sultan sultana tiger tigress wizard witch
[20] TO THE TEACHER.—To have any value this must be given as a dictation exercise.
1. Write the feminine word corresponding to:
Abbot, actor, bachelor,
buck, bullock, czar, duke, drake,
earl, Francis, hero, lion, marquis,
monk, ram, stag, sultan, hart, tiger.
2. Write the masculine word corresponding to:
Spinster, duck, doe,
Frances, goose, heifer, ewe, hind,
witch.
[21] TO THE TEACHER.—This should be used as a dictation exercise.
Correct the following sentences:—
1. The marquess was the executor of her husband’s
estate. 2. He married a beautiful actor. 3.
The tiger broke from its cage. 4. The duck was
pluming his feathers after his swim, and the goose
had
wandered from his companions across
the meadows.
5. The baby girl in “The Princess”
may be called the real hero of the tale.
ABBREVIATIONS.—For the following exercise consult Hill’s Foundations of Rhetoric, pp. 49-50.
Which of these words are in good use?—
Pianist, harpist, poloist, violinist, phiz, ad, co-ed, curios, exam, cab, chum, gent, hack, gym, pants, mob, phone, proxy, photo, prelim, van, prof, varsity.
MISUSED NOUNS.[22]—Many errors in English consist in using words in senses which are not authorized. Sometimes the use of a word in a wrong sense makes the speaker’s meaning obscure. Sometimes it makes him seem ridiculous, as when a person of the writer’s acquaintance told a friend to clean an oil-painting by washing it in “torpid” water. In every case the misuse of a word leaves an unpleasant impression on the mind of a cultivated person, and, like all bad English, should be avoided as we avoid bad manners. In the following definitions and exercises a few nouns[23] are selected for study. The distinctions given are not always observed by reputable authors, but they indicate the tendency of the best modern usage.
I. A RESEMBLANCE IN SENSE MISLEADS.[24]
HOUSE, HOME.—A house is a building. Home means one’s habitual abode, “the abiding place of the affections.” It may or may not be in a house, and it may include the surroundings of a house.
PERSON, PARTY.—A person is an individual, a party is a company of persons, or, in legal usage, a person who is concerned in a contention or agreement.
SERIES, SUCCESSION.—A series is a succession of similar things mutually related according to some law. Succession is properly used of several things following one after the other; it denotes order of occurrence only, and does not imply any connection.
STATEMENT, ASSERTION.—A statement is a formal setting forth of fact or opinion; an assertion is simply an affirmation of fact or opinion.
VERDICT, TESTIMONY.—A verdict is a decision made by a number of men acting as a single body. Testimony is an expression of individual knowledge or belief.
THE WHOLE, ALL.—The whole is properly used of something which is considered as one thing. When a number of persons or things are spoken of, the proper word is all.
[22] TO THE TEACHER.—It may not be desirable to drill pupils on all the words whose meanings are discriminated here and in chapters V. and VI. In that case it will be easy to select for study those words which the pupils are most likely to misuse. The words discriminated in this book are for the most part those which are mentioned in the “Foundations of Rhetoric,” and they have been arranged in the same order. A few other words often misused by my pupils have been added. [23] For misused verbs and adjectives see pages 92 and 119. [24] “Foundations,” pp. 50-53.
Tell the difference in meaning between the following:—
1. Mr. Roscoe has no house (home). 2. The
hotel clerk says he expects three more parties (persons)
on the six
o’clock train.
3. There are three persons (parties) concerned
in this contract. 4. A succession (series) of
delays. 5. This morning’s papers publish
an assertion (a statement) by Mr.
Pullman, which throws new light
on the strike.
Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice.—
HOUSE, HOME. 1. Whenever a tramp comes to our ——, the dog is untied. 2. His new —— will be finished in November. 3. Mr. S. owns a beautiful —— and has a happy ——. 4. One can build a very good —— for $6000. 5. ——s are built to live in, not to look on.
PARTY, PERSON. 6. There is another ——
coming on the evening train, but he will leave
to-morrow.
7. A cross-looking —— alighted
from the stage-coach and entered the inn. 8.
The cause of both ——s shall come
before the court. 9. Is the ——
that wants a carriage at dinner or in his room? 10.
He is attached to the king’s ——.
11. Who was that fat old ——
who kept us all laughing?
SERIES, SUCCESSION. 12. The —— of Presidents is a long one. 13. This stamp belongs to the —— of 1864. 14. A —— of calamitous events followed this mistake in policy. 15. A —— of accidents prevented the sailing of the yacht.
STATEMENT, ASSERTION. 16. The last —— of the bank has been examined. 17. —— unsupported by fact is worthless. 18. The Declaration of Independence contained a clear —— of grievances. 19. The orator’s —— was shown to be false.
VERDICT, TESTIMONY. 20. The ——
of history is that Christianity has improved the condition
of
women.
21. Let us await the —— of
the public. 22. The early Christian martyrs sealed
their —— with their blood. 23.
The —— of those who saw the murder
was contradictory.
THE WHOLE, ALL. 24. —— (of) the
dishes came tumbling to the floor. 25. Tell ——
(the) truth. 26. Then you and I and ——
of us fell down. 27. Washington was respected
by —— (the) people. 28. We
sold —— (of) our apples at sixty
cents a bushel. 29. He has already packed ——
of his books. 30. —— (the) adornments
took an appropriate and sylvan character. 31.
He readily confided to her —— (the)
papers concerning the intrigue. 32. In the afternoon
—— of them got into a boat and rowed
across the
lake.
ACCEPTANCE, ACCEPTATION.—Acceptance is the “act of accepting”; also “favorable reception”: as, “The acceptance of a gift,” “She sang with marked acceptance.” Acceptation now means “the sense in which an expression is generally understood or accepted.”
ACCESS, ACCESSION.—Access has several meanings authorized by good use: (1) outburst; (2) admission; (3) way of entrance. Accession means (1) the coming into possession of a right; or (2) an addition.
ACTS, ACTIONS.—“Acts, in the sense of ‘things done,’ is preferable to actions, since actions also means ‘processes of doing.’"[26]
ADVANCE, ADVANCEMENT.—Advance is used in speaking of something as moving forward; advancement, as being moved forward.
ALLUSION, ILLUSION, DELUSION.—An allusion is an indirect reference to something not definitely mentioned. Roughly speaking, an illusion is an error of vision; delusion, of judgment. “In literary and popular use an illusion is an unreal appearance presented in any way to the bodily or the mental vision; it is often pleasing, harmless, or even useful.... A delusion is a mental error or deception, and may have regard to things actually existing, as well as to illusions. Delusions are ordinarily repulsive and discreditable, and may even be mischievous."[27]
AVOCATION, VOCATION.—“Vocation means ‘calling’ or ‘profession’; avocation, ‘something aside from one’s regular calling, a by-work.’"[28]
COMPLETION, COMPLETENESS.—Completion is “the act of completing”; completeness is “the state of being complete.”
OBSERVATION, OBSERVANCE.—Observation contains the idea of “looking at”; observance, of “keeping,” “celebrating.” “We speak of the observation of a fact, of a star; of the observance of a festival, of a rule."[29]
PROPOSAL, PROPOSITION.—“A proposal is something proposed to be done, which may be accepted or rejected. A proposition is something proposed for discussion, with a view to determining the truth or wisdom of it."[30]
RELATIONSHIP, RELATION.—Relationship properly means “the state of being related by kindred or alliance”: as, “A relationship existed between the two families.” Relation is a word of much broader meaning. It does not necessarily imply kinship.
SOLICITUDE, SOLICITATION.—Solicitude is “anxiety”; solicitation is “the act of soliciting or earnestly asking.”
STIMULATION, STIMULUS, STIMULANT.—Stimulation is “the act of stimulating or inciting to action”; stimulus, originally “a goad,” now denotes that which stimulates, the means by which one is incited to action; stimulant has a medical sense, being used of that which stimulates the body or any of its organs. We speak of ambition as a stimulus, of alcohol as a stimulant.
[25] “Foundations,” pp. 53-56. [26] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 18. [27] The Century Dictionary. [28] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 39. [29] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 39. [30] The Century Dictionary.
Tell the difference in meaning between—
1. The acceptance (acceptation) of this word
is doubtful. 2. The acts (actions) of Napoleon
were carefully observed. 3. The colonel’s
advance (advancement) was not long delayed. 4.
Literature has been Dr. Holmes’s avocation (vocation).
5. The list of African dialects is approaching
completeness (completion). 6. The completion
(completeness) of this new dictionary of the Latin
language will make scholars glad.
7. The professor advised me, when I went to Rome,
to be especially careful
in my observation (observance) of
the religious ceremonies of Passion
Week.
8. This proposal (proposition) made both Republican
and Democratic
senators indignant.
9. His mother’s solicitude (solicitation)
induced Washington when he was a
boy to give up his intention of
going to sea.
10. Shall I give your son a stimulus (stimulant)?
Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:—
ACCEPTANCE, ACCEPTATION. 1. The word “livery” is used in its original ——. 2. This is a true saying and worthy of ——. 3. The —— of a trust brings grave responsibility. 4. He sent to the President a formal —— of the position. 5. The assertion finds —— in every rank of society. 6. In its common —— “philosophy” signifies “the search after wisdom.” 7. The probability of this theory justifies its full ——.
ACCESS, ACCESSION. 8. We are denied ——
to the king. 9. An —— of fever
occurred at nightfall. 10. The emperor at his
—— takes an oath to maintain the
constitution. 11. —— to the outer
court was through a massive door. 12. The only
—— which the Roman Empire received
was the province of
Britain.
13. A sudden —— of violent,
burning fever had laid Peter’s mother-in-law
prostrate.
14. Victoria married after her ——
to the throne. 15. This allusion led to a fresh
—— of feeling.
ACT, ACTION. 16. I cannot do so cruel an ——. 17. Another mode of —— was proposed by Henry Clay. 18. The fifth book of the New Testament records the ——s of the Apostles. 19. To attempt resistance would be the —— of a madman. 20. The monkey imitates the ——s of its master.
ADVANCE, ADVANCEMENT. 21. The ——
of the expedition was impeded by bad roads. 22. ——
in the army is slow. 23. The Don and his companions,
in their eager ——, had got entangled
in
deep glens.
24. My old position offered no hope of ——.
25. His hopes of —— in England
failing, Swift returned to Ireland.
ALLUSION, ILLUSION, DELUSION. 26. There were
two ——s in his sermon to the riots.
27. The cleverest, acutest men are often under
an (a) —— about women. 28.
Longfellow’s “Footsteps of Angels”
contains ——s to the death
of his wife.
29. Our judgment of people is liable to be warped
by ——s of the
imagination.
30. Those other words of ——
and folly, Liberty first and Union afterward.
AVOCATION, VOCATION.
31. Surgeons in the army are allowed by the enemy
to pursue their ——
unmolested.
32. The young lawyer, surrounded by his law-books,
took up his —— with
enthusiasm.
33. Let your base-ball be a pastime, not a trade;
let it be your ——, not
your ——.
34. Heaven is a pious man’s ——,
and therefore he counts earthly
employments ——s.
35. It seems that after his return, his disciples
left him and returned to
their ordinary ——s.
COMPLETION, COMPLETENESS.
36. The —— of the railroad
was celebrated by a general illumination in
the village.
37. The comfort of passengers is secured by the
—— of the equipment of
the steamers of this line.
38. We hope for the —— of our
new building by September.
39. We were surprised at the ——
of the collection of minerals.
OBSERVATION, OBSERVANCE. 40. The —— of a few simple rules of health would have prolonged his life. 41. The North American Indian has great powers of ——. 42. He insisted on the prompt —— of the regulations. 43. The Pharisees were strict in their —— of religious festivals. 44. He is arranging for a careful —— of the eclipse.
PROPOSAL, PROPOSITION. 45. I submit two ——s
for consideration by the assembly. 46. The ——
that each of us relinquish something was accepted.
47. Sealed ——s for building
the cottage were handed in by three
contractors.
48. He made a —— of marriage
to her. 49. I dissent from that ——.
50. A nation dedicated to the ——
that all men are created equal.
SOLICITUDE, SOLICITATION. 51. He made frequent —— for money and clothes. 52. My mother watched over my infancy with tender ——. 53. Coriolanus yielded at the —— of his mother.
STIMULUS, STIMULANT, STIMULATION. 54. He worked hard under the —— of a desire to get rich. 55. The providential —— of conscience is always present. 56. The doctor came and administered a gentle —— to the patient.
III. ADDITIONAL NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED.[31]
ABILITY, CAPACITY.—Ability is the power of doing; capacity, the power of containing, of understanding, of acquiring.
ADHERENCE, ADHESION.—Adherence is used of moral relations, adhesion, of physical connection. We speak of the adhesion of glue to wood, of a man’s adherence to the principles of his party.
AMOUNT, QUANTITY, NUMBER.—Amount means “sum total,” and is used of numbers or quantities; quantity is used of things which are measured; number, of things which are counted.
ARGUMENT, PLEA.—“Plea (in the legal sense) is properly used of the pleadings or the arraignment before a trial, not of the argument at a trial. A plea is always addressed to the court; an argument may be addressed either to the court or to the jury. A similar remark applies to the verbs plead and argue."[32]
BALANCE, REST, REMAINDER.—Balance, meaning “the difference between two sides of an account,” is a commercial term, and cannot properly be used for rest or remainder. Rest is used of persons or things, and of large as well as of small parts. Remainder is used only of things, and denotes a comparatively small part.
CENTRE, MIDDLE.—The centre is a point, or a definite place; the middle is a line, or a space, and is less definite than centre.
CHARACTER, REPUTATION.—Character is what a man is; reputation is the prevailing opinion of his character.
COMPLEMENT, COMPLIMENT.—A complement is a “full quantity or number” or “that which is needed to complete”; a compliment is “an expression of praise.”
CONSCIENCE, CONSCIOUSNESS.—Conscience is that within us which distinguishes right from wrong. Consciousness is the state of being aware of one’s existence, thoughts, and surroundings.
COUNCIL, COUNSEL.—A council is “a body of persons convened for consultation.” Counsel denotes “advice,” or “a person, as a lawyer, engaged to give advice.”
CUSTOM, HABIT.—Custom denotes the frequent repetition of the same act, and may be used of a number of persons taken together. Habit is the effect of custom in a person. Custom is voluntary; habit is involuntary, often uncontrollable, sometimes unconscious.
DECEPTION, DECEIT.—Deception is “the act of deceiving”; deceit is “deceitfulness,” a trait of character; or a “trick,” an “artifice.”
EGOISTS, EGOISM, EGOTISM.—“The disciples of Descartes were egoists, the ego being the basis of their philosophy.” Egoism is the name of their system. Egoism is sometimes used also in the sense of undue admiration of self, the outward expression of which is egotism. But “egotism, in the sense of ‘self-worship,’ is preferable to egoism, since egoism also designates a system of philosophy."[33]
EMIGRATION, IMMIGRATION.—Emigration is the moving out from a country; immigration, the moving into it. Foreigners who come to live in America are emigrants from their fatherland, immigrants to America.
ENORMITY, ENORMOUSNESS.—“Enormity is used of deeds of unusual horror; enormousness, of things of unusual size. We speak of the enormity of CA|sar Borgia’s crimes, of the enormousness of the Rothschilds’ wealth."[34]
ESTEEM, ESTIMATE, ESTIMATION.—Esteem as a noun seems to be going out of use; the word now commonly used in the sense of “opinion” or “regard” is estimation. An estimate is “an approximate judgment, based on considerations of probability, of the number, amount, magnitude, or position of anything.”
FALSITY, FALSENESS.—“Falsity, in the sense of ’non-conformity to truth,’ without any suggestion of blame, is preferable to falseness, since falseness usually implies blame."[35]
IDENTITY, IDENTIFICATION.—Identity is “the state of being the same.” Identification denotes “the act of determining what a given thing, or who a given person, is.”
IMPORT, IMPORTANCE.—Import, in the sense of “meaning,” must be distinguished from importance, “the quality of being important.”
INVENTION, DISCOVERY.—We invent something new, contrived or produced for the first time. We discover what existed before, but remained unknown.
LIMIT, LIMITATION.—Limit, in the sense of “bound,” is preferable to limitation, since limitation also means “the act of limiting,” or a “restriction.”
LOT, NUMBER.—Lot denotes “a distinct part or parcel”: as, “The auctioneer sold the goods in ten lots.” The word does not mean “a great number”; therefore it is improperly used in the sentences: “He has lots of money,” and “I know a lot of people in New York.”
MAJORITY, PLURALITY.—A majority is more than half the whole number; a plurality is the excess of votes given for one candidate over those given for another, and is not necessarily a majority when there are more than two candidates.
NEGLIGENCE, NEGLECT.—“Negligence is used of a habit or trait; neglect, of an act or succession of acts."[36]
NOVICE, NOVITIATE.—Novice properly means one who is new in any business or calling; novitiate, the state or time of being a novice.
ORGANISM, ORGANIZATION.—An organism is a “living body composed of a number of essential parts.” Organization denotes “the act of organizing,” or “an organized body of persons,” as a literary society.
PART, PORTION.—“Part is the general word for that which is less than the whole: as, the whole is equal to the sum of all its parts.... Portion is often used in a stilted way where part would be simpler and better; portion has always some suggestion of allotment or assignment: as, this is my portion; a portion of Scripture. ’Father, give me the portion of goods that falleth to me.’"[37]
PLENTY, ABUNDANCE.—Plenty is enough; abundance, more than enough.
PRODUCE, PRODUCT, PRODUCTION.—Produce is always collective, and is used only of raw products: as, the produce of the soil, of the flock. Product denotes the result of some operation, usually physical labor. Production, meaning “the act of producing,” is also applied to a work of literature or art, as a book, a statue, or a painting. “Product, in the sense of ‘thing produced,’ is preferable to production, since production is also used in an abstract sense."[38]
PROMINENCE, PREDOMINANCE.—Prominence means “a standing out from something, so as to be conspicuous.” Predominance denotes “ascendency,” “a superiority in strength or influence,” “an over-ruling.” There may be many prominent traits in a person’s character; there can be only one predominant trait.
RECEIPT, RECIPE.—“Receipt, in the sense of ’formula for a pudding, etc.,’ is preferable to recipe, since recipe is commonly restricted to medical prescriptions."[38]
RELATIVE, RELATION.—“Relative, in the sense of ‘member of a family,’ is preferable to relation, since relation is also used in an abstract sense."[38]
REQUIREMENT, REQUISITE, REQUISITION.—A requirement is something required by a person or persons. A requisite is something required by the nature of the case. A requisition is an authoritative demand or official request for a supply of something.
RESORT, RECOURSE, RESOURCE.—Resort denotes “the act of going to some person or thing”; or “that which is resorted to or habitually visited.” Recourse means “resort for help or protection.” Resource denotes “something which is a source of help or support.”
SECRETING, SECRETION.—Secreting is the act of hiding; secretion, a physiological process or fluid.
SEWAGE, SEWERAGE.—Sewage means the contents, sewerage, the system, of sewers.
SITUATION, SITE.—“Situation embraces all the local aspects and relationships[39] in which a thing is placed. The site is confined to the ground on which it is erected or reposes."[40]
SPECIALITY, SPECIALTY.—“Speciality, in the sense of ’distinctive quality,’ is preferable to specialty, since specialty is also used in the sense of ‘distinctive thing.’"[41]
UNION, UNITY.—Union is “the joining of two or more things into one.” Unity means “oneness,” “harmony.”
VISITANT, VISITOR.—Visitant was formerly used to denote a supernatural being; visitor, a human one. Visitant seems now to be going out of use, visitor being used in both senses.
[31] “Foundations,” p. 56. If it seem undesirable to drill pupils on all the words which are here discriminated, the teacher may select those words which they are most likely to misuse. See note 2, p. 22. [32] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 40. [33] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. [34] Ibid., p. 38. [35] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. [36] Ibid., p. 39. [37] The Century Dictionary. [38] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. [39] Is “relationships” the proper word here? [40] Smith’s Synonyms Discriminated. [41] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19.
Tell the difference in meaning between—
1. He is a person of great ability (capacity).
2. A good character (reputation) is a precious
possession. 3. The man seemed to be without conscience
(consciousness). 4. The counsel (council) was
not wise. 5. It is John’s custom (habit)
to speak slowly. 6. Her deceit (deception) amazed
me. 7. This man is an egoist (egotist). 8.
The government does not encourage immigration (emigration).
9. In Mr. E.’s estimate (estimation) the
cost of lumber and paint is low. 10. It was only
yesterday that I heard of the identification (identity)
of the men who robbed Mr.
Jones and Mr. Smith.
11. Mr. Gladstone’s remark at the banquet
was an utterance of great
import (importance).
12. This is a remarkable discovery (invention).
13. Calhoun was nominated by a majority (plurality).
14. His death was caused by his own neglect (negligence).
15. The privileges of a novice (novitiate) are
not many. 16. What a queer organism (organization)!
17. The expedition has plenty (an abundance) of
provisions. 18. He proposes to lay a tax on all
English produce (products,
productions).
19. He quickly attained prominence (predominance)
in the committee. 20. Please copy this receipt
(recipe). 21. My relatives (relations) here are
charming. 22. Wanted, a boy to do light work
in a first-class store. Ability to read
and write is a requirement
(requisite).
23. The sewage (sewerage) of inland cities presents
problems of
great difficulty.
24. The site (situation) of the temple is not
known. 25. Unity (union) of religious denominations
is hoped for by many.
Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:—
ABILITY, CAPACITY. 1. The ——
of the room is not great. 2. They gave, each
according to his ——. 3. What is
—— but the power of doing a thing?
4. Let me drink of Thee according to my ——.
(From a prayer.) 5. Some students do not have
—— to master Greek; but what most
need is
—— to work persistently.
6. My father does not think Judge X. has much—as
a lawyer.
ADHERENCE, ADHESION. 7. The ——
of the parts which were cemented together is still
perfect. 8. He showed an obstinate ——
to false rules of conduct. 9. Marks on the blackboard
depend on the —— of chalk to the
slate. 10. Professor A.’s ——
to the doctrines of Adam Smith is seen in his last
book.
AMOUNT, NUMBER, QUANTITY. 11. Our monthly expenditures
vary in ——. 12. You could see any
—— of cabs standing in front of the
theatre. 13. A great —— of
books and papers covered the table. 14. Gulliver
asked the king of Lilliput for a large ——
of iron bars
and a considerable ——
of rope.
15. What —— of paper is needed
for one issue of Harper’s Weekly? 16.
Such a (an) —— of sheep as we saw
to-day! 17. There is a large ——
of silver bullion in the Treasury waiting to be
coined.
ARGUMENT, PLEA.
18. Every whisper in the court-room was hushed
as Mr. N. rose before the
jury and began his—in
behalf of the prisoner.
19. The —— of Smith, when arraigned
before the court, was that he had
acted in self-defence.
20. The only —— available with an east wind is to put on your overcoat.
BALANCE, REMAINDER, REST. 21. The —— of the hour is spent in the study of some poem. 22. I have a —— at my banker’s. 23. The —— of the boys went home. 24. For the —— of the week we stayed at home. 25. The account shows a —— of $12.46. 26. Give John and Horace four of the six apples; you may have the ——. 27. Give the —— of our dinner to Tommy, our cat.
CENTRE, MIDDLE. 28. There is a crack running down the —— of the wall. 29. A table stood in the —— of the room. 30. A path runs through the —— of the park. 31. In the —— of the garden was a fountain. 32. He parts his hair in the ——. 33. The arrow struck the —— of the target.
CHARACTER, REPUTATION. 34. This man has an excellent —— for honesty. 35. Every one admires the —— of Washington. 36. Mr. Arnold won great —— as a critic. 37. Oh, I have lost my ——. 38. The outlaws of Yorkshire were men of loose ——. 39. A distinguished general may lose his —— through a single blunder. 40. —— is an idle and most false imposition; oft got without merit, and lost without deserving.
COMPLEMENT, COMPLIMENT. 41. Present my ——s
to your father. 42. The ship has its ——
of stores. 43. The —— of an
angle is the difference between the angle and a right
angle.
44. “True friendship loathes such oily
——.” 45. In the sentence,
“He is ill,” “ill” is the ——
of the verb “is.” 46. “This
barren verbiage, current among men, Light coin, the
tinsel clink
of ——.”
CONSCIENCE, CONSCIOUSNESS. 47. The ——
of the purity of his motives consoled him for his
unpopularity.
48. My —— hath a thousand several
tongues. 49. I felt a shock, I saw the car topple
over, and then I lost ——.
COUNCIL, COUNSEL.
50. “No man will take ——,
but every man will take money; therefore money
is better than ——.”—Swift.
51. The members of the cabinet form a sort of
secret —— of the President.
52. Webster was one of the ——
in the trial of the Knapps for the murder
of Captain White.
CUSTOM, HABIT. 53. De Quincey acquired the ——
of using opium from first using it to
relieve neuralgic pains.
54. Dancing round a May-pole is a ——
many hundreds of years old. 55. As his ——
was, he went to the synagogue on the Sabbath. 56.
Man is a bundle of ——s. 57.
Those national ——s are best which
lead to good ——s among the
people.
58. A loose life brings a man into ——s
of dissipation. 59. It was the ——
of Scotch Highlanders to go bareheaded. 60. It
is a good —— to rise early, because
this will soon become a ——.
DECEPTION, DECEIT. 61. He was guilty of a long course of ——. 62. Her character would be charming if it were not for her ——. 63. He won my confidence by base ——. 64. Deceivers seldom profit by their ——. 65. —— Is of the very nature and essence of sin.
EGOTIST, EGOIST.
66. He is an ——, for he is
always talking about himself.
67. ——s are the pest of society;
they are always obtruding their ailments
on others.
EMIGRATION, IMMIGRATION.
68. The increase in Chinese ——
is a matter for serious consideration by
the United States Senate.
69. The Chinese government encourages ——
to America.
70. —— is one cause of the rapid
growth of our population.
71. The —— of the French nobility
at the time of the French Revolution
was a political blunder.
ENORMITY, ENORMOUSNESS.
72. The —— of the cost of the
civil war startles the student of history.
73. Burke drew such a vivid picture of the ——
of the Nabob of Arcot’s
crimes that ladies in the
audience fainted.
74. Visitors do not at first realize the ——
of St. Peter’s, at Rome.
ESTEEM, ESTIMATE, ESTIMATION. 75. In what —— is he held by his townsmen? 76. In my —— she is the best of women. 77. We can form an —— of the amount of water in the air.
FALSENESS, FALSITY. 78. We have already seen the —— of that hypothesis. 79. Arnold was despised for his ——. 80. Piety is opposed to hypocrisy and ——. 81. The prince is in danger of betrayal through the —— of his servant. 82. The —— of this reasoning is evident.
IDENTITY, IDENTIFICATION.
83. The bodies were so disfigured that their
—— was difficult.
84. In no form of government is there absolute
—— of interest between
the people and their rulers.
IMPORT, IMPORTANCE. 85. He heard the tolling
of the bell and trembled at its ——.
86. The oath of the President contains three words,
all of equal ——;
namely, that he will “preserve,
protect, and defend” the Constitution.
87. He was engaged in business of the highest
——. 88. You misunderstood the ——
of my remarks.
INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 89. Newton’s ——
of the law of gravitation. 90. The ——
of the telescope was made by Galileo. 91. The
—— of the properties of the magnetic
needle is said to have been
made by the Chinese; also,
the —— of gunpowder.
92. The —— of the circulation
of blood was made by Harvey. 93. The steam-engine
is one of the greatest ——s of this
age. 94. The —— of the telephone
is claimed by several persons.
LIMIT, LIMITATION. 95. All kinds of knowledge
have their ——s. 96. Titus Quintius
was appointed to the command of the army without any
——s.
97. Athens insisted upon ——
of the right to vote. 98. The prisoners were
free to roam within certain ——s,
but their
employments were subject to
——.
MAJORITY, PLURALITY. 99. If A has 21 votes,
B 18, and C 10, A is elected by a ——,
not a ——. 100. Smith had 37 of
the 52 votes, a good ——. 101. Jones
had 20 votes, Smith 14, and Brown 11; Jones therefore
was
elected by a safe ——.
NEGLIGENCE, NEGLECT. 102. “Without
blame
Or our ——
we lost her as we came.”—Comus.
103. Through —— to do what
ought to be done we soon acquire habits of
——.
104. Rescue my poor remains from vile ——.
105. The gate has fallen from its hinges, the
wooden steps are rotted, and
the house shows similar
signs of ——.
106. —— is a grave fault.
NOVICE, NOVITIATE. 107. For most men a ——
of silence is profitable before they enter on the
business of life.
108. I am young, a —— in the
trade. 109. It was in this abbey that I served
my ——. 110. When I was a ——
in this place, there was here a pious monk.
ORGANISM, ORGANIZATION. 111. Germs of microscopic
——s exist abundantly on the surface
of all
fruits.
112. Lieutenant Peary has completed the ——
of his arctic expedition. 113. The Jacobin club
was a political ——. 114. What a
complex —— the human body is!
PART, PORTION. 115. A —— of my work is done. 116. The younger —— of the community. 117. The priests had a —— of land assigned them by Pharaoh. 118. The whole is equal to the sum of all its ——s. 119. Each received his —— of the estate. 120. The lower ——s of his body were cold. 121. “This,” said he, “is a —— of the true cross.”
PLENTY, ABUNDANCE. 122. If you do not waste
your money, you will have —— for
your expenses. 123. They did cast in of their
——; but she of her want. 124.
The expedition has —— of provisions,
but none to spare. 125. Last year there was ——
of corn; it was estimated that we had enough
to feed the whole nation
for two years.
PRODUCE, PRODUCT, PRODUCTION. 126. The manufacturers
brought their ——s to market. 127.
The farmers bring their —— to town
or haul it to the nearest
railway station.
128. The apple is especially an American ——.
129. Lowell’s “Commemoration Ode”
is a noble ——. 130. Great Britain
exports chiefly manufactured ——. 131.
The component elements of —— are
labor and capital.
PROMINENCE, PREDOMINANCE. 132. The Indian race
is marked by a —— of the cheek-bones.
133. The English settlers were prominent (predominant)
in the New World. 134. “Childe Harold”
brought Byron into —— as a poet.
135. As a man Byron had many prominent (predominant)
faults; it is not
easy to say which one
was prominent (predominant).
RECIPE, RECEIPT.
136. Please send me your ——
for making chocolate ice-cream.
137. Paracelsus furnished a ——
for making a fairy, but had the delicacy
to refrain from using
it.
138. He gave me a —— for a
liniment, which he said was excellent for
sprains.
RELATIVE, RELATION. 139. He has no —— in this part of the country. 140. I am the nearest —— he has in the world.
REQUIREMENT, REQUISITION, REQUISITE. 141. One
of the ——s in a great commander is
coolness. 142. The ——s for
admission to college vary. 143. One of the ——s
in a United States minister to France is that he be
wealthy, for the salary
paid is insufficient to defray the expenses
of the minister’s
social obligations.
144. That locomotive engineers be not color-blind
is a just ——. 145. The wars of
Napoleon were marked by the enormous ——s
which were
made on invaded countries.
RESORT, RESOURCE, RECOURSE. 146. The woods were her favorite—. 147. The United States has unlimited—s. 148. Asheville has long been a—of wealthy society people. 149. When women engage in any art or trade, it is usually as a last ——. 150. General Lee had—to stratagem.
SECRETION, SECRETING.
151. Jailers are watchful to prevent the ——
of poison in letters sent to
condemned prisoners.
153. Saliva is a ——.
SEWAGE, SEWERAGE.
153. The water of rivers that have received ——
is not good to drink.
154. The vast and intricate ——
of Paris is described by Victor Hugo
in “Les Miserables.”
SITUATION, SITE. 155. The ——
of Samaria is far more beautiful than the ——
of Jerusalem,
though not so grand
and wild.
156. Dr. Schliemann made excavations to discover
the —— of Troy. 157. Our school
buildings have a fine ——. 158.
Has the —— of Professor Richard’s
house been fixed? 159. One of Nebuchadnezzar’s
temples is thought to have stood on the ——
of the Tower of Babel.
SPECIALTY, SPECIALITY.
160. It is the —— of vice that
it is selfishly indifferent to the
injurious consequences
of actions.
161. Diseases of the throat are Dr. Hall’s
——.
162. Fountain-pens a ——.
163. “Toughness” is the ——
of Salisbury iron; therefore Salisbury iron is
much in demand for car-wheels.
UNION, UNITY.
164. How good and how pleasant it is for brethren
to dwell together
in ——.
165. The —— of soul and body
is ended by death.
166. In the temper of Lord Bacon there was a
singular —— of audacity and
sobriety.
167. This composition lacks ——;
the writer treats of several distinct
subjects.
Tell why the italicized words in the following sentences are misused, and substitute for them better expressions:—
1. The West End Railway Company is the factor[42]
which can remedy all
this.
2. Addison’s “Cato” was a
success. 3. Decoration Day is a fitting observance
of those who gave their
lives for their country.
4. At the end of each day the teams[43]
are so broken up that they have
to go into the repair-shop, where
the carpenter and blacksmith are able
to fix any part of them.
5. The majority of the news is unfavorable.
[42] “Foundations,” p. 51. [43] Ibid., p. 52. [44] Consult a good dictionary.
Illustrate by original sentences the correct use of these words:—
Home, party, series, statement, verdict, acceptation, actions, advance, advancement, avocation, completion, allusion, illusion, observation, observance, proposal, proposition, solicitude, solicitation, stimulus, stimulant, capacity, adherence, adhesion, amount, quantity, number, centre, middle, character, complement, compliment, conscience, consciousness, council, counsel, custom, habit, deception, deceit, egoist, emigration, immigration, enormity, enormousness, esteem, estimate, falsity, falseness, import, invention, discovery, limitation, majority, plurality, negligence, neglect, novitiate, organization, organism, produce, product, production, prominence, predominance, recipe, requirement, requisition, requisite, resort, resource, secretion, sewage, sewerage, situation, site, speciality, specialty, union, unity.
[45] TO THE TEACHER.—It is easy to underestimate the difficulty which this exercise presents to pupils. In assigning the lesson care must be taken not to call for more of this kind of work than can be done well. Constructing a sentence to illustrate the correct use of a word is a valuable exercise, but it is a difficult one; and persons who know the correct use of a word may be put to their wit’s end to illustrate that use. It will be well to assign this exercise little by little, while the class works through the definitions and exercises on pages 23-41; or else to select from the list the words on which the class needs most drill. With some pupils it may be wise to omit the exercise entirely.
OF PRONOUNS
POSSESSIVE FORMS.[46]—No apostrophe is used in forming the possessive case of personal pronouns. We write “ours,” “yours,” “hers,” “its,” “theirs.” “It’s” is a contraction for “it is.”
[46] “Foundations,” p. 60.
Write from dictation— 1. John’s
hat is old, yours is new. 2. The bear was lying
on its side, dead. 3. The Browns’ house
is larger than ours, but ours is more convenient than
theirs.
4. Yours very respectfully, John Smith. 5.
See the yacht! it’s coining into the harbor under
full sail. 6. Show Mary your doll; it should
not grieve you that yours is not so
pretty as hers.
7. That fault was not yours. 8. Helen’s
eyes followed the direction of hers.
NOMINATIVE OR OBJECTIVE CASE.[47]—There are only seven words in the English language that now have different forms for the nominative and objective cases; therefore it is only in the use of these words that we need to observe any rules about “nominative” or “objective.” Since, however, these seven words are more frequently used than any other words, the possibilities of error in choosing between the nominative and the objective are many. Mistakes of this kind are common, and produce a very unpleasant effect on cultivated people. The seven words that have different forms for the nominative and objective cases are the following pronouns[48]:—
Nominative. Objective.
I me
we us
thou thee
he him
she her
they them
who whom
It is taken for granted that the student has already learned the following principles of syntax:—
1. Words used absolutely and the subjects
of finite verbs should in
English be put in the NOMINATIVE
form.
2. The subjects of infinitives and the
objects of verbs and
prepositions should be in the OBJECTIVE
form.
3. Words in apposition should be in the
same case.
4. The verb “to be," or any of its
forms (am, is, are, were, etc.),
does not take an object, but, being
equivalent in meaning to the symbol
“=,” takes the same
case after it as before it: the nominative,
if the form is “finite”;
the objective, if the form is “infinitive”
and
has a subject of its own. “I
know it is he,” “I know it to be
him,"
and “The stranger is thought
to be he” are grammatically correct.
Sentences like “She invited Mrs. R. and I to go driving” are common, even among people generally well-informed. Such mistakes will be avoided if the speaker stops to think what the form would be if the pronoun were not coupled with a noun. No one would think of saying, “She invited I to go driving.”
Persons who are in doubt as to which form of the pronoun to use often try to avoid the difficulty by using one of the pronouns ending in “-self”—pronouns which have the same form for both the nominative and the objective case. Thus many persons, uncertain whether to use “I” or “me” in the sentence quoted above, would say instead, “She invited Mrs. R. and myself to go driving.” This is no better than “Mrs. R. and I,” or “her and I.” The pronouns in “-self” are properly used only for emphasis or in a reflexive sense.[49] It is right to say: “I will go myself”; “Carrie herself went to the door”; “God helps those who help themselves.” It would be wrong to say, “Harry and myself have bought a horse together.”
When a pronoun in “-self” is used reflexively, it refers to the subject of the clause in which it stands.
In sentences like “This advice is free to whoever will take it,” the word ending in “-ever” is the subject of the verb “will take,” not the object of the preposition “to.” The right form, therefore, is “whoever,” not “whomever.” The object or, better, the “base” of the preposition “to” is the whole clause, “whoever will take it.”
[47] Ibid., pp. 61-62. [48] I omit ye, you, because they are used interchangeably. I omit also compounds of who, whom. [49] “Foundations,” p. 64.
Insert the proper form of pronoun in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:—
I, ME, MYSELF. 1. Taking a carriage, my brother
and—drove to the east end of Cape
Elizabeth.
2. Mr. C. and—walked around the lake
by moonlight. 3. The walk gave pleasure to both
Mr. C. and—. 4. Between you and—,
affairs look dark. 5. The Star contains
a paper on “Our Streets,” which was written
by—. > 6. He is taller than—.[50]
7. There is, you remember, an old agreement between
you and— 8. May John and—go
to the ball-game? 9. Please let John and—go
to the ball-game. 10. They met Robert and—in
the village. 11. Who is there? Only—.
12. To send—away, and for a whole year,
too,—, who had never been away
from home, was not easy for
mother.
13. Will you let Brown and—have your
boat? 14. Dr. Holmes shook hands with the girls,—among
the rest. 15. Next month my brother and—are
going to Bar Harbor. 16. It was—who
called to you. 17. I was beside—. 18.
Would you go, if you were—? 19. Father
bought brother and—tickets for the concert.
20. He said he would bring some flowers to Frances
and—. 21. You suffer from headache more
than—. 22. We shall soon see which is
the better boxer, you or—. 23. Who rang
the bell?—. 24. The taller man was supposed
to be—. 25. Every one has gone except
you and—. 26. The world will rest content
with such poor things as you and—. 27.
[50] In sentences like this the correct form will become evident if the speaker mentally completes the sentence thus: He is taller than—am. The greater part of the clause after “than” or “as” is generally omitted.
We, us, ourselves. 1. Our friends and—are
going out to-night. 2. He has come to take our
friends and—driving. 3. They are wiser
than—, since they are older. 4. They
will lose more than—by the failure of the
bank. 5. The Germans are better plodders than—.
6. It may have been—who (whom) you
saw. 7.—boys are having a fine time. 8.
Have you seen the picture of—three girls
in a boat, taken by Mr. B.? 9. There are five
hundred miles between father and—. 10.
They know that as well as—. 11. They don’t
succeed any better than—. 12. They as
well as—were disappointed. 13. —ought
not to get angry when others criticise—for
faults
which—freely acknowledge.
14. “It is not fit for such as —
To sit with rulers of
the land.”
Thou, thee, thyself. 1. I will not learn my
duty from such as ——. 2. If they
rob only such as ——, I hold them
right honest folk. 3. Love ——
last. 4. “The nations not so blest as
——
Must in their turn to tyrants
fall.”
5. “Wife, dost —— know
that all the world seems queer except ——
and
me; and sometimes I think even ——
art a little queer?”
6. “Hail to ——, blithe
spirit;
Bird ——
never wert.”
He, him, himself. 1. There is a difference between
an employer and—who (whom) he employs.
2. John —— wrote that letter.
3. You are nearly as tall as ——.
4. All wore dress suits except Charles and—.
5. I know that it was ——. 6.
I knew it to be ——. 7. ——
being young, they tried to deceive him. 8. It
was either —— or his brother that
called. 9. What were you and ——
talking about? 10. I can run as fast as ——.
11. —— who had always protected her,
she now saw dead at her feet. 12. ——
and his father are in business together. 13.
She is as good as ——. 14. I should
never have imagined it to be ——. 15.
Boys like you and —— are expected
to do what is right without being
told.
16. Yes, I told them what you said, ——
among the rest. 17. I did as well as ——.
18. It was Joseph, —— whom Pharaoh
made prime-minister. 19. Let ——
who made thee answer that. 20. Whom can I trust,
if not ——?
SHE, HER, HERSELF. 1. Before leaving Mary we saw —— and her baggage safe on the train. 2. —— and her two cousins have been visiting us. 3. I would not go to town alone, if I were ——. 4. It was not —— but her sister that you met yesterday. 5. You are as old as ——. 6. —— and I are not in the same class. 7. Was it —— that did it? 8. I cannot let you and —— sit together. 9. You play the violin better than ——. 10. Such girls as —— are not good companions. 11. I am certain that it was ——. 12. Girls like —— are not good company. 13. If any one is embarrassed, it will not be ——. 14. If any one is late it will be sure to be ——.
THEY, THEM, THEMSELVES. 1. —— and
their children have left town. 2. We shall soon
be as poor as ——. 3. Yes, it was
——. 4. I do not know whether the
Macdonalds are Scotch or Irish but I thought
the Scotch family alluded to might
be ——.
5. The mischievous boys you speak of could not
have been —— for ——
were
at home.
WHO, WHOM, WHOEVER, WHOMEVER. 1. ——
are you going to give that to? 2. ——
do men say that I am? 3. —— do men
think me to be? 4. —— am I supposed
to be? 5. —— do you think will be
elected? 6. —— do you think they
will select? 7. I do not know ——
to compare him to. 8. Tell me in sadness ——
is she you love? 9. —— are you going
to call on next? 10. How can we tell ——
to trust? 11. —— is that for? 12.
Elect —— you like. 13. ——
did you see at the village? 14. ——
did you say went with you? 15. Do you know ——
you can get to take my trunk? 16. ——
were you talking to just now? 17. I do not know
—— you mean. 18. Do you remember
—— he married? 19. We will
refer the question to —— you may
select as arbitrator. 20. —— can
this letter be from? 21. He is a man ——
I know is honest.[51] 22. He is a man ——
I know to be honest.[51] 23. ——
do you take me to be? 24. —— did
you expect to see? 25. Can’t you remember
—— you gave it to? 26. I saw
a man —— I have no hesitation in
saying was Julian H. 27. We like to be with those
—— we love and ——
we know love us, let
them be ——
they may.
28. —— do you think it was that
called? 29. He confided his plan to those ——
he thought were his friends. 30. He confided
his plan to those —— he thought he
could trust. 31. We recommend only those ——
we think can pass the examinations, and
—— we know
will do their best.
32. —— do you think she looks like?
33. One letter was from an applicant ——
I afterwards learned had been
out of a position for two
years.
34. —— did you suppose it was?
35. Opposite him was a handsome man—John
knew must be Kathleen’s uncle. 36. A witness
—— the counsel for the defence expected
would be present
was kept away by illness.
37. A witness —— the counsel
PRONOUNS BEFORE VERBAL NOUNS.[52]—Grammarians distinguish three kinds of words formed from verbs by the adding of “-ing.”
1. “We found Katharine singing a
merry song.” In this sentence
“singing”—equivalent
to “who was singing”—describes
Katharine, and is
therefore used as an adjective;
but it also partakes of the nature of a
verb, for it has a direct object,
“song.” Such words, partaking of the
nature of both adjective and verb,
are called PARTICIPLES.
2. “Blithely singing pretty songs
keeps one’s spirits up.”
Here “singing” is a noun, the subject of the sentence; yet it has a direct object, “songs,” and is modified by the adverb “blithely.” Such words, partaking of the nature of both noun and verb, are called GERUNDS.
A noun or a pronoun used before a gerund to denote the subject of the action should be put in the possessive case. The reason for this becomes evident if, in the sentence “Do you remember Katharine (Katharine’s) singing?" we substitute for the noun “singing” another noun, “song;” thus, “Do you remember Katharine (Katharine’s) song?" The direct object of “remember” is “singing,” which is described by the possessive “Katharine’s.”
3. “Katharine’s blithe singing of merry songs helps to make home happy.” Here, too, “singing” is a noun; but now its verbal character has disappeared, for it is modified by an adjective “blithe,” and instead of a direct object we have the prepositional phrase “of merry songs.” Such words derived from verbs are ABSTRACT VERBAL NOUNS.
When a word in “-ing” is modified by “the” or some other adjective, it is an abstract verbal noun, and cannot have an object. Conversely, if it, is followed by “of” and a noun instead of by a direct object, it should be modified by “the” or some other adjective.
[51] In the first of these sentences the pronoun to be supplied is the subject of “is honest,” and “I know” is parenthetical. In the second sentence, the pronoun to be supplied is the subject of “to be honest,” which is the complement of “I know.” [52] “Foundations,” pp. 62-64.
Which of the following forms is preferable? Give the reason:—
1. I heard of him (his) coming home. 2.
What do you think of Marguerite (Marguerite’s)
studying Latin? 3. Have you any doubt of Kathleen
(Kathleen’s) being happy? 4. We saw the
lady (lady’s) crossing the street. 5. Do
you remember my (me) speaking to you about your penmanship?
6. We saw the old miser (miser’s) sitting
alone in front of his hut. 7. What is the good
of your (you) going now? 8. There was no doubt
of him (his) being promoted. 9. Trust to me (my)
being on time. 10. Are you surprised at it (its)
being him (he)? 11. No doubt his example will
be followed by others, with the consequence
of the country (country’s)
being overrun by tramps.
12. Look at him (his) reading a book. 13.
The delay was caused by us (our) missing the train.
14. I found him (his) reading Idyls of the King.
15. This may lead to Harry (Harry’s) getting
a position. 16. We did not see the house (house’s)
burning. 17. You (your) writing the letter so
neatly secured for you the position. 18. The
man’s (man) breaking jail is evidence of his
guilt. 19. What do you think about this cloth
(cloth’s) wearing well? 20. We must insist
upon every man (man’s) doing his duty. 21.
Mr. R.’s (Mr. R.) having come to town will soon
be known. 22. There is prospect of the Senate
(Senate’s) passing the tariff bill. 23.
What use is there in a man (man’s) swearing?
24. His parents are opposed to him (his) playing
football. 25. No one ever saw fat men (men’s)
heading a riot. 26. A fierce struggle ensued,
ending in the intruder (intruder’s) being
worsted.
27. Professor C. relies on us (our) passing our
examinations. 28. I felt my heart (heart’s)
beating faster. 29. There is no use in me (my)
trying to learn Hebrew. 30. I enjoy nothing more
than the sight of a yacht (yacht’s) sailing in
a
stiff breeze.
31. Brown (Brown’s) being a manufacturer
prevented his election.
Distinguish in meaning between the following sentences:—
1. The man (man’s) asking to be allowed to vote started a quarrel. 2. Did you see him (his) riding? 3. I had to laugh at John (John’s) riding a bicycle. 4. Think of me (my) eating frogs’ legs. 5. Much depends on the teacher (teacher’s) correcting the papers. 6. Did you watch him (his) entering the room? 7. Did you hear Ruth (Ruth’s) singing? 8. No one ever heard of that man (man’s) running for office.
Explain the faults in the following sentences and correct them in several ways:—
1. He read the parable about the sowing the seed.
2. Good writing depends on reading of good books.
3. Youth is the time for the forming the character.
4. “In building of chaises, I tell you
what,
There is always somewhere
a weakest spot.”
5. He would not aid me so much as by the lifting
a hand. 6. Groaning of prisoners and clanking
of chains were heard. 7. By the obtaining wisdom
you will command esteem. 8. By reading of good
books his style was improved. 9. The taking things
by force is apt to make trouble. 10. A more careful
guarding the prisoners would have prevented
this accident.
CHOICE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.[53]—Who is now used only of persons; which, of things; that, of either persons or things. As a rule, euphony decides between who or which and that.
“Who is used chiefly of persons (though also often of the higher animals), which almost only of animals and things (in old English also of persons), and that indifferently of either, except after a preposition, where only who [whom] or which can stand. Some recent authorities teach that only that should be used when the relative clause is limiting or defining: as, the man that runs fastest wins the race; but who or which when it is descriptive or co-ordinating: as, this man, who ran fastest, won the race; but, though present usage is perhaps tending in the direction of such a distinction, it neither has been nor is a rule of English speech, nor is it likely to become one, especially on account of the impossibility of setting that after a preposition; for to turn all relative clauses into the form ‘the house that Jack lived in’ (instead of ‘the house in which Jack lived’) would be intolerable. In good punctuation the defining relative is distinguished (as in the examples above) by never taking a comma before it, whether it be who or which or that. Wherever that could be properly used, but only there, the relative may be, and very often is, omitted altogether; thus, the house Jack built or lived in; the man he built it for."[54]
When the antecedent includes both persons and things, that is preferable to who or which.
“When the antecedent is a neuter noun not personified, a writer should prefer of which to whose, unless euphony requires the latter."[55]
What, as a relative pronoun, is equivalent to “that which.” It is never used with an antecedent, since the antecedent is included in the meaning of the word.
The word as is a relative pronoun only after “such” or “same.” After “such” the proper relative is “as”; after “same” it is “as” or “that.” “Same as usually expresses identity of kind, same that absolute identity, except in contracted sentences where same as is alone found: cf. ‘he uses the same books as you do,’ ’he uses the same books that you do,’ he uses the same books as you.’"[56]
[53] “Foundations,” pp. 60, 65, 67-69. [54] The Century Dictionary. [55] “Foundations,” p. 68. [56] Murray’s Dictionary.
Insert the proper relative pronoun in the blanks in the following sentences, giving the reason for your choice:—
1. Man is the only animal ——
can talk. 2. There are many persons ——,
though they be starving, will not beg. 3. This
is the malt —— lay in the house ——
Jack built. 4. I will have no such son-in-law
—— thinks himself better than
I (me).[57]
5. Tennyson, —— was the foremost
poet of England, died in 1892. 6. Time ——
is lost is never found again. 7. There are many
—— saw him fall. 8. The soldiers
and cannon —— you saw belong to the
French army. 9. Who —— hears
Professor C. read the court scene from “Pick
wick” does
not go away delighted?
10. She is the same girl since her marriage ——
she was before it. 11. The dog dropped the bone,
—— then fell into the water. 12.
He —— does all ——
he can does all —— can be expected.
13. Her hair, —— was dark brown,
was gathered in a Grecian knot. 14. Tears, such
—— angels weep, burst forth. 15.
I have a water spaniel, —— follows
me everywhere. 16. The horse ——
ran away with Harry belonged to Mr. H. 17. Such
—— I have I give you. 18. This
is the same man —— I spoke of. 19.
The diamond, —— is so highly prized,
is pure carbon, —— in the
form of charcoal is familiar
to all.
20. All the men and horses ——
were on the transports were drowned when
the vessels sank.
21. The murdered innocents at Bethlehem were
martyrs —— died for a king
—— they
had never seen.
22. What pleased me most, and ——
has been most frequently mentioned
by visitors to the fair, was
the beauty of the buildings.
23. I trusted to my dog, ——
knew the way better than I did. 24. Dr. A.’s
report shows the same record of efficiency ——
has always
characterized his conduct.
25. Shakespeare was the greatest poet ——
the English race has produced. 26. He spends
all —— he earns. 27. The review
of the National Guard of Pennsylvania by Sheridan was
the
largest military display ——
I have seen.
28. Was it you or the wind ——
made those noises? 29. We have invited the same
girls —— were here yesterday. 30.
It was the cat, not I or the wind, ——
frightened you. 31. The dog ——
my brother gave me ran away. 32. Do you know
that man —— is just entering the
car? 33. Such eloquence ——
was heard in the Senate in those days! 34. He
held the same political opinions ——
his illustrious friend. 35. “Nature
ever faithful is
To
such —— trust her faithfulness.”
36. Is this a dagger —— I see
before me? 37. We saw the men and arms ——
were captured.
EITHER or ANY ONE, NEITHER or NO ONE.[58]—Either means “one of the two”; neither, “no one of the two.” When more than two persons or things are spoken of, “any one” is preferable to “either,” and “no one” to “neither.”
[57] See note, p. 45. [58] “Foundations,” pp. 69-70.
Insert the proper word or words ("either,” “neither,” “any one,” “no one”) in each blank in the following sentences:—
1. Only three persons saw the fight, and ——
of them would testify. 2. Has ——
of you two gentlemen a fountain-pen? 3. I defy
any candid and clear thinker to deny in the name of
inductive science —— of these six
propositions. 4. When two persons disagree, it
is not likely that —— is altogether
wrong.
5. Has —— of you who have just
come from the ball-field seen Julian? 6. I have
several histories of France, —— of
which will give you the
information.
7. Here come Harry and Arthur; ——
will go to get it for you. 8. Give it to the
six successful students or to ——
of them.
EACH or ALL.[59]—Each denotes every one of any number taken one by one; all denotes the entire number taken together.
[59] “Foundations,” p. 70.
Insert the proper word ("each,” “all”) in each blank:—
1. —— gave me his (their) hand(s).
2. —— of the workmen received two
dollars a day. 3. —— of the children
has (have) his (their) peculiar traits. 4. ——
of the members is (are) entitled to a vote. 5.
He gave an apple to —— of us. 6.
Did your father bring the boat to Harry? No, he
brought it to —— of
us.
7. —— of them did his (their) duty.
CHANGE OF PRONOUN.[60]—In referring to the same person or thing a writer should not change from one pronoun to another.
The possessive of “one” is “one’s” (not “his"), except in such expressions as “every one,” “no one,” “many a one.” The reflexive is “one’s self.”
It is a common but serious fault to begin to write in the third person, and then to change to the first or second.
[60] Ibid., pp. 72-74.
Fill the blanks with the proper pronouns:—
1. The Second Regiment of the National Guard,
—— was sent to Pittsburg
during the strike, and ——
is now in camp at Gettysburg, has six
hundred members.
2. John started to school last Monday; we wish
—— success.
3. Proud damsel, —— shalt be
proudly met. I withdraw my pretensions
to —— hand until
I return from the war.
4. As —— hast said, ——
lands are not endangered. But hear me before I
leave ——.
5. The cat was crouching on the piazza and we
were watching ——.
Suddenly —— tail
twitched nervously and —— prepared
to spring.
6. “Ere you remark another’s sin,
Bid ——
conscience look within.”
7. At first one is likely to wonder where the
boats are, since on entering
the grove —— is
(are) able to see only a small cabin.
1. Write the following note in clear and correct form, using the third person:—
“Mr. Smith presents his compliments to Mr. Jones, and finds he has a cap which isn’t mine. So, if you have a cap which isn’t his, no doubt they are the ones."[61]
2. Write a formal note in the third person, asking an acquaintance to dine with you at a certain hour in order that you may consult with him about some matter of importance.
3. Write a note in the third person accepting or declining this invitation.
4. Write a formal note in the third person to some gentleman to whom you have a letter of introduction, asking when it will be convenient to have you call.
5. Write a notice in the third person offering a reward for the recovery of a lost article.
SINGULAR or PLURAL PRONOUNS.[62]—The rule that a pronoun should be in the same number as its antecedent is violated most commonly in connection with such expressions as “any one,” “each,” “either,” “every,” “man after man,” “neither,” “nobody.” Grammatically such expressions are singular.
“He” ("his,” “him”) may stand for mankind in general and include women as well as men.
[61] Quoted in “Foundations,” p. 74. [62] “Foundations,” pp. 75-76.
Fill the blanks with the proper pronouns:—
1. Many a brave man met ——
death in the war. 2. Has everybody finished ——
exercise? 3. If any one has not finished let
—— hold up —— hand.
4. It is true that this is a free country; but
that does not mean that
every one may do as ——
please (pleases).
5. Either John or Harry will let you look on
—— book. 6. Let each take ——
turn. 7. If anybody but John had come, we would
not have admitted ——. 8. Any one
who wishes may have a ribbon to wear in ——
button-hole. 9. Neither Bois-Guilbert nor Front
de Boeuf found himself (them selves) a
match for the unknown knight who
challenged ——.
10. Every kind of animal has ——
own proper food. 11. Not an officer, not a private
escaped getting —— clothes wet.
12. The Senate has (have) instructed ——
conferees to yield to the demand
of the conferees of the House
of Representatives.
13. Everybody has possessions of some kind which
—— prize (prizes)
highly.
14. It is a shame that each of the men, when
—— draw (draws) ——
OMITTED PRONOUNS.[63]—The omission of necessary pronouns—an omission especially common in business letters—cannot be justified on the ground of brevity.
[63] “Foundations,” pp. 77, 78.
Insert the omitted pronouns in—
1. After twenty-two years’ experience announce
the opening of my new
store. Hope to serve the public
better by presenting new ideas. Would
invite inspection.
2. Have received manuscript, but not had time
to examine. Will take up in
a few days. If good, will publish.
3. Dr. Jones and wife occupy the front room.
4. My inability to get employment, and destitute
condition, depressed me. 5. She didn’t
trouble to make any excuse to her husband. 6.
Accept thanks for lovely present. Hope we may
have the pleasure of using together in the near future.
REDUNDANT PRONOUNS.—A vulgarism not often seen in writing, but common in conversation, consists in the use of an unnecessary pronoun after the subject of a sentence. Thus,
Teacher: Who was Benjamin
Franklin?
Pupil: Benjamin Franklin,
he was a great American philosopher and
statesman.
OF VERBS
CORRECT and INCORRECT FORMS.[64]—It is not enough to learn by heart the “principal parts” of a verb; the habit of using them correctly should be acquired. The following verb-forms are often misused:—
Present. Past Indicative. Past Participle.
awake (intransitive) awoke awaked
begin began begun
beseech besought besought
blow blew blown
bid ("to order,” “to greet”) bAefde bidden or bid
bid (at auction) bid bidden or bid
break broke broken[65]
burst burst burst
choose chose chosen
come came come
dive dived dived
do did done
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
flee fled fled
fly flew flown
freeze froze frozen
forget forgot forgotten
get got got[66]
go went gone
hang hung, hanged[67] hung, hanged[67]
lay ("to cause to lie”) laid laid
lie ("to recline”) lay lain
plead pleaded pleaded
prove proved proved[68]
ride rode ridden
rise (intransitive) rose risen
raise (transitive) raised raised
run ran run
see saw seen
set ("to put”; of the sun, set set
moon, etc., “to sink”)
sit sat sat
shake shook shaken
shoe shod shod
show showed shown
speak spoke spoken
slay slew slain
steal stole stolen
take took taken
throw threw thrown
wake (transitive) woke waked
write wrote written
In using the verbs drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim, it seems better to confine the forms in “a” to the preterite tense, and the forms in “u” to the past participle: as, “The bell rang five minutes ago”; “Yes, the bell has rung."[69]
The following forms also should be distinguished:—
Present. Past.
Participle.
alight ("to get down from,” alighted
alighted
“to
dismount”)
light ("to ignite,” lighted[7]
lighted[70]
“to
shed light on”)
light ("to settle down as lighted or lit lighted
or lit
a
bird from flight,” or
“to
come upon by chance”)
[64] “Foundations,” pp.78-81, 91-93. [65] “Broke,” as a form of the past participle, is still found in verse. [66] “Gotten” is an old form not sanctioned by the best modern usage. [67] “Clothes are ‘hung’ on the line; men are ‘hanged’ on the gallows.”—“Foundations,” p. 79. [68] “‘Proven’ is borrowed from the Scotch legal dialect.”—“Foundations,” p.92 [69] Ibid., p. 91. [70] “‘Lighted’ seems preferable to ‘lit’; but ‘lit’ is used by some writers of reputation.”—Ibid., p. 92.
Change the italicized verbs in these sentences to the past tense
1. The guests begin to go home. 2.
I beseech you to hear me. 3. The wind
blows furiously. 4. The steward bids
me say that supper is ready. 5. Mr. O. bids
forty-two dollars for the picture. 6. George
dives better than any other boy in the crowd.
7. I do it myself. 8. They eat
their supper as if they were half starved.. 9.
The enemy flee before us. 10. The door
flies open. 11. The wild goose flies
southward in the autumn. 12. He flees
at the smell of powder. 13. The Susquehanna river
overflows its banks. 14. The workmen lay
the rails for the track with great care. 15.
Obedient to the doctor’s directions, she lies
down an hour
every day.
16. Our cat lies on the rug by the hour
watching for mice. 17. The cows lie under
the trees in the meadow. 18. Helen comes
in and lays her coat on a chair. 19. The
envoys plead with Caesar earnestly. 20.
Both short-stop and pitcher run for the ball.
21. He runs up to Mr. C. as if to strike
him. 22. I see two cannon and a company
of infantry. 23. Harry sees me coming.
24. The negro women set their baskets on
their heads. 25. They sit in the third
pew from the front. 26. Mr. N. always shoes
my pony. 27. The savages who live on this
island slay their captives. 28. The catcher
often throws the ball to the second base. 29.
The sun wakes me early. 30. The bell rings
at seven o’clock. 31. The stag drinks
his fill. 32. She sings sweetly. 33.
Armed men spring up on all sides. 34.
Tom swims very well indeed. 35. The vessel
sinks with all on board. 36. The colonel
and his staff alight in front of the general’s
tent. 37. He lights the lamp with a splint.
38. On the trees a crested peacock lights.
Change these sentences so that the italicized, verbs will be either in the perfect tense or in the passive voice:—
1. The sleeper awakes. 2. The Gauls beseech Caesar to be merciful. 3. The wind blows my papers off the table. 4. Ethel broke her arm. 5. His wrongdoing breaks my heart. 6. The pressure of the water breaks the pipes. 7. They choose Mr. W. to be their chairman. 8. The enemy come in force. 9. The boys dive three times. 10. John is driving the cows out of the corn. 11. The boys are eating their supper. 12. An absconding cashier flees to Canada. 13. A robin flies to the vines by my window. 14. The Ohio river overflows its banks. 15. The water in my pitcher froze. 16. I forget his name 17. He gets along fairly well. 18. They go by steamer. 19. The sheriff hangs the condemned man. 20. The maid hangs up my cloak. 21. I lie on the couch twenty minutes to rest. 22. Tramps lie by the road below the gate. 23. Boys lay traps for hares. 24. They lay burdens on me greater than I can bear. 25. They plead their cause well. 26. This proves the truth of my assertion. 27. He rides alone from Litchfield to Waterbury 28. A mist rises before my eye. 29. I see the President often. 30. I set the lamp on the table. 31. He sits by the hour talking politics. 32. Rab shakes the little dog by the neck. 33. He is shoeing my horse. 34. This fact clearly shows the prisoner’s guilt. 35. He speaks his declamation well. 36. They slay their prisoners. 37. He stole my watch. 38. Some one takes my hat. 39. He throws cold water on my plan. 40. He writes home. 41. He wakes me every night by his restlessness.
NOTE.—If the teacher thinks that the class needs more drill of this kind, Exercises XXXVIII. and XXXIX. may be reversed, that is, the verbs in XXXVIII. may be changed to perfect or passive forms; the verbs in XXXIX. to the past tense. If this is done, some of the sentences will have to be slightly recast. In the next exercise drill on the same forms is continued in a different way.
Insert the proper form in each of the blanks in the following sentences:—
AWAKE, WAKE. 1. I—at six o’clock
this morning; I have—at about the same time
ever
since I came to school.
2. Lord Byron one morning—to find
himself famous. A certain Mr. Peck—one
day last week to find that the Nation
had made him notorious.
3. A few nights ago Mr. Michael Dixon was—by
a burglar in his bedroom. 4. He—me
an hour before time. 5. Have you—your
brother? 6. He—as I opened the door.
BEGIN. 7. He had—his speech before we arrived. 8. The Senators—to ask him questions. Then he—to be confused.
BID. 9. When the Major passed us he—us good-morning very politely. 10. Father has for—us to go there.
BLOW. 11. Before the sunset gun was fired the bugler—a strain on his bugle. 12. The top-mast of the sloop was—away.
BREAK. 13. Did you hear that Waldo has—his leg? 14. The window was—by Jack.
BURST. 15. When the South Sea bubble—, thousands of families were made poor. 16. The cannon was—by an overcharge of powder.
CHOOSE. 17. If they had—him, they would have—more wisely. 18. A better day for a drive could not have been—.
COME.
19. Harry—running up to me and asked
me to lend him my cap.
DIVE. 20. The loon saw the flash of my gun and—. 21. It had—several times before.
DO. 22. I know he—it; for it could not have been—by any one else. 23. Ask him why he—it.
DRIVE. 24. He was—out of town by his indignant neighbors. 25. This stake has been—in deep.
EAT. 26. The scraps were—up by the dog. 27. The men have—their dinner.
FLEE, FLY, FLOW. 28. During the night the river had over—its banks. 29. Benedict Arnold was forced to—the country. He—to England. 30. The birds have—away. 31. The guilty man has—. He—with his family to Mexico. 32. Our meadow was over—during the freshet. 33. The yacht—like a bird before the wind. 34. The lotus-eaters watched the gleaming river as it—seaward. 35. It had—through the same channel hundreds of years. 36. The terrified savages—to the mountains. 37. They shall—from the wrath to come. 38. The plantations along the Mississippi are over—.
FORGET.
39. Once Sydney Smith, being asked his name by
a servant, found to his
dismay that he had—his
own name.
40. Maude is late; she must have—the
time.
FREEZE. 41. I thought my ears were—. 42. He would have—to death if he had not been found by the St. Bernard dogs.
GET. 43. They have—home. 44. Whenever any milk was wanted it could be—from the magic pitcher. 45. Grace has—three seats for to-night. 46. Franklin asked the boy where he had—the bread.
GO. 47. The price of coal has—up since last year. 48. He would have—with us if he had been invited.
HANG. 49. Judas, overwhelmed with remorse, went and,—himself. 50. In olden times in England a man was—for stealing a sheep.
LAY, LIE. 51. Two men—under the hay-stack
all yesterday morning. They must
have—there all
night.
52.—down and rest. 53. He came in
and—his books on his desk. 54. After
he—down he remembered that he had left his
pocket-book—ing
by the open window.
55. He played until he was so tired that he had
to—down. 56. He has—himself
at full length on the grass. 57. You had better—down
for a while after dinner. 58. I have—down,
PLEAD. 66. He —— tearfully to be set free, but his captors were firm. 67. Yesterday he —— “not guilty.”
PROVE. 68. It cannot be —— that Mars is inhabited. 69. He thinks that the prisoner’s innocence has been ——.
RIDE. 70. We had —— only a short distance when rain began to fall. 71. Have you ever —— on a bicycle?
RISE, RAISE. 72. She could not get her bread to ——. 73. The price of corn has ——. 74. I —— so that I might look around. 75. The students —— him upon their shoulders.
RUN. 76. You look as if you had —— all the way home. 77. He —— up to me and asked what time it was. 78. He said some thief had taken his coat and had —— away with it.
SEE. 79. Charlie, who has just come in, says
he —— two suspicious looking men
near the barn.
80. Yes, I —— him an hour ago.
81. That is the best dog I ever ——.
SET, SIT. 82. Please —— still
while I try to find her. 83. The old man was
——ting in his easy-chair. 84.
He —— out for Boston day before yesterday.
85. —— down and talk awhile. 86.
The sun ——s at six o’clock
twice a year. 87. I —— the
basket on a rock while I went to the spring. 88.
We —— with our friends at the table
for over an hour. 89. In which seat did you ——?
90. I am—ting in my study by the window.
91. The children are dreadfully sunburnt; yesterday
they—in the sun on
the beach all the morning.
92. Just—down, till I call her. 93.
Annie, I have—the pitcher on the table.
94. He has—there all the evening.
95. We were all—ting round the fire.
96. I had to—up all night. 97.
The farmer after felling the tree found that it had
fell (fallen) on
a—ting hen that
had laid (lain) her eggs under its branches.
SHAKE. 98. All the restraints of home had been—off long before. 99. John—the tree; Lida picked up the nuts. 100. After they had—off the dust, they entered the house.
SHOE. 101. Go, ask Mr. N. whether he has—the horses yet. 102. He says he—them an hour ago.
SHOW. 103. They have—their good intention. 104. Has Edward—you his yacht? Yes, he—it to me this morning.
SPEAK. 105. English is—in many parts of the world. 106. After he had—a half-hour we had to leave.
SLAY. 107. David—Goliath with a pebble. 108. A brave man never boasts of having—his thousands.
STEAL. 109. He thinks the horse was—. 110. Some one has—my purse.
TAKE. 111. I found upon inquiry that I had mis—the house 112. Yesterday she—me home with her. 113. You look as if you had—root there.
THROW. 114. He—the ball to me and I—it back. 115. The Governor’s son was—from his pony this morning.
WRITE. 116. I think he should have—and told us. 117. He—for the book two days ago. 118. She has—for samples.
* * * * *
DRINK. 119. The toast was—with great
enthusiasm. 120. Then they—to the
health of the President. 121. He had once—sour
wine and slept in the secret chamber at
Wolf’s Crag.
RING. 122. The fire bell—twice last night. It had not—for two months before. 123. Has the last bell—?
SING.
124. The choir boys—the “Hallelujah
Chorus” from “The Messiah.”
It seemed
to me that they had
never—so well.
SINK. 125. The steamer struck an iceberg and—with all on board. 126. They have—two wells, but have got (gotten) no water.
SPRING. 127. The grass—up like magic last night. 128. Homer describes a race of men who—from the gods.
SWIM. 129. I once—three-quarters of a mile without stopping. 130. Having—the river, the fugitives plunged into the forest.
Illustrate by original sentences the proper use of the past indicative and the past participle of each of the following verbs, thus: A swallow FLEW into my room, but before I recovered from my surprise it had FLOWN out again. Give to the sentences variety:—
Awake, beat, begin, beseech, blow, bid (to order), bid (to offer), break, burst, choose, come, dive, do, drive, eat, flee, fly, flow, forget, freeze, get, go, hang, lay, lie (to recline), plead, prove, ride, rise, run, see, set, sit, shake, shoe, show, speak, slay, steal, take, throw, wake, write.
CONTRACTIONS.[71]—Some writers hold that in careful writing contracted forms should be avoided; but all are agreed that in conversation some contractions, if correctly used, are natural and proper. The conversation of a person who never said “can’t” for “can not,” “don’t” for “do not,” or “doesn’t” for “does not,” would seem stiff. Care should, however, be taken not to use plural contractions for singular, or singular for plural. Don’t is a contraction of “do not,” doesn’t of “does not.” The proper contraction of “is not” is isn’t; of “are not,” aren’t. Daresn’t, if used at all, should be used only when “dares not” might be substituted. Ain’t is a gross vulgarism.
[71] “Foundations,” pp. 81-82.
Insert the proper contraction (doesn’t, don’t) in each of the blank places:—
1. It—– seem possible. 2. The captain—– know what it is to be afraid. 3. John says he—– understand the problem on page 266. 4. Why—– she come? 5.—– it seem strange that they—– come? 6. Waldo—– improve in penmanship as fast as he should. 7. It—– look like pure water. 8. Why—– he answer? 9. The boy will fail, but he—– seem to care much.
MAY (MIGHT) or CAN (COULD).[72]—Can and could, which denote “ability” or “possibility,” are often wrongly used in the place of may and might, which are the proper words to denote “permission.”
[72] Ibid., pp. 82-83.
Fill the blanks with the right words:—
1. —— I leave the room? 2.
You —— go to the concert, but I doubt
whether you —— get a seat. 3. ——
we by searching find out God? 4. ——
I have some more lemonade? 5. ——
I have another piece of cake? 6. ——
you tell me which is Mr. Ames’s house? 7.
Mother says I—invite the girls to tea.
8. A man who knows himself to be right ——
afford to await the judgment of
posterity.
9. —— I write at your desk? 10.
You —— come to see me whenever you
—— find time. 11. They asked
whether they —— have a holiday.
12. They were wondering whether they ——
be recognized in their disguises. 13. ——
I have the use of your sled? 14. ——
I trouble you to get me a glass of water?
WILL OR SHALL.[73]—Some grammarians teach that the future tense of “go” is: “I shall or will go,” “You shall or will go,” “He shall or will go,” etc. The fact seems to be that there is only one form for the future; the other form, often given as an alternative, expresses something more than futurity, and is somewhat like a distinct mode.
A help to the proper use of shall and will is found in the original meaning of the words. At first shall and will were notional verbs,[74] shall meaning “to owe,” “to be obliged,” and will meaning “to wish:” as, “That faith I shall (owe) to God."[75] At present shall and will often retain some trace of their original meaning, will implying a reference to the will of the subject, and shall implying obligation or compulsion: as, “I will follow him to the end;” “He shall be brought to justice;” sometimes they are mere auxiliaries, with no trace of their original meaning: as, “It will rain to-day;” “I shall be glad.”
[73] “Foundations,” pp. 83-88. [74] By “notional verb” is meant a verb that has some distinct idea or notion of its own: as, “I have a ball.” Here “have” expresses the idea of possession. In the sentence “I have lost my ball,” the word “have” does not express a distinct idea; it only helps to form a tense of the verb “lose”: that is, it is not notional, but auxiliary. [75] Chaucer.
For practical purposes the distinction between shall and will may be exhibited as follows:—
Simple Futurity. Volition,
implying
that the matter is within
the
control of the speaker.
I (we) shall \ I (we) will
\
you will[76] } go. you shall
} go.
he (they) will/ he (they) shall[77]/
[76] Sometimes used in a courteous command to a subordinate officer. [77] Also used in speaking of what is destined to take place, or of what is willed by some ruling power.
In noun clauses introduced by “that,” expressed or understood, if the noun clause and the principal clause have different subjects, the distinction between shall and will is the same as in independent sentences: as,
My sister says (that) Dorothy will be glad to go with us. (Futurity; the same as, “Dorothy will be glad to go with us.”)
My sister says (that) Dorothy shall not be left behind. (Volition; the same as, “Dorothy shall not be left behind.”)
In all other dependent clauses, shall is in all persons the proper auxiliary to express simple futurity; will in all persons implies an exercise of will on the part of the subject of the clause: as,
Dorothy says (that) she shall (futurity) be able to go with us. She says (that) she will (volition) meet us at the corner. If Bessie will come (volition), we will try to make her visit pleasant. When He shall appear (futurity) we shall be like Him.
REMARK.—It is worthy of notice that in noun clauses introduced by “that”—clauses which are really indirect quotations—the same auxiliary is generally used that would be used were the quotation in the direct form: as, “My sister says, ‘Dorothy will be glad to go with you,’” “My sister says that Dorothy will be glad to go with us;” “Dorothy says, ’I shall be glad to go with you,’” “Dorothy says that she shall be glad to go with us.” This remark, however, is not an adequate statement of the best usage, for it is not true of such sentences as 21, p. 76, and 8, 22, p. 77.
In the first person “will” is never proper, except when it repeats a question asked by another person. “Will I go?” would mean, “Is it my intention to go?”—a useless question, since the speaker must know his own will without asking.
In the second and third persons the auxiliary which is expected in the answer should be used.
Will you dine with me to-morrow? I will. (Volition.) Shall you be glad to come? I shall. (Futurity.) Will your brother be there, too? He will. (Futurity.)
WOULD OR SHOULD.[78]—“Should and would follow the same rules as shall and will, but they have in addition certain meanings peculiarly their own.
“Should is sometimes used in its original sense of ‘ought,’ as in ’You should not do that.’
“Would is sometimes used to signify habitual action, as in ’The ’Squire would sometimes fall asleep in the most pathetic part of my sermon;’ and to express a wish, as, ’Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!’"[79]
[78] “Foundations,” pp. 88-90. [79] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p 63.
Distinguish in meaning between the following sentences:—
1. I will (shall) meet you in the village. 2. I will (shall) be obeyed. 3. Will he come? Shall he come? 4. You will (shall) repent of this. 5. He will (shall) not see me. 6. You will (shall) have a new suit to-morrow. 7. Shall (will) you stay at home to-night? 8. We will (shall) not be left alone. 9. She will (shall) have a reward if she continues faithful. 10. He would (should) start in spite of the danger. 11. Shall (will) you be a candidate? 12. He said he would (should) not go. 13. I shall (will) never see him again. 14. You will (shall) know to-morrow the result of the examination. 15. Will (shall) he who fails be allowed to try again? 16. Will (shall) the admission fee be twenty-five or fifty cents? 17. He thought there would (should) be a charge. 18. I will (shall) be the last to go. 19. He thought I would (should) wait. 20. He says that she will (shall) not eat watermelon. 21. If she disobeyed she would (should) be punished. 22. Do you think I should (would) go under the circumstances? 23. If they would (should) come, the danger would be averted. 24. If I would (should) say so, he would dislike me. 25. He says he will (shall) not come, since she forgot him at first. 26. We will (shall) come as soon as we can. 27. I will (shall) not endure his rudeness. 28. John says he will (shall) stay to see the game.
Insert the proper auxiliary (will, shall) in each blank in the following sentences:—
1. I —— be drowned; nobody
—— help me. 2. You ——
have a wet day for your journey. 3. He says he
—— not be able to come. 4.
We —— not soon forget this picnic.
5. He —— repent of his folly
when it is too late. 6. We ——
be pleased to have you call. 7. The gathering
—— be informal; therefore I ——
not need my dress suit 8. We ——
have occasion to test the wires to-night. 9.
I —— be obliged to you for your autograph.
10. He —— be obliged to you.
11. The managers have agreed that the race ——
be rowed again. 12. Do you think we ——
have rain? 13. If the fire is not put out soon,
we —— have the whole town to
Insert the proper auxiliary (would, should) in each blank in the following sentences:—
1. I —— like to know who he
is. 2. We —— prefer to go by
boat from Rhinebeck. 3. He ——
prefer to go by boat from Poughkeepsie. 4. He
—— be sorry to miss his train. 5.
I —— be sorry to lose this umbrella.
6. I —— feel hurt if he ——
abuse my hospitality in that way. 7. Were I to
go, I —— get tired. 8. He ought
to have known that we —— be ruined.
9. I —— think he ——
know they are fooling him. 10. The head-master
decided that you —— be promoted.
11. Ralph said he —— (volition)
not stay at the hotel if it were not
better kept.
12. Though I —— die for it,
yet —— I do it. 13. I was afraid
she —— not come. 14. If I knew
where she is, I —— write to her.
15. We —— have been paid, if
the treasurer had been at home. 16. They ——
have been paid, if the treasurer had been at home.
QUESTIONS OF TENSE.[80]—The tense of a verb should correctly express the time referred to. Most errors in the use of tenses are violations of some one of the following principles, which are established by good usage:—
1. Principal verbs referring to the same time
should be in the same tense.
2. The perfect indicative represents something
as now completed—as
begun in the past but continuing
till the present, at least in its
consequences: as, “I
have lost my book” (so that now I do not
have
it); “This house has stood
for ninety years” (it is still standing);
“Bishop Brooks has died,
but he has left us his example” (he is
not
now among us, but we have his example).
3. The tense of the verb in a dependent clause
varies with the tense of
the principal verb:[81] as,
I know
he will come.
I knew
he would come.
I have taken
the first train, that I may arrive early.
I had taken
the first train, that I might arrive early.
Blanche will
be frightened if she sees the bat.
Blanche would
be frightened if she saw the bat.
Blanche would
have been frightened if she had seen the
bat.
Present facts and unchangeable truths,
however, should be expressed in
the present tense, regardless of the tense
of the principal verb: as,
“What did you say his name is?”
4. The perfect infinitive is properly
used to denote action which is
completed at the time denoted by
the principal verb: as, “I am glad to
have seen Niagara Falls;”
“He felt sorry to have hurt your feelings.”
EXCEPTION.—Ought, must, need, and should (in the sense of “ought”) have no distinctive form to denote past time; with these verbs present time is denoted by putting the complementary infinitive in the present tense, past time is denoted by putting the complementary infinitive in the perfect tense: as, “You ought to go,” “You ought to have gone;” “He should be careful,” “He should have been careful.” A similar change from the present to the perfect infinitive is found after could and might in some of their uses: as, “I could go,” “I could have gone;” “You might have answered.”
[80] “Foundations,” pp. 93-98. [81] This is sometimes called the “Law of the Sequence of Tenses.”
Distinguish in meaning between the following:—
1. The house stood (has stood) twenty years.
2. The messenger came (has come). 3. He
should stay (have stayed). 4. It rained (has
rained) for two weeks. 5. He was believed to
live (to have lived) a happy life. 6. He ought
to go (to have gone). 7. He deposited (has deposited)
the money in bank. 8. I am sure I could go (have
gone) alone. 9. Yesterday at three o’clock
I completed (had completed) my work. 10. He must
be (have been) weary. 11. He appeared to be (have
been) crying. 12. He need not go. He need
not have gone. 13. The horse jumped (had jumped)
into the field, and began (had begun) to
eat the corn.
14. Achilles is said to be (have been) buried
at the foot of this hill.
Which of the italicized forms is right?—
1. Where did you say Pike’s Peak is
(was)? 2. I intended to do (to
have done) it yesterday. 3. Atlas is
(was) a mythical giant who was supposed to
hold (to
have held) the sky on his shoulders.
4. I do not think that any one would say that
winter is (was)
preferable to spring.
5. Cadmus was supposed to build (to
have built) Thebes. 6. Your father grieves
to hear (to have heard) of your bad conduct.
7. Would he have been willing to go (to
have gone) with you? 8. I meant to write
(to have written) yesterday. 9. He tried
to learn how far it is (was) from New
York to Syracuse. 10. He hardly knew that two
and two make (made) four. 11. His
experience proved that there is (was)
many a slip ’twixt the
cup and the lip.
12. Carrie knew that water is (was)
composed of two gases. 13. It was their duty
to prevent (to have prevented) this outrage.
14. He was reported to rescue (to have
rescued) the drowning man. 15. It would have
been unkind to refuse (to have refused)
to help
(to have helped) him.
16. It would not have been difficult to prevent
(to have prevented)
the disaster.
17. Where did you say Gettysburg is (was)?
18. It was as true as that he is (was)
listening to me when I said it. 19. It was harder
than I expected it would be (have been).
20. Homer is supposed to be (to have
been) born about 850 B.C. 21. When I came
I intended to buy (to have bought) all
Paris. 22. Washington is known to have
(to have had) many narrow escapes. 23 If you
would only wait, your success will (would)
Examine the tenses in the following sentences, explain any errors which you find, and correct them:—
1. I knew him since boyhood. 2. It was
a superstition among the Mexicans that a bullet will
not kill a
man unless it has his name stamped
on it.
3. Being absent from the last recitation, I am
unable to write on the
subject assigned this morning.
4. Soon after Oliver reached home a servant announces
the presence of
Charles.
5. “‘Got any luck?’ says I.
‘No,’ says he. ‘Well,’
says I, ’I’ve got the
finest string of trout ever was
seen.’”
6. Be virtuous and you would be happy. 7.
Stackhouse believed that he solved the problem he had
so long studied
over, and yesterday afternoon he
started from his house, No. 2446 North
Tenth Street, to make a test.
8. This beautiful little bird that appears to
the king and tries to warn
him, was not an ordinary bird.
9. Next September I shall be at school three
years. 10. I know very little about the “Arabian
Nights,” for I have never read
any of the stories before
I came to this school.
11. If he received your instructions he would
have obeyed them. 12. Before he was going to
have the sign printed he submitted it to his
friends for corrections.
INDICATIVE OR SUBJUNCTIVE.[82]—The modern tendency to drop the subjunctive is unfortunate, for the distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative is too useful to be abandoned.[83] A knowledge of the difference between these modes in English is especially important in view of the difficulty which pupils complain of in mastering the uses of the Latin subjunctive or the Greek subjunctive and optative.[84] For these reasons more space is given to the subjunctive in this book than would be called for by a mere discussion of modern English usage.
FORMS of the SUBJUNCTIVE—In form the English subjunctive differs from the indicative in several ways:—
1. In the single case of the verb to be there are distinct forms for the present and past tenses, namely:—
Present. Past I, we \ I were, we \ thou, you } be. thou wert, you } were. he, they/ he were, they/
EXAMPLES.—“See that my room be[85] got ready at once.” “I will work you a banner if you be[85] victorious.” “The headsman feels if the axe be[85] sharp.” “Take care lest you be deceived.” “Judge not that ye be not judged.” “I will beard them, though they be[85] more fanged than wolves and bears.” “If I were you, I would not say that.” “If you were more studious, you would rank high.” “Would that my parents were here!”
2. In other verbs the subjunctive form is distinguishable from the indicative in the second and third persons singular by the absence of the personal endings _-th,-s_, or _-st_: as,
Present Indicative: I have, thou hast,
he has (hath).
Subjunctive:
I have, thou have, he have.
Past Indicative: I had,
thou hadst, he had.
Subjunctive:
I had, thou had, he had.
Present Indicative: I come, thou comest,
he comes (cometh).
Subjunctive:
I come, thou come, he come.
Past Indicative: I came,
thou earnest, he came.
Subjunctive:
I came, thou came, he came.
[82] “Foundations,” pp. 98-101. [83] “Some people seem to think that the subjunctive mood is as good as lost, that it is doomed, and that its retention is hopeless. If its function were generally appreciated, it might even now be saved.... If we lose the Subjunctive Verb, it will certainly be a grievous impoverishment to our literary language, were it only for its value in giving variation to diction—and I make bold to assert that the writer who helps to keep it up deserves public gratitude.”—John Earle: English Prose, its Elements, History, and Usage, p. 172. [84] “The lecturer also put in a plea for more vitality in the teaching of English, which ought to be made the gate to other languages. Many of the difficult questions of Latin syntax might be examined in the field of English, if only we were careful to treat our English critically. Whereas most grammars cut the ground from under them by denying the existence of a Subjunctive Mood. Until teachers recognize generally that, in such a sentence as ‘If he had done it, it had been better,’ we have a Subjunctive in both clauses, and a sentence essentially different from ’If he had loved her before, he now adored her,’ English must forfeit half its value, both as a mental discipline and as a means of approach to Latin, Greek, and German.”—From a report of a Lecture by Prof. Sonnenschein, of the Mason College, quoted in Earle’s “English Prose,” p. 55. [85] In such sentences the indicative would be, according to modern usage, correct, and it is more common.
EXAMPLES.—“Long live the king!” “If thou go, see that thou offend not.” “It is better he die.” “Though he slay me, yet will I trust him.” “Unless he behave[86] better, he will be punished.” “If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to thee?” “Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise thee.” “If my sister saw this snake, she would be frightened.” “I wish I knew where Charles is.”
The perfect and pluperfect subjunctives are of course formed by means of the subjunctive present and past tenses of “have.”
3. Very often, instead of the simple subjunctive forms, we use auxiliary verbs—may (past, might) and would or should—to express the subjunctive idea. “May” ("might”) is common as an equivalent for the subjunctive mode in clauses denoting a purpose, a wish, a hope, or a fear: as, “Bring him the book, that he may read to us;” “May he rest in peace;” “I hope you may succeed;” “They were afraid we might lose the way.” “Would” and “should” are common substitutes for all tenses of the subjunctive: as, “Walk carefully lest you (stumble) should stumble;” “If he (come) should come, he will find me at home;” “It (were) would be better if he (went) should go alone;” “If my sister had seen this mouse, she (had been) would have been frightened.” In these sentences either the form in parenthesis or the italicized form is correct, though the latter is more common.
NOTE.—It does not follow that the verbs “may,” “would,” and “should” always express the subjunctive idea. In the following sentences, for instance, they express the indicative idea: “You may (i.e., are permitted to) stay an hour;” “You should (i.e., ought to) be punctual;” “Edith would not (i.e., was unwilling to) come.” In such sentences “may,” “should,” and “would” make simple statements of fact.
USES of the SUBJUNCTIVE.—The indicative form is used in expressing a fact or what is assumed to be a fact: as “He thinks he is ill;” the subjunctive form indicates some uncertainty or doubt in the speaker’s mind: as, “Whether it rain or not, I will go.”
The subjunctive idea occurs most frequently, perhaps, in conditional sentences. A conditional sentence is one that contains a condition or supposition. A supposition may refer to present, past, or future time. If it refers to present or past time, it may be viewed by the speaker as true, untrue, or as a mere supposition with nothing implied as to its truth; if it refers to the future, it may be viewed as either likely or unlikely. A supposition which is assumed to be true, or which is made without any hint as to its correctness, is expressed by the indicative. A supposition which is viewed by the speaker as untrue or unlikely is expressed by the subjunctive or a periphrase[87] for the subjunctive. When the character of the supposition makes the conclusion untrue or unlikely, the conclusion also is expressed by the subjunctive or a periphrase[87] for the subjunctive. The use of tenses is peculiar, as will be seen from the following table of a few common forms of conditional sentences. The tenses should be carefully noted:—
PRESENT: If it rains (is raining) now, I am sorry. Present indicative: A simple supposition without any hint as to its correctness.
If it rained (were
raining), I should be sorry.
Past subjunctive, both
clauses: The speaker implies that it is
not raining.
PAST:
If it rained (was
raining), I was sorry.
Past indicative:
No suggestion of doubt.
If it had rained, I
should have been sorry.
Past perfect subjunctive,
both clauses: The speaker implies that it
did not rain.
FUTURE: If it rains, I shall be sorry. Present indicative: The common, though inexact, form of a simple future supposition.
If it rain, I shall
be sorry.
Present subjunctive:
Less common, but more exact. The future is
uncertain.
If it should (were to)
rain, I should be
sorry. Subjunctive, both clauses:
The uncertainty is emphasized
by the auxiliary form; the chances
of rain seem more remote.
NOTE 1.—When if is equivalent to “whenever”, the condition is called “general”, to distinguish it from “particular” conditions, which refer to some particular act at some particular time. General conditions always take the indicative: as, “If (whenever) it rains, I stay at home.”
NOTE 2.—Sometimes there is no “if”, and then the verb or a part of the verb precedes the subject: as, “Were it raining, I should be sorry;” “Had it been raining, I should have been sorry.”
NOTE 3.—In such sentences as “If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died,” it may perhaps be questioned whether “had not died” is indicative, as in the Greek, or subjunctive, as in the Latin, idiom.
NOTE 4.—Clauses introduced by though and unless take the same forms as clauses introduced by if.
Wishes are naturally expressed in the subjunctive. The present subjunctive denotes a wish for the future: as, “Thy kingdom come.” The past subjunctive denotes a wish for the present which is unfulfilled: as, “I wish I were a bird.” The past perfect subjunctive denotes a wish contrary to a past fact: as, “I wish you had been there.”
[86] In such sentences the indicative would be, according to modern usage, correct, and it is more common. [87] See paragraph 3, page 84. The forms in “would” and “should” in conditional sentences, though they express the subjunctive idea, can hardly be called the “subjunctive mood”. Sometimes they are called the “conditional mood.”
Tell the time referred to in each of the following sentences, and whether the speaker regards the condition as true, untrue, or uncertain:—
1. If all men did their duty, there would be
less misery in the world. 2. Had I heard of the
affair sooner, this misfortune would not have
happened.
3. Were it true, I would say so. 4. I would
go with you if I could spare the time. 5. She
could sing if she would. 6. If love be rough
with you, be rough with love. 7. If all the year
were playing holidays, to play would be as tedious
as
to work.
8. If thou warn the wicked, and he turn not from
his wickedness, he shall
die in his iniquity.
9. He brags as if he were of note. 10.
If the natural course of this stream be obstructed,
the water will
make a new channel.
11. If the natural course of a stream is obstructed,
the water will make a
new channel.
12. If the book was in my library, some one must
have borrowed it. 13. If he knows the way, he
does not need a guide. 14. If he still wishes
to go, he may take my horse. 15. Had he followed
my advice, he would be rich. 16. Had she lived
a twelvemonth more
She had not died
to-day.
17. Though gods they were, as men they died.
18. Though the law is severe, we must obey it.
19. If the law be severe, we must change it.
20. Though the vase were made of steel, the servant
would break it. 21. Though the vase was made
of steel, the servant broke it.
Tell the difference in meaning between the italicized forms:—
1. If he is (were) studious, he
will (would) excel. 2. If he was
(had been) studious, he excelled (would
have
excelled).
3. Oh, that you may be (were, had been)
blameless. 4. Though he deceive (deceives)
me, yet will I trust him. 5. Though he deceived
me, yet will (would) I trust him. 6.
Though he deceived (had deceived) me,
yet would I trust him 7. Though the boy’s
coat was (were) made of silk, he soiled
(would
soil) it.
Which, of the italicized forms is preferable? Give the reason:—
1. They act as if it was (were) possible to deceive us. 2. If I was (were) in his place, I would go. 3. I wish my mother was (were) here. 4. See that no one is (be) forgotten. 5. If this is (be) treason, make the most of it. 6. If it rain (rains), the work is delayed. 7. If it rain (rains), the work will be delayed. 8. Take care lest you are (be) carried away by your feelings. 9. If he acquire (acquires) riches, they may make him worldly. 10. I could jump across the stream if it was (were) necessary. 11. If to-morrow is (be) breezy, we will go sailing. 12. If my father was
SINGULAR or PLURAL.[88]—The following principles, established by good usage, writers or speakers are liable to forget:—
1. The expressions each, every, many a, either,
and neither are
singular.
2. When the subject consists of singular nouns
or pronouns connected by
or, either—or,
or neither—nor, the verb must
be singular.
3. Words joined to the subject by with, together
with, in addition to,
or as well as, are not a
part of the grammatical subject, but are
parenthetical, and therefore do
not affect the number of the verb.
4. Since a relative pronoun has the number and
person of its antecedent,
a verb whose subject is a relative
pronoun agrees in person and number
with the antecedent of the relative.
5. “When the subject though plural in form
is singular in sense, the verb
should be singular; when the subject
though singular in form is plural
in sense, the verb should be plural:"[89]
as, “‘Gulliver’s Travels’
was written by Swift;”
“Five hundred dollars is a large sum;”
“Half
of them are gone.”
6. “A collective noun, when it refers to
the collection as a whole, is
singular in sense, and therefore
requires a singular verb; when it
refers to the individual persons
or things of the collection, it is
plural and requires a plural verb."[90]
[88] “Foundations,” pp, 101-108. [89] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 56. [90] Ibid., p. 57.
Insert the proper form of the verb “to be” in each of the blank places:—
1. “Horses” ——
a common noun. 2. Such phenomena ——
very strange. 3. The ship with all her crew ——
lost. 4. No less than fifty dollars ——
paid for what was not worth twenty. 5. Homer,
as well as Virgil, —— once students
(a student) on the banks of
the Rhine.
6. The committee —— divided
in its (their) judgment. 7. The genii who ——
expected to be present —— deaf to
every call. 8. France was once divided into a
number of kingdoms, each of which ——
ruled by a duke.
9. Sir Richard Steele lived in the reign of Queen
Anne, when the tone of
gentlemen’s characters ——
very low.
10. Each man employed in this department ——
paid for his (their) work. 11. Mathematics ——
my hardest study. 12. There ——
once two boys who were so exactly alike in appearance
that
they could not be distinguished.
13. Each of the heads of the Chimera ——
able to spit fire. 14. The jury ——
eating dinner. 15. “Plutarch’s Lives”
—— an interesting book. 16.
One of the most beautiful features of Kennebunkport
—— the tremendous
rocks all along the coast.
17. The richness of her arms and apparel ——
conspicuous in the foremost
ranks.
18. My robe and my integrity to heaven
——
all I dare now call my own.
19. Refreshing as springs in the desert to their
long-languishing eyes ——
Which of the italicized forms is preferable?—
1. A variety of pleasing objects charm
(charms) the eye. 2. Already a train or
two has (have) come in. 3. Each
day and each hour bring (brings) contrary
blessings. 4. The Senate has (have)
adjourned. 5. No monstrous height, or length,
or breadth appear (appears). 6.
I am the general who command (commands)
you. 7. Many a captain with all his crew has
(have) been lost at sea. 8. The jury who
(which) was (were) out all night
has (have)
just returned a verdict.
9. He dare (dares) not touch a
hair of Catiline. 10. The ambition and activity
of this railroad has (have) done much
towards the civilization of
the world.
11. Thackeray’s “English Humorists”
treat (treats) not of the writings
of the humorists so much as
of their characters and lives.
12. Addison was one of the best writers that
has (have) ever lived. 13. This
is one of the books that give (gives)
me pleasure. 14. Give me one of the books that
is (are) lying on the table. 15.
This is one of the most important questions that has
(have)
come up.
16. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight
(delights) some
persons.
17. Six months’ interest is (are)
due. 18. You are not the first one that has
(have) been deceived in
that way.
19. My room is one of those that overlook
(overlooks) the garden. 20. A committee
was (were) appointed to investigate the
MISUSED VERBS.—See the remarks under “Misused Nouns.”
I. A RESEMBLANCE IN SOUND MISLEADS.
ACCREDIT, CREDIT.—’To accredit means ’to invest with credit or authority,’[91] or ‘to send with letters credential;’ to credit means ’to believe,’[92] or “to put to the credit of.”
ARISE, RISE.—“The choice between these words was primarily, and still often is, a matter of rhythm [euphony]. The literal meanings, however, or those which seem literal, have become more associated with rise, and the consciously figurative with arise: as, he rose from the chair; the sun rose; the provinces rose in revolt: trouble arose; ‘music arose with its voluptuous swell.’"[93]
CAPTIVATE, CAPTURE.—To captivate means “to fascinate”; to capture, “to take prisoner.”
DEPRECIATE, DEPRECATE.—To depreciate means “to bring down in value,” “to disparage;” to deprecate means “to argue earnestly against” or “to express regret for.”
IMPUGN, IMPUTE.—To impugn means “to call in question;” to impute means “to ascribe to.”
Loan, lend.—The use of loan as a verb is not sanctioned by good use. Properly the word is a noun. A loan is money which a person lends.
[91] “Foundations,” p. 109. [92] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 38. [93] The Century Dictionary.
Tell the difference in meaning between—
1. The Amazon captivated (captured) our
hero. 2. The king depreciated (deprecated)
Napoleon’s effort to raise a new
army.
3. The readiness with which men impute (impugn)
motives is much to be
regretted.
Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:—
ACCREDIT, CREDIT. 1. Mr. Lowell was ——ed
as Minister Plenipotentiary to England. 2. These
reasons will —— his opinion. 3.
He did not —— the strange report.
4. The contribution of five dollars previously
——ed to Mr. Williams came
from Mr. Brown.
5. Mr. Sherman is well ——ed
as a writer on finance. 6. The bank has not ——ed
me with the interest on the deposit.
ARISE, RISE. 7. The court —— at four o’clock. 8. At the discharge of a gun whole flocks of quail would ——. 9. The idea of a reward did not —— in his mind. 10. Most of these appalling accidents —— from negligence. 11. The men —— against their officers. 12. Other cases of mutiny may ——.
CAPTIVATE, CAPTURE. 13. Her husband was ——d
in the battle of Gettysburg. 14. Mr. S. was ——d
by the young widow’s beauty. 15. Let us
attack them now and try to —— the
whole squad. 16. It is not merely what Chaucer
has to say, but even more the agreeable
way he has of saying it, that
——s our attention and gives him an
assured place in literature.
DEPRECIATE, DEPRECATE. 17. Financial panics
are likely to follow a—d currency. 18.
His purpose was—d by all who knew it. 19.
Both parties—war. 20. It is natural
for those who have not succeeded to—the
work of those
who have.
21. He—s his daughter’s desire
to earn her own living. 22. An injurious consequence
of asceticism was a tendency to—the
character and the position
of woman.
IMPUGN, IMPUTE. 23. We cannot deny the conclusion
of a proposition of Euclid without—ing
the axioms which are the basis
of its demonstration.
24. The gentleman—s my honesty. 25.
The power of fortune is confessed only by the miserable,
for the
happy—all their
success to prudence and merit.
26. Mr.X. is uncharitable; he always—s
bad motives.
ANTAGONIZE, OPPOSE.—To antagonize means properly “to struggle against,” “to oppose actively,” or “to counteract.” “In England, antagonizing forces must be of the same kind, but in the political phraseology of the United States a person may antagonize (i.e., oppose) a measure."[95]
CALCULATE, INTEND.—To calculate means properly “to compute mathematically,” or “to adjust or adapt” for something. In the sense of intend it is not in good use.
CARRY, BRING, FETCH.—To carry means “to take along in going;” to bring means “to take along in coming;” to fetch means “to go, get, and bring.”
CHAMPION, SUPPORT.—The word champion is very much overworked, being often used in the general sense of “support.” It should be restricted to cases in which there is the idea of entering the lists as champion of a cause.
CLAIM, ASSERT, ALLEGE, MAINTAIN, DECLARE, AFFIRM, STATE.—To claim means properly “to demand as one’s own or one’s due.” It is often loosely used, especially in the United States, for “assert,” “allege,” “maintain,” “declare,” or “affirm.” To assert is “to say or declare in the face of implied denial or doubt.” To allege is “to assert without proof.” To maintain is “to uphold by argument.” To declare is “to say publicly, clearly, or emphatically.” To affirm is “to assert on one’s reputation for knowledge or truthfulness.” To state, which is also often misused in the sense of “say,” “assert,” “allege,” “declare,” or “affirm,” means properly “to express formally and in detail;” it always implies detail. (See “Foundations,” pp. 113, 114, and “Practical Exercises,” p. 99.)
CONFESS, ADMIT.—“Admit, in cases into which the idea of confession does not enter, is preferable to confess. On grounds of idiom, however, ‘I must confess’ and the parenthetical ‘I confess’ are exempt from the operation of this rule."[96]
DEMAND, ASK.—To demand means “to ask for with authority or with insistence.” The use of “demand” in the sense of “ask” is borrowed, possibly, from the French use of demander.
HIRE, LET, LEASE.—To hire means “to obtain the use of;” to let, “to give the use of.” To lease means “to give the use of by lease.” The owner of a house leases it; the person who occupies it takes a lease of it.
LEARN, TEACH.—Learn means to “acquire” knowledge, not to “impart” it. In the latter sense the proper word is teach.
“I have more information to-day than I had before,” said Mr. Sheehan.
“This has learned you something,” said Mr. Goff.
“Oh no,” replied Mr. Sheehan, “it has taught me something."[97]
LIKE, LOVE.—Like and love differ greatly in strength or warmth, and may differ in kind. Like may be feeble and cool, and it never has the intensity of love. We may like or even love a person; we only like the most palatable kind of food. With an infinitive, like is the common word, love being appropriate only in the hyperbole of poetical or rhetorical feeling.[98]
MATERIALIZE, APPEAR.—To materialize properly means “to make or to become physically perceptible;” as, “by means of letters we materialize our ideas and make them as lasting as ink and paper;” “the ideas of the sculptor materialize in marble.”
PLEAD, ARGUE.—See plea, argument, p. 29.
STAY, STOP.—“Stay, as in ‘At what hotel are you staying?’ is preferable to stop, since stop also means ’to stop without staying.’"[99]
TRANSPIRE, HAPPEN.—To transpire means properly “to escape from secrecy to notice,” “to leak out;” it should not be used in the sense of to happen.
[94] “Foundations,” pp. 110-114. [95] Murray’s Dictionary. [96] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 18. [97] Newspaper report. [98] See the Century Dictionary. [99] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19.
Tell the difference in meaning between—
1. Please bring (fetch) a chair from the
next room. 2. You had better carry (bring)
an umbrella with you. 3. He asserts (alleges,
maintains, declares, affirms, says) that he has
been robbed.
4. Mr. A. stated (declared) his opinion.
5. He admits (confesses) the fault. 6.
The grocer asks for (demands) his money. 7.
He has let (hired) the boat for the afternoon.
8. We have leased (taken a lease of) the
cottage. 9. He is learning (teaching)
the alphabet. 10. Dorothy likes (loves)
Helen. 11. Washington stayed (stopped)
at this house on his way to Philadelphia. 12.
It transpired (happened) that we disagreed.
Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:—[100]
ANTAGONIZE, OPPOSE. 1. Ex-Secretary Windom ——d
ex-Secretary Sherman’s bill. 2. The body
is balanced by an incessant shifting of the muscles,
one
group ——ing the
other.
3. I am too weak to —— your
cunning.
CALCULATE, INTEND. 4. To-morrow he ——s to hunt the boar. 5. Bradley was able to —— the velocity of light. 6. He ——s to go.
CARRY, FETCH, BRING. 7. Farmers —— their potatoes to market. 8. What shall I —— you from Paris? 9. Harry, please —— a chair from the hall. 10. Go to the flock and —— me two young lambs. 11. The Spartan was to —— his shield home, or to be borne home on it. 12. When he dieth, he shall —— nothing away.
CHAMPION, SUPPORT. 13. The Republican party
——ed this measure. 14. He ——ed
the policy of the administration. 15. Gareth
——ed the cause of Lynette in the
combats with the craven
knights.
CLAIM, ASSERT, ALLEGE, MAINTAIN, DECLARE, AFFIRM,
STATE, SAY. 16. The heavens ——
the glory of God. 17. Rhoda constantly ——d
that it was even so. 18. I have endeavored to
—— nothing but what I have good authority
for. 19. Nay, if my Lord ——d
that black was white,
My
word was this, your honour’s in the right.
20. She ——s her innocence in
the strongest terms. 21. I will ——
what He hath done for my soul. 22. What if Nemesis
—— repayment? 23. It is not
directly ——d, but it seems to be
implied. 24. That such a report existed in Claudian’s
time cannot now be ——d. 25.
Geologists —— that before there were
men on earth this immense gulf
was a forest.
26. He fared on in haste to ——
his kingdom. 27. Will Mr. L. ——
his reasons for disagreeing with the rest of the
CONFESS, ADMIT. 35. He ——s that his opponent is a good man. 36. I —— that I spoke too hastily. 37. I —— that John was a thief. 38. Every man must —— that he has occasional fits of bad temper. 39. The problem, I ——, is difficult.
DEMAND, ASK. 40. He ——s why
I will not go with him. 41. The highwayman ——ed
their purses. 42. The pound of flesh which I——
of him
I dearly bought; ’tis
mine, and I will have it.
43. He ——ed the way to Chester.
HIRE, LET, LEASE. 44. Boats to ——; twenty-five cents an hour. 45. We will —— our country-house during the winter. 46. —— us some fair chamber for the night. 47. Bathing suits to ——.
LIKE, LOVE. 48. I —— to go
rowing. 49. He ——s to talk
of the days before the war. 50. All children
—— their mothers. 51. She ——s
her blue gown. 52. Don’t you ——strawberry
short-cake? 53. A maid whom there were none to
praise
And very few to ——.
MATERIALIZE, APPEAR. 54. The representatives of the other colleges did not ——. 55. His hopes have not ——ed.
STAY, STOP. 56. The King of Denmark ——s there during the summer. 57. —— a few moments longer. 58. She is very kind to ask me to —— overnight. 59. I am very tired; let us —— here and rest. 60. I’ve been ——ing with my mother for a week.
TRANSPIRE, HAPPEN, ELAPSE. 61. After a considerable
time had ——d, he returned to the
office. 62.
Silas takes an interest in
everything that ——s.
63. Presently it ——d that Henry
Roscoe was the obstinate juryman. 64. Many things
have ——d since the war was ended.
ACCEPT, EXCEPT.—To accept means “to take something offered;” to except means “to make an exception of.”
ADVERTISE, ADVISE.—To advertise is “to announce to the public” to advise is “to give counsel or information to a person.”
AFFECT, EFFECT.—To affect is “to act upon,” “to influence;” to effect is “to bring about.”
ALLEVIATE, RELIEVE.—To alleviate pain is “to lighten” it; to relieve it is to go further, and “to remove it in a large measure or altogether.”
ALLOW, ADMIT, THINK.—Allow properly means to “grant” or “permit,” not to “admit,” “think” or “intend.”
ALLUDE TO, REFER TO, MENTION.—We mention a thing when we name it directly. We refer to it when we speak of it less directly. We allude to it when we refer to it in a delicate or slight way.
ARGUE, AUGUR.—To argue is “to bring forward reasons;” to augur is “to foretell,” “to forebode.”
COMPARE WITH, COMPARE TO, CONTRAST.—“Two things are compared in order to note the points of resemblance and difference between them; they are contrasted in order to note the points of difference only. When one thing is compared to another, it is to show that the first is like the second; when one thing is compared with another, it is to show either difference or similarity, especially difference."[102]
CONSTRUE, CONSTRUCT.—“To construe means ‘to interpret,’ ’to show the meaning;’ to construct means ‘to build;’ we may construe a sentence as in translation, or construct it as in composition."[103]
CONVINCE, CONVICT.—“To convince is ‘to satisfy the understanding;’ to convict, ‘to pronounce guilty.’ ’The jury having been convinced of the prisoner’s guilt, he was convicted.’”
DETECT, DISCRIMINATE.—To detect is “to find out;” to discriminate is “to distinguish between.”
DISCLOSE, DISCOVER.—To disclose is “to uncover,” “to reveal;” to discover is, in modern usage, “to find.”
DOMINATE, DOMINEER.—To dominate is “to rule;” to domineer is “to rule in an overbearing manner.”
DRIVE, RIDE.—We go driving in carriages, riding in saddles. We drive behind horses, we ride on them.
ELIMINATE, ELICIT.—To eliminate is “to remove,” “to get rid of;” to elicit is “to draw out.”
ESTIMATE, ESTEEM.—To estimate is “to judge the value of;” to esteem is “to set a high value on,” especially of persons.
EXPOSE, EXPOUND.—To expose is “to lay bare to view;” to expound is “to explain the meaning of.”
FRIGHTEN.—Frighten is a transitive verb, and is used correctly in “The locomotive frightened the horse;” “The horse was frightened by the locomotive;” “The horse became frightened.” It should not be used intransitively, as in the sentence “The horse frightened at the locomotive.”
INQUIRE, INVESTIGATE.—To inquire is “to ask for information;” to investigate is “to make a thorough examination.”
INSURE, SECURE.—Secure, in the sense of “to guard from danger,” “to make safe,” is preferable to insure, since insure also means “to guarantee indemnity for future loss or damage.”
LET, LEAVE.—Let means “to permit;” leave, “to let remain,” or “to go away from.”
LOCATE, FIND.—Locate properly means “to place in a particular position,” or “to designate the site of,” as of a new building or purchased lands; it does not mean to find.
PERSUADE, ADVISE.—To persuade is “to induce,” “to convince;” to advise is “to give counsel or information.”
PREDICATE, PREDICT.—To predicate is “to affirm as an attribute or quality;” to predict is “to foretell.”
PRESCRIBE, PROSCRIBE.—To prescribe is “to lay down as a rule or a remedy;” to proscribe is “to condemn to death or to loss of rights.”
PURPOSE, PROPOSE.—“The verb purpose, in the sense of ‘intend,’ is preferable to propose, since to propose also means ’to offer for consideration:’ the noun answering to the former is purpose; to the latter, proposal or proposition."[104]
REPULSE, REPEL.—Repulse usually implies hostility; repel is a milder term. We repulse an enemy or an assailant; we repel an officious person or the unwelcome advances of a lover.
START, BEGIN, COMMENCE.—To start is “to set out” or “to set going,” and is not followed by an infinitive. Before an infinitive, “begin” or “commence” is used. “Begin is preferred in ordinary use; commence has more formal associations with law and procedure, combat, divine service, and ceremonial."[105]
SUSPECT, EXPECT, ANTICIPATE.—To suspect is “to mistrust,” “to surmise.” Expect, in the sense of “look forward to,” is preferable to anticipate, since anticipate also means “take up, perform, or realize beforehand;” as, “Some real lives do actually anticipate the happiness of heaven.”
[100] In some of the sentences one verb or another is allowable, according to the meaning intended. [101] “Foundations,” p. 115. [102] The Century Dictionary. [103] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 38. [104] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. [105] Murray’s Dictionary.
Tell the difference in meaning between—
1. I accept (except) him. 2.
Telegraphic communication was affected (effected).
3. The medicine alleviated (relieved)
her suffering. 4. He alluded to (referred
to, mentioned) the battle of Gettysburg. 5.
The first sentence was not well construed (constructed).
6. Mr. Fox was convinced (convicted).
7. Blanche of Devon disclosed (discovered)
the treachery of Murdock. 8. We are going riding
(driving) this afternoon. 9. He rides
(drives) well. 10. I will inquire about
(investigate) the business methods of the
building association.
11. The furniture has been secured (insured).
12. Let (leave) me alone. 13. He
advised (persuaded) me to have my life
insured. 14. He purposed (proposed)
to divide the class. 15. Did you suspect
(expect) us?
Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:—[106]
ACCEPT, EXCEPT. 1. Let us ——
the terms which they propose. 2. In saying that
the Alexandrians have a bad character, I ——
a few
persons.
3. Why did you not —— the gift?
4. He was ——ed from the general
condemnation. 5. It gives me pleasure to ——
your invitation.
ADVERTISE, ADVISE. 6. The procession was ——d to start at half-past two o’clock. 7. Under these circumstances we —— total abstinence. 8. The merchants were ——d of the risk. 9. When I return, I shall —— you.
AFFECT, EFFECT. 10. She was greatly ——ed by the news. 11. When a man is hardened in crime, no fear can —— him. 12. They sailed away without ——ing their purpose. 13. What he planned, he ——ed. 14. Bodily exercise indirectly ——s all the organs of the body. 15. The loud crash ——ed my hearing for a while. 16. Severe cold will —— peach-trees. 17. The invention of the telephone was not ——ed without great labor.
ALLEVIATE, RELIEVE. 18. Some fruits are excellent to —— thirst. 19. He gave me an opiate to —— my pain. 20. His charity went far to —— the wants of the poor. 21. My cares were ——ed by his friendship.
ALLOW, ADMIT, THINK. 22. He ——(ed) it would rain to-day. 23. He would not —— her to come. 24. I —— she will come. 25. He at last ——s that I was right.
ALLUDE TO, REFER TO, MENTION.
26. A Latin inscription ——ing
(to) the name of the road is cut on
the rock.
27. The people of the country, ——ing
(to) the whiteness of its foam,
call the cascade “Sour-milk
Falls.”
28. I proceed to another affection of our nature
which bears strong
testimony to our being born
for religion. I —— (to) the
emotion which
leads us to revere what is
higher than we.
29. He ——s (to) enterprises
which he cannot reveal but with the hazard
of his life.
ARGUE, AUGUR. 30. It ——s ill for an army when there are dissensions at headquarters. 31. Not to know me ——s yourself unknown. 32. E’en though vanquished he could —— still.
COMPARE TO, COMPARE WITH, CONTRAST.
33. The generosity of one person is most strongly
felt when ——d to
(with) the meanness of another.
34. In Luke xv. the sinner is ——d
to (with) a sheep.
35. Solon ——d the people to
(with) the sea, and orators to (with) the
winds; because the sea would
be quiet if the winds did not trouble it.
36. It appears no unjust simile to ——
the affairs of this great continent
to (with) the mechanism of
a clock.
37. Goethe ——s translators
to (with) carriers who convey good wine to
market, though it gets unaccountably
watered by the way.
38. To —— the goodness of God
to (with) our rebellion will tend to make
us humble and thankful.
39. He who ——s his own condition
to (with) that of others will see that
he has many reasons to consider
himself fortunate.
40. The treatment of the Indians by Penn may
be ——d to (with)
the treatment of them by other colonists.
41. Burke ——s the parks of
a city to (with) the lungs of the body.
CONSTRUE, CONSTRUCT. 42. We might —— his words in a bad sense. 43. How is this passage in Virgil to be ——d? 44. That sentence is obscure; it is not well ——ed.
CONVINCE, CONVICT. 45. The jury, having been ——d of the prisoner’s guilt, ——d him. 46. I hope you may succeed in ——ing him of his error.
DETECT, DISCRIMINATE. 47. I cannot —— the error in the account. 48. The chemist ——d the presence of arsenic in the coffee.
DISCOVER, DISCLOSE. 49. Events have ——d the designs of the government. 50. We often —— our mistakes when it is too late.
DOMINATE, DOMINEER. 51. Three powers there are that —— the world: Fraud, Force, and Right. 52. No true gentleman ——s his servants.
DRIVE, RIDE. 53. While Mrs. A. and her children
were ——ing in the park the horses
ran
away and overturned the carriage.
54. Will you go ——ing with
me in my new pony-cart. 55. While ——ing
in the park Mr. C. was thrown from his horse.
ELICIT, ELIMINATE. 56. Discussion is a good
way to —— truth. 57. His bearing
under the trying circumstances ——d
the approval of all
high-minded men.
58. It is the duty of a statesman to try to ——
the worst elements of
society and to retain the
best.
59. Let us try to —— the true
facts from this mass of evidence.
ESTIMATE, ESTEEM. 60. I —— him for his own sake. 61. Men do not —— highly the virtues of their enemies. 62. The shell of the hawksbill turtle is much ——d for making combs. 63. At what amount do you —— the cost of the journey.
EXPOSE, EXPOUND. 64. Daniel Webster ——d the Constitution of the United States. 65. Daniel Webster ——d the villany of the Knapps. 66. The text was well ——d in the sermon. 67. It is the business of the police to —— vice.
INSURE, SECURE. 68. Will you ——
my factory against fire? 69. For woods before
and hills behind
—it
both from rain and wind.
70. The cargoes of ocean steamers are generally
fully ——d. 71. The city is
——d by strong fortifications. 72.
How are we to —— to labor its due
honor? 73. To enjoy the benefits which the liberty
of the press ——s, we must
submit to the evils which
it creates.
INVESTIGATE, INQUIRE. 74. A committee was appointed to —— the needs of the laboring classes. 75. I will —— his name and rank. 76. Edison has been busy —— ing the nature of electricity. 77. A commission was appointed to —— the causes of the strike.
LET, LEAVE. 78. Please —— me take you to town. 79. We —— that to the judgment of the umpire. 80. Pharaoh said, “I will —— you go.” 81. Why do you—– your house go to ruin? 82. Peace I —— with you. 83. I will —— you know my decision to-morrow. 84. Please —— me out at the corner of Twenty-third Street. 85. —— us free to act. 86. —— go! 87. —— the beggar in. 88. —— us —— him to himself. 89. He —— the cat out of the bag.
LOCATE, FIND. 90. The missing man has at last been ——d by the police in Kansas City. 91. The part of the city in which the mint is ——d.
PERSUADE, ADVISE. 92. Almost thou ——st
me to be a Christian. 93. I ——d
him to take a walk every day, but I could not ——
him to
do it.
94. Columbus was ——d to give
up the thought of sailing westward in
search of the Indies.
95. When in mid-ocean, Columbus was ——d
to alter his course.
PREDICATE, PREDICT. 96. This very result was ——d two years ago. 97. Ambition may be ——d us the predominant trait in Napoleon’s character. 98. He ——s that the month of July will be rainy. 99. Disaster to the voyage was ——d by the enemies of Columbus.
PRESCRIBE, PROSCRIBE. 100. Sylla and Marius ——d each other’s adherents. 101. The doctor ——d quinine in doses of four grains each. 102. It is easier to —— principles of conduct than to follow them. 103. The Puritans ——d theatres. 104. The number of electors is ——d by law.
PURPOSE, PROPOSE. 105. I don’t ——
to let you escape so easily. 106. I ——
that we go boating. 107. We ——
d to go to-morrow, but I fear the rain will prevent
us. 108. I —— to work hard
this year. 109. Bassanio ——d
to pay the bond thrice over, but Shylock declined the
offer, for he ——d,
if possible, to lake Antonio’s life.
REPULSE, REPEL. 110. He gently —— their entreaties. 111. The charge of Pickett’s troops at Gettysburg was ——d.
START, BEGIN, COMMENCE. 112. Rosalind tells
Orlando to —— his courtship, and
he wishes to ——
with a kiss.
113. The Spectator was ——(d)
by Steele. 114. We have ——(d)
Homer’s “Iliad.” 115. We have
——(d) to find out our ignorance.
116. We ——d to feel that perhaps
Darcy is not very bad, after all. 117. We ——(d)
in an omnibus at seven o’clock. 118. She
has ——(d) to study French. 119.
Franklin’s voyage was ——(d)
under unpleasant circumstances. 120. It ——(d)
to rain in torrents. 121. The play has ——(d).
122. Hostilities have ——(d).
123. The people of Philadelphia were so much pleased
with Franklin’s
pavement that they ——(d)
paving all the streets.
SUSPECT, EXPECT, ANTICIPATE. 124. I ——
that my grandfather was a wild lad. 125. I ——
great pleasure from our association in this work.
126. The burglars —— that detectives
are on their tracks, but they ——
to elude the officers
by hiding in the country.
127. I was determined to ——
their fury by first falling into a passion
myself.
128. I —— that my father will
come on a late train to-night. 129. I ——
that the rogue thinks himself safe from detection.
130. The death of the general is hourly ——ed.
[106] In some of the sentences one verb or another is allowable, according to the meaning intended.
Tell why the italicized words in the following sentences are misused, and substitute for them better expressions:—
1. The death of his son greatly effected
him. 2. The Prince of Wales does not propose
to send a challenge to the owner
of the yacht Puritan.
3. He is learning me to ride a bicycle.
4. I cannot predicate what may hereafter
happen. 5. Will you loan me your sled
for this afternoon? 6. It is even stated
on the best of authority that the Minneapolis is
capable of attaining a speed of
twenty-four knots an hour, and of
keeping it up.
7. Miss Duhe claims that the clairvoyant
divulged many things that were
known to her only.
8. It is evident that whatever transpired
during the interview was
informal and private.
9. There is little in the “Elegy”
to locate the church-yard which is
referred to.
10. He says he cannot except the invitation.
11. Is the Governor’s wife stopping
at the Springs Hotel? 12. Dr. H.’s well-known
views have led him to champion the cause
of Dr. B.
13. I do not propose to disrespect[1]
the Sabbath. 14. Macaulay says Voltaire gestured[1]
like a monkey. 15. I love to see kittens
play. 16. I expect he must have arrived
last night. 17. I calculate it will rain
soon. 18. This dry weather argues ill
for the corn crop. 19. Mrs. Dennett broke open
the door, and found a startling state of
affairs. In the hallway
her daughter Grace was lying prostrate, and
seemed to be in an unconscious
state. She awoke her daughter, who,
after she had regained her
senses, related what had transpired.
20. Elizabeth allowed that he had given
a very rational account of it. 21. He calculates
to go to-morrow morning. 22. The Abbe was beheaded,
not hung. 23. I am looking for a fault
which I cannot exactly locate. 24. James
W. Reed, who mysteriously disappeared several weeks
ago, has
been located in England.
25. I expect you feel tired after your
long walk. 26. The strike of the tailors, which
it was claimed would transpire
yesterday, failed to materialize.
27. Do you allow to go to town to-day?
28. She tried to locate the places whence
the sounds came. 29. Floods in all directions.
Middle and New England States enjoy their
annual freshets.[107]
30. I had hard work to restrain[108] from
taking some.
[107] Heading in a newspaper. [108] Consult a dictionary.
Illustrate by original sentences the proper use of each of these verbs:—
Allow, learn, leave, let, loan, locate, accede, accredit, credit, arise, rise, captivate, depreciate, deprecate, impugn, impute, like, love, antagonize, champion, calculate, bring, carry, fetch, claim, assert, allege, maintain, admit, confess, demand, hire, let, lease, materialize, plead, argue, state, stop, transpire, accept, except, advertise, advise, affect, effect, alleviate, relieve, augur, compare to, compare with, contrast, construe, construct, convince, convict, detect, discriminate, disclose, discover, dominate, domineer, drive, ride, eliminate, elicit, insure, secure, esteem, estimate, expose, expound, investigate, persuade, convince, predicate, predict, prescribe, proscribe, purpose, propose, repulse, start, suspect, expect, anticipate.
[109] See Note to Teacher, p. 41.
OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
AN ADJECTIVE is a word joined by way of description or limitation to a noun or a pronoun.
An ADVERB is a word joined by way of limitation or emphasis to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
VULGARISMS.[110]—Every educated person is expected to know the correct use of the following words:—
GOOD, WELL.—Good is an adjective: the adverb corresponding to it is well. We say, “He had a good sleep;” “He slept well.” Well is sometimes an adjective, as in “You look well.”
LIKELY, PROBABLY, LIKE.—Likely is now used as an adjective only, except in the phrase “As likely as not;” ad the corresponding adverb is probably. We say, “He is likely to come;” “He will probably come.” Like as an adjective means “similar,” as, “Men of like excellence;” “He looks like his grandfather;” “He was a man of like passions as we are.” In the sense of “in the same manner as” like is followed by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case, and is called by some an adverb, by others a preposition: as, “He talks like her.”
LESS, FEWER, SMALLER.—Less refers to quantity, fewer to number, smaller to size.
MOST, ALMOST.—Most denotes “the greatest number, quantity, or degree.” It is always superlative and never means “nearly,” which is the proper meaning of almost. We say, “Most of the boys are here; the time has almost come.”
NEAR, NEARLY.—Near is an adjective; the corresponding adverb is nearly.
PLENTY is now in good use as a noun only, as “Plenty of corn and wine."[111] Shakespeare used the word as an adjective in “Reasons as plenty as blackberries,” but this use is obsolete. The use of plenty as an adverb, as “The food is plenty good enough,” is a vulgarism.
SOME, SOMEWHAT, SOMETHING.—Some is an adjective, as, “Some water;” “Some brighter clime.” Somewhat is an adverb, as, “He is somewhat better.” “Somewhat” is occasionally used as a noun, as, “Somewhat of doubt remains,” but in this sense something is more common.
THIS, THESE; THAT, THOSE.—This (plural these) and that (plural those) are the only adjectives in English that have distinct forms for the plural. A common mistake is to use the plural forms with singular collective nouns, as “kind,” “class,” “sort.”
FIRST, SECOND, SECONDLY, etc.—First is both adjective and adverb. Second, third etc., are adjectives only; the corresponding adverbs are secondly, thirdly, etc. Firstly is a vulgarism.
Everywheres, illy, lesser, light-complected, muchly, nowhere near, unbeknown are not in reputable use.
[110] “Foundations,” pp. 118-120. [111] See page 32.
Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:—
GOOD, WELL. 1. George played ——
in the football game this afternoon; he is a
—— runner.
2. She embroiders very ——. 3.
The draperies do not hang as —— as
I thought they would. 4. Your coat fits you very
——. 5. He always behaves ——.
6. This pen will not write ——.
7. He did the work as —— as
I could expect. 8. This is a ——
picture; the artist paints ——. 9.
Mr. A. is a —— workman. See
how —— he has laid this hearth.
10. George writes ——. 11.
Charles does not look —— to-day.
12. He says he does not feel ——.
Likely, probably, like. 13. It became evident
that the duke was not —— to have
his own way in the
assembly.
14. There is a difference between what may possibly
and what may —— be
done.
15. Just as —— as not you will
meet him on the road. 16. He is ——
to die of hunger. 17. He will ——
die of hunger. 18. It seems ——
that he will be elected. 19. ——
he will be elected. 20. Japan will ——
defeat China.. 21. If a man does not care for
himself, it is not —— that he will
care
much for others.
22. They are as —— as two peas.
23. Tell me who is married, and who is ——
to be. 24. This is a —— story.
25. As —— as not you love her
yourself.
LESS, FEWER, SMALLER. 26. A proper fraction
is —— than a unit, because it expresses
—— parts
than a unit contains.
27. I caught seven fish; Carl caught a ——
number. 28. Look for no ——
punishment than death. 29. I saw not ——
than twenty beggars to-day. 30. Rebellion is
sometimes a —— evil than endurance.
31. Not —— than twelve banks
in New York failed to-day. 32. We have ——
than a half a ton of coal left. 33. People who
live in the country have —— things
to talk about than city
people.
34. He received —— good than
he conferred. 35. I have ——
books than you. 36. There were ——
people there than I expected.
MOST, ALMOST. 37. I have ——
finished my lesson. 38. You will find me in my
office —— any day. 39. ——
men dread death. 40. We come here ——
every summer. 41. We have ——
done. 42. This wheat is ——
too thick. 43. Though I saw ——
everything else, I failed to see Hagenbeck’s
trained
animals.
44. —— everybody has imperfect eyes.
45. The old man’s strength is ——
gone. 46. —— boys like play. 47.
It rains in some places —— every
day. 48. —— all flowers are beautiful.
NEAR, NEARLY. 49. It isn’t ——
finished yet. 50. We are ——
the end of the lesson. 51. I am ——
suffocated. 52. We are not ——
through our work. 53. He is not ——
so young as I. 54. I will answer you as ——
as I can remember. 55. We are ——
the end of the term; our school-days are ——
over. 56. Mr. Patterson came very ——
breaking the greatest record ever made in
America.
SOME, SOMEWHAT, SOMETHING. 57. Thank you, I
feel —— better this morning. 58.
—— attempted, ——
done, has earned a night’s repose. 59.
He resembles his father ——. 60.
She felt —— encouraged by this (these)
news. 61. —— evil beast hath devoured
him. 62. He knows —— of Arabic.
63. We came back —— sooner than
we intended. 64. If a man thinketh himself to
be —— when he is nothing, he deceiveth
himself.
65. Dorothy looks —— like her
mother. 66. Yes, I’m ——
frightened, I admit. 67. It provoked me ——.
68. A widow, —— old, and very
poor.
THIS, THESE; THAT, THOSE. 69. You will always
see —— kind of man lounging in front
of taverns. 70. Take up ——
ashes. 71. —— pile of clothes is
(are) to be carried to the laundry. 72. ——
kind of tree is (are) common in Pennsylvania. 73.
—— brass tongs cost three dollars.
74. —— class will be graduated in
June. 75. In New England there is not one country-house
in fifty which has not
its walls ornamented with
half a score of poems of —— sort.
76. How do you like —— style
of shoe? 77. Do you like ——
sort of pen? 78. —— sort of person
is always entertaining. 79. Look at ——
assortment of knives. 80. Beware of ——
kind of dog. 81. Problems of ——
sort are very easy to solve. 82. Young ladies
should let —— sort of thing alone.
FIRST, SECOND, SECONDLY, ETC. 83. I shall ——
show why we should worship God, and ——
explain how we
should worship him.
84. Adam was formed ——, then
Eve. 85. Let us consider ——
what the young ruler desired; ——
what he had;
—— what
he lacked.
86. My —— proposition is that
the measure is unnecessary; my ——
that it
is unjust; my ——
that it is unconstitutional.
87. I will not lie; I will die ——.
88. I like the old English ballads because, ——,
they are very quaint;
——, they
show the derivations of many of our words; and, ——,
they
show different steps which
our language has taken in becoming what
it is.
ADJECTIVE or ADVERB.[112]—Illiterate persons often forget that adjectives go with nouns and pronouns, but adverbs with verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Even cultivated persons are sometimes in doubt whether to use an adjective or an adverb after certain verbs, as “grow,” “look,” “sound,” “smell,” “taste.” If the added word applies to the subject of the verb, it should be an adjective; if to the verb, it should be an adverb. We say “We feel warm” when we mean that we are warm; we say “We feel warmly on this subject,” when we mean that our feeling is warm. “As a rule, it is proper to use an adjective whenever some form of the verb ‘to be’ or ’to seem’ may be substituted for the verb, an adverb when no such substitution can be made."[113] Thus, “He looked angry; he spoke angrily.” Sometimes we may use either adjective or adverb with no difference in meaning: as, “We were sitting quiet (quietly) round the fire.”
Regarding the form of adverbs, ill-taught pupils often suppose that all words ending in “-ly” are adverbs, and that all adverbs end in “-ly.” A glance at the italicized words in the following expressions will remove this delusion: “Come here;” “very pretty;” “he then rose;” “lay it lengthwise;” “he fell backward;” “run fast;” “now it is done;” “a friendly Indian;” “a buzzing fly.” Though no comprehensive rule can be given for the form of adverbs, which must be learned for the most part by observation, it may be helpful to know that most “adjectives of quality,” like gentle, true, take the suffix “-ly” to make a corresponding adverb; and that the comparative and superlative degrees of adverbs ending in “-ly” usually prefix more and most.
[112] “Foundations,” pp. 120-128. [113] Ibid., p. 121.
1. Write careful (carefully). 2.
His teacher spoke cold (coldly) to him after
she found he had acted
dishonorable (dishonorably).
3. Speak slow (slowly) and distinct
(distinctly). 4. He behaved bad (badly).
5. He is a remarkable (remarkably) good
shot. 6. They were in a terrible (terribly)
dangerous position. 7. I am only tolerable
(tolerably) well, sir. 8. He acted very different
(differently) from his brother. 9. It is
discouraging to see how bad (badly) the affairs
of our nation
are sometimes managed.
10. He writes plainer (more plainly) than
he once did. 11. You are exceeding (exceedingly)
kind. 12. He struggled manful (manfully)
against the waves. 13. You have been wrong
(wrongly) informed. 14. Sure (surely) he
is a fine gentleman. 15. She dresses suitable
(suitably) to her station. 16. That part
of the work was managed easy (easily) enough.
[114] See page 110.
Distinguish between— 1. We found the way easy (easily). 2. The prunes are boiling soft (softly). 3. He appeared prompt (promptly). 4. It looks good (well). 5. We arrived safe (safely).
Which of the italicized words is preferable?
Give the reason:— 1. Velvet feels
smooth (smoothly). 2. Clouds sail slow
(slowly) through the air. 3. This carriage
rides easy (easily). 4. How sweet (sweetly)
these roses smell! 5. They felt very bad (badly)
at being beaten.[115] 6. Your piano sounds different
(differently) from ours. 7. The storm is
raging furious (furiously). 8. This milk
tastes sour (sourly). 9. The soldiers
fought gallant (gallantly). 10. She looked
cold (coldly) on his offer of marriage. 11.
Ethel looks sweet (sweetly) in a white gown.
12. How beautiful (beautifully) the stars
appear to-night! 13. This coat goes on easy
(easily). 14. How beautiful (beautifully)
Katharine looks this morning. 15. Luther stood
firm (firmly) in spite of abuse. 16. It
looks strange (strangely) to see you here.
17. Deal gentle (gently) with them. 18.
The cry sounded shrill (shrilly). 19.
Larks sing sweet (sweetly). 20. He felt
awkward (awkwardly) in the presence of ladies.
21. He has acted strange (strangely).
22. The water feels warm (warmly). 23.
We feel warm (warmly) on that subject. 24.
The dead warrior looked fierce (fiercely).
25. The wind blows very cold (coldly) to-day.
26. War clouds rolling dim (dimly). 27.
The shutters are painted green (greenly). 28.
She works good (well) and neat (neatly).
29. Protestants believe that the bread of the
Lord’s supper is not real
(really) changed, but
remains real (really) bread.
30. Homer says the blood of the gods is not real
(really) blood, but
only something like it.
31. Real (really) kings hide away their crowns
in their wardrobes, and
affect a plain and poor exterior.
ALONE, ONLY.—“In the Bible and earlier English alone is often used for the adverb only, but it is now becoming restricted to its own sense of ‘solitary,’ ’unaccompanied by other persons or things’;"[116] as, “He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone.” Only is both adjective and adverb.
[115] See “Foundations,” p. 121. [116] The Century Dictionary.
Fill each blank with the proper word ("only,” “alone"):—
1. She —— of all the family
had courage to go —— into that darkened
room.
2. These books are sold in sets ——.
3. Man cannot live on bread ——.
4. This fault —— is enough to
make her disagreeable. 5. By chance ——
did he escape the gallows. 6. Not ——
at Ephesus, but throughout all Asia, Paul persuaded
many
people.
7. To be successful a school paper must be supported,
not —— with
subscriptions, but also with contributions.
OMITTED ADVERBS.[117]—Adverbs necessary to the sense should not be omitted. This fault is especially common after so, too, and very—words which, as they express degree, properly qualify adjectives or adverbs, and not verbs or participles; also after behave, which, like the noun “behavior,” requires a qualifying word to determine the meaning.
[117] “Foundations,” p. 123.
Supply the omitted adverbs:—
1. He was very struck by what she said. 2. I wish you would behave. 3. The king was very dissatisfied with his wife. 4. I have too trusted to my own wild wants. 5. If you cannot behave yourself, you had better stay at home. 6. We are very pleased to see you.
REDUNDANT ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.[118]—A word that is not needed is said to be “redundant.” Redundant expressions should be carefully avoided.
[118] Ibid., pp. 123-125.
Strike out the useless adjectives and adverbs:—
1. From thence they marched twenty miles. 2.
Which do you prefer most, apples or oranges? 3.
Whenever I meet him he always stops me. 4. Celia
wished to accompany Rosalind; therefore they both set
out
together.
5. The view from the top is simply beautiful.
6. Finally Rosalind disclosed her true identity.
7. The exercises are appointed for 2 P.M. to-morrow
afternoon. 8. There are numerous mountain streams
all throughout this region which
abound in brook trout.
9. The central pith of the report is as follows.
10. Secluded and alone, he now partook of his
solitary repast, which he
entirely consumed.
11. Out of the second term I took out the factor
x. 12. Right in behind East Rock we have
a beautiful lake. 13. When everything was all
ready they started off. 14. He was a boy of eighteen
MISUSED ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS.[119]—See the remarks under “Misused Nouns.” An amusing illustration of misused adjectives was furnished by an illiterate man who introduced his second wife to a friend as “My late wife.”
AGGRAVATING, IRRITATING.—In good use aggravating means “making heavier, more grave, worse in some way.” It is often misused for irritating, exasperating, or provoking.
ALL, THE WHOLE.—See page 120.
APT, LIKELY, LIABLE.—Apt implies a natural predisposition, an habitual tendency. “Likely implies a probability of whatever character; liable, an unpleasant probability."[120] One is apt to speak quickly, likely to hear good news, liable to be hurt.
BOTH, EACH, EVERY.—Both, meaning “the two, and not merely one of them,” groups objects, as, “Both were men of hot temper.” Each means “all of any number, considered one by one,” as, “Each boy recited in his turn.” Every means “all of any number, considered as composing a group or class,” as, “Every pupil should have a dictionary and use it freely.” “Every directs attention chiefly to the totality, each chiefly to the individuals composing it. It may also be observed that each usually refers to a numerically definite group.... Thus, ’Each theory is open to objection’ relates to an understood enumeration of theories, but ’Every theory is open to objection’ refers to all theories that may exist."[121]
MANY, MUCH.—Many refers to number, much to quantity.
MUTUAL, COMMON.—Mutual properly means “reciprocal,” “interchanged.” It is often misused for common in the sense of “belonging equally to both or all,” especially in the phrase, “A mutual friend.”
PARTLY, PARTIALLY.—“Partly, in the sense of ‘in part,’ is preferable to partially, since partially also means ‘with partiality.’"[122]
QUITE, VERY.—Quite properly means “entirely”; in the sense of “very” or “to a considerable degree” it is not in good use.
SO-AS, AS-AS.—Both so and as are used as adverbs of degree correlative with the conjunction “as”: unless there is a negative in the clause as is generally used; with a negative so is preferable to as. We say “It is as cold as ice,” “It is not so good as it looks.”
[119] “Foundations,” p. 125. [120] Ibid., p. 128. [121] Murray’s Dictionary. [122] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19.
Tell the difference in meaning between—
1. The circumstances of the offense are aggravating (exasperating). 2. She gave an orange to both (each) of them. 3. Each (every) man has his faults. 4. I had a call from both (each) of the boys. 5. He is apt (likely) to win the race. 6. A mutual (common) friendship. 7. The weekly reports are partially (partly) made out.
Insert the proper word in each blank:—
AGGRAVATING, IRRITATING. 1. Some of his remarks were ——. 2. The prisoner said his wife’s conduct had been very ——. 3. He has an —— manner. 4. He was too —— by half. 5. The murder was committed under —— circumstances.
ALL, THE WHOLE.
6. —— (of) the boys were sent off
at a day’s notice to their homes.
[For additional exercises, see page 125].
APT, LIKELY, LIABLE. 7. An industrious man is
—— to succeed. 8. The ship
was —— to founder at any moment.
9. Bad books are —— to corrupt
the reader, 10. If a man does not care for himself,
he is not —— to care much for
other people.
11. Youth is —— to err. 12.
Any kind of taxation is —— to be
looked on as a grievance. 13. We are constantly
—— to accidents. 14. Men are
—— to think well of themselves, their
nation, their courage,
and their strength.
BOTH, EACH, EVERY. 15. —— of them has (have) taken a different course. 16. —— went his way. 17. He told me to invite —— brother and sister. 18. He gave his hand to —— of them. 19. In —— cheek (cheeks) appears a pretty dimple. 20. I am feeling better in —— way. 21. The oak and the elm have —— a distinct character. 22. He’ll be hanged yet, though —— drop of water swear against it. 23. —— soldier has a musket, and —— one fires as fast as he can. 24. —— inhabitant, male or female, young or old, was there. 25. In —— ten women that the gods make, the devils mar five. 26. There is a row of beautiful elm-trees on —— side(s) of the road.
MANY, MUCH. 27. We saw as ——
as twenty tramps. 28. He blames his uncle for
—— of his misfortune. 29. I
found that —— of the accidents on
this railroad are caused by
negligence.
30. How —— of your peaches
have you sold?
MUTUAL, COMMON. 31. Charles and his wife were happy in their —— love. 32. They parted with —— good feeling. 33. We have a —— friend in Mr. Phelps. 34. I find, Miss Vernon, that we have some —— friends.
PARTLY, PARTIALLY. 35. Beware of acting ——. 36. All men are —— buried in the grave of custom. 37. This is —— true. 38. The city of York is —— surrounded by a wall.
QUITE, VERY. 39. The country is —— open. 40. The snow has —— covered the ground. 41. Books —— worthless are —— harmless. 42. The island is —— close to the mainland. 43. He was —— dead when they found him. 44. You are —— mistaken. 45. He is —— ill.
SO-AS, AS-AS. 46. She is —— amiable as she is beautiful. 47. He is —— tall as his brother, but not —— tall as I. 48. You have never —— much as answered my letter. 49. Come —— quickly as you can. 50. No other country suffered —— much as England.
APPARENTLY, EVIDENTLY, MANIFESTLY.—“Apparently is properly used of that which seems, but may not be, real; evidently, of that which both seems and is real."[123] Manifestly is stronger than evidently.
AVERAGE, ORDINARY.—Average implies an arithmetical computation; if four persons lose respectively $10, $20, $30, and $40, the average loss is $25. The word is used figuratively by Dr. O.W. Holmes in “The average intellect of five hundred persons, taken as they come, is not very high.” In the sense of “usual,” “common in occurrence,” “of the usual standard,” ordinary is preferable to average.
BOUND, DETERMINED.—Bound properly means “obliged,” “fated,” or “under necessity”: as, “A man is bound by his word;” “We hold ourselves in gratitude bound to receive ... all such persons.” In the sense of “determined” hound is not in good use. In the sense of “sure” it is in colloquial, but not in literary, use.
CONTINUAL, CONTINUOUS.—“Continual is used of frequently repeated acts, as, ‘Continual dropping wears away a stone;’ continuous, of uninterrupted action, as, ‘the continuous flowing of a river.’"[125]
DEADLY, DEATHLY.—“Deathly, in the sense of ‘resembling death,’ as, ‘She was deathly pale,’ is preferable to deadly, since deadly also means ‘inflicting death.’"[124]
DECIDED, DECISIVE.—“A decided opinion is a strong opinion, which perhaps decides nothing; a decisive opinion settles the question at issue. A lawyer may have decided views on a case; the judgment of a court is decisive."[125]
DUMB, STUPID.—Dumb properly means “mute,” “silent.” Its misuse for stupid is partly due, especially in Pennsylvania, to its resemblance to the German dumm.
EXISTING, EXTANT.—That is extant which has escaped the ravages of time (used chiefly of books, manuscripts, etc.); that is existing which has existence.
FUNNY, ODD.—Funny means “comical;” in the sense of “strange” or “odd” it is not in good use.
HEALTHY, HEALTHFUL, WHOLESOME.—That is healthy which is in good health; that is healthful or wholesome which produces health. Wholesome commonly applies to food.
HUMAN, HUMANE.—Human denotes what pertains to man as man; as, “human nature,” “human sacrifices.” Humane means “compassionate.”
LATEST, LAST.—Latest, like the word “late,” contains a distinct reference to time; that is latest which comes after all others in time: as, “The latest news;” “The latest fashion.” Last, which was originally a contraction of “latest,” is now used without any distinct reference to time, and denotes that which comes after all others in space or in a series: as, “The last house on the street;” “The Last of the Mohicans.”
LENGTHY, LONG.—Lengthy is said to have originated in the United States, but the earliest quotations found are from British authors. In the introduction to the second series of The Biglow Papers, Mr. Lowell wrote: “We have given back to England the excellent adjective lengthy ... thus enabling their journalists to characterize our President’s messages by a word civilly compromising between long and tedious, so as not to endanger the peace of the two countries by wounding our national sensitiveness to British criticism.” Lengthy is used chiefly of discourses or writings, and implies tediousness. Long is used of anything that has length.
MAD, ANGRY.—Mad means “insane;” in the sense of “angry” it is not in good use.
NEW, NOVEL.—That is new which is not old; that is novel which is both new and strange.
ORAL, VERBAL.—“Oral, in the sense of ‘in spoken words,’ is preferable to verbal, since verbal means ‘in words’ whether spoken or written."[126]
PITIABLE, PITIFUL.—“Pitiable, in the sense of ‘deserving pity,’ is preferable to pitiful, since pitiful also means ‘compassionate,’ as, ‘The Lord is very pitiful, and of tender mercy.’"[126]
PRACTICABLE, PRACTICAL.—That is practicable which can be done; that is practical which is not theoretical only: as, “a practicable plan,” “a practical electrician.”
PROMINENT, EMINENT.—Prominent means “conspicuous,” “standing out so as to be easily seen;” eminent means “distinguished in character or rank.”
REAL, REALLY, VERY.—Real is properly an adjective, meaning “not imaginary or counterfeit,” as, “real diamonds.” Its misuse for the adverbs really and very, as, “This is real pretty,” is a vulgarism.
SCARED, AFRAID.—The participle scared means “frightened;” afraid is an adjective meaning “in fear.” Before “of,” the proper word is afraid: as, “She is afraid of horses.” Scared of is not in good use.
GRAND, GORGEOUS, AWFUL, SPLENDID, ELEGANT, LOVELY, MAGNIFICENT.—Grand properly implies “grandeur;” gorgeous, “splendid colors;” awful, “awe;” elegant, “elegance;” splendid, “splendor;” lovely, “surpassing loveliness;” magnificent, “magnificence.”
“We talk, sometimes, with people whose conversation would lead you to suppose that they had lived in a museum, where all the objects were monsters and extremes.... They use the superlative of grammar: ’most perfect,’ ‘most exquisite,’ ‘most horrible.’ Like the French, they are enchanted, they are desolate, because you have got or have not got a shoestring or a wafer you happen to want—not perceiving that superlatives are diminutives and weaken.... All this comes of poverty. We are unskilful definers. From want of skill to convey quality, we hope to move admiration by quantity. Language should aim to describe the fact.... ’Tis very wearisome, this straining talk, these experiences all exquisite, intense, and tremendous."[127]
[123] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 39. [124] Ibid., p. 18. [125] Ibid., p. 38. [126] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19. [127] R.W. Emerson; The Superlative.
Tell the difference in meaning between—
1. The average (ordinary) yield of wheat. 2. He is bound (determined) to come. 3. There was continual (continuous) fighting for three days. 4. It was deadly (deathly) cold in the cave. 5. A decided (decisive) victory. 6. The boy is dumb (stupid). 7. His story is apparently (evidently, manifestly) true. 8. The existing (extant) portraits of Milton. 9. His actions were very funny (odd). 10. This is a healthy (wholesome) plant. 11. A human (humane) being. 12. His latest (last) attempt. 13. Long (lengthy) explanations. 14. She became mad (angry). 15. A new (novel) style. 16. An oral (verbal) message. 17. A pitiable (pitiful) man. 18. Your purpose seems practical (practicable). 19. A prominent (an eminent) man. 20. He was really (very) glad to see us.
Insert the proper word in each blank:—
APPARENTLY, EVIDENTLY, MANIFESTLY. 1. The motion
which—– belongs to the sun, really
belongs to the earth. 2. The stranger was—–
in the prime of manhood. 3. The apparent (evident)
discrepancy between the two narratives is not
real.
4. Our country is—– growing
in wealth. 5. A straight line is—–
the shortest distance between two points.
AVERAGE, ORDINARY. 6. To be excited is not the—–
state of the mind. 7. This picture has only—–
merit. 8.—– conversation is not instructive.
9. The—– American is not wealthy.
10. The—– expenses per man of
the Yale class of ’95 during Freshman year
were $912.
11. The life of the—– man is
safer and more comfortable than it was a
century ago.
12. The—– age of the signers
of the Declaration of Independence was
nearly forty-four.
13. Their—– duties were easy.
BOUND, DETERMINED. 14. He worked hard at his
piece, for he was—– to speak it well.
15. We have promised, therefore we are—–
to go. 16. I am—– to win, if
I can. 17. They were—– that
they would see the end of the play, even though they
should miss their train.
CONTINUAL, CONTINUOUS. 18. He was exposed to—– interruptions. 19. A—– line in space. 20. —— victory makes leaders insolent. 21. A —— siege of six months. 22. The power of abstract study or of —— thought is rare.
DEADLY, DEATHLY. 23. A ——
stillness. 24. The —— bite
of the rattlesnake. 25. My wound is ——.
26. Her hands were —— cold.
27. She, poor thing, was looking ——
pale. 28. Many savages have seen a musket kill
small animals and yet have not
known how ——
an instrument it is.
DECIDED, DECISIVE. 29. He felt a ——
aversion to company. 30. Smith spoke out boldly
in a —— tone. 31. Creasy’s
“Fifteen —— Battles of the
World.” 32. The nature of lightning was
not known until Franklin made his ——
experiment.
DUMB, STUPID 33. A man who cannot write with
wit on a proper subject is dull and ——.
34. A deaf and —— person. 35.
I was struck —— with astonishment.
36. Judging from his recitations, I should say
that John is either lazy
or ——.
EXTANT, EXISTING. 37. God created all —— things. 38. Only two authentic portraits of Shakespeare are ——. 39. There are —— seven hundred and sixty-five of Cicero’s letters. 40. Every citizen should exert himself to remove —— evils.
FUNNY, ODD. 41. It is —— he never told me of his marriage. 42. He made the boys laugh by drawing —— pictures on his slate. 43. You must have thought it —— we didn’t send for you. 44. He amused us with —— stories.
HEALTHY, HEALTHFUL, WHOLESOME. 45. Tomatoes
are said to be a very —— food. 46.
If a —— body contributes to the health
of the mind, so also a ——
mind keeps the body well.
47. Gardening is a —— recreation
for a man of study or business. 48. ——
food in a —— climate makes a ——
man. 49. A —— situation.
A —— constitution.- ——diet.
HUMAN, HUMANE. 50. A—– disposition
is not cruel. 51. To err is—–;
to forgive, divine. 52. In the time of Abraham—–
sacrifices were common among his heathen
neighbors.
53. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals is
a —— organization.
LATEST, LAST. 54. The—– men in the procession. 55. The—– news. 56. The—– of the Incas. 57. Have you read the—– novel? 58. The—– foot-ball game of the season will be played with the Yale Freshmen.
LENGTHY, LONG. 59. Cotton Mather wrote many—– dissertations. 60. It is a—– ride from Ellen’s Isle to Stirling. 61. A—– line of ancestors. 63. We were wearied by his—– explanations.
MAD, ANGRY. 63. His sarcastic manner makes me—–.
64. That is nothing to get—–
at. 65. I have heard my grandsire say full
oft,
Extremity of griefs
would make men —–.
NEW, NOVEL. 66. We have a—–
horse. 67. A—– feature of the
entertainment was the “Broom Drill.” 68.
At the World’s Fair we saw many—–
sights, especially in the Midway
Plaisance.
69. Alice had many—– experiences
in Wonder Land.
ORAL, VERBAL. 70. Some slight—– changes have been made in the new edition of this book. 71. Were your instructions—– or written.
PITIABLE, PITIFUL. 72. The condition of the
poor in our great cities is—–. 73.
Be gentle unto griefs and needs,
Be —–
as woman should.
74. The wretched girl was in a—–
plight. 75. A—– sight.
PRACTICABLE, PRACTICAL. 76. We have hired a —— gardener. 77. This plan of campaign is not ——. 78. We found the road not —— because of the heavy rains. 79. A victory may be a —— defeat.
PROMINENT, EMINENT. 80. Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being ——. 81. The figure of a man is —— in the picture. 82. Frogs have —— eyes. 83. Washington was a (an) —— man. 84. John Quincy Adams was the —— son of a (an) —— father.
REAL, REALLY, VERY. 85. She came home looking
—— well after her long visit. 86.
Protestants believe that the bread of the Lord’s
supper is not ——
changed, but remains ——
bread.
87. Homer tells us that the blood of the gods
is not —— blood, but only
something like it.
88. I am —— glad you have come.
89. He is —— dead. 90.
It was —— kind in you to send me
flowers. 91. Yes, I am —— old;
I am sixty. 92. He speaks ——
well, doesn’t he? 93. —— kings
hide away their crowns in their wardrobes, and affect
a
plain and poor exterior.
94. This is —— pretty. 95.
We came on a —— fast train. 96.
She seemed —— glad to see us. 97.
The hotel is situated —— near the
sea.
SCARED, AFRAID. 98. She was badly —— when her horse ran away. 99. Harry is —— of tramps. 100. Helen was —— of the cows in the meadow.
Illustrate by original sentences the correct use of each of these words: —Both, each, every, aggravating, liable, likely, apt, mutual, partially, quite, average, bound, continual, continuous, deadly, deathly, decided, decisive, dumb, apparently, evidently, extant, funny, healthy, healthful, wholesome, human, humane, latest, last, lengthy, mad, novel, verbal, pitiable, pitiful, practicable, practical, prominent, eminent, real, really, scared, grand, gorgeous, awful, splendid, elegant, lovely, magnificent.
USE of the COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE.—The comparative degree is preferable when two things or sets of things are compared, the superlative when three or more are compared.
To say “Iron is more useful than any metal” is clearly incorrect, because iron is included in “any metal,” and of course iron is not more useful than itself. We must in thought set iron off in a class by itself, which we can do by inserting “other” after “any.” “Iron is more useful than any other metal” is correct. After comparatives accompanied by “than,” the words “any” and “all” should be followed by “other.”
To say “Iron is the most useful of any (or, any other) metal” is also clearly incorrect, because we mean that iron is the most useful, not of “one metal (no matter which)” or of “some metals (no matter which),” but of all metals. We should therefore omit the word “any,” saying simply “Iron is the most useful of (all) metals.” It is also incorrect to say “Iron is the most useful of all other metals,” for iron is not one of the “other metals.” Beware of using “any” or “other” with superlatives followed by “of.”
[128] See note To the Teacher, p. 41.
Which of the italicized forms is preferable?—
1. Of London and Paris, London is the wealthier
(wealthiest). 2. Of two evils, choose the
less (least). 3. The older (oldest)
of the three boys was sent to college. 4. Which
can run the faster (fastest), your horse or
mine? 5. Of the two Latin poets, Virgil and Horace,
the first (former) is the
better (best) known.
6. Which is the better (best) of the two?
7. Which is the farther (farthest) east,
Boston New York, or
Philadelphia?
8. There is no doubt about him (his) being
the better (best) in the
little group of friends.
9. Which is the larger (largest) number,
the minuend or the subtrahend?
Explain and correct the errors in the following sentences:—
1. This picture is, of all others, the one I
like best. 2. This engraving of mine I like better
than any picture I have. 3. London is more crowded
than any city in Great Britain. 4. London is
the most crowded of any city in Great Britain. 5.
She of all other girls ought to be the last to complain.
6. Our grammar lessons are the hardest of any
we have. 7. St. Peter’s is larger than
any church in the world. 8. St. Peter’s
is the largest of any church in the world. 9.
Noah and his family outlived all the people who lived
before the flood. 10. Solomon was wiser than
all men. 11. This State exports more cotton than
all the states. 12. A cowboy is the most picturesque
of any men. 13. Tabby has the worst temper of
any cat I know. 14. He thinks Gettysburg has
the prettiest girls of any town of its size. 15.
The proposed method of Mr. F.G. Jackson, the English
arctic explorer,
appears to be the most practical
and business-like of any yet
undertaken for exploring the
polar regions.
Construct sentences comparing the following things, using first a comparative, then a superlative form:—
1. The large population of China; the smaller
populations of other
countries.
EXAMPLE.—China has a larger
population than any other country. Of all
countries, China has the largest population
in the world.
2. John, who is very mischievous; other boys,
who are less mischievous. 3. Eve, who was exceedingly
fair; her daughters (female descendants), who
are less fair.
4. Smith, the best athlete; the other boys in
the school. 5. Mary’s recitations; the
poorer recitations of her classmates. 6. The
population of London; the population of the other cities
in the
world.
7. The circulation of the “Star;”
the smaller circulation of other
newspapers in the county.
8. Ethel’s eyes; the eyes of her playmates,
which are not so bright. 9. The examination papers
of Professor A.; the easier papers set by other
teachers.
10. Philip; his classmates, who are less bright.
11. Solomon, the wisest king; other kings. 12.
Samson, the strongest man; other men. 13. Jacob’s
love for Joseph; his love for his other children.
14. Youth; the other periods of life, which are
less important. 15. Demosthenes; the other and
inferior orators of Greece. 16. The books read
by Fannie; the fewer books read by her classmates.
17. This shady grove; other groves I know, which
are less shady. 18. The reign of Louis XIV.;
the shorter reigns of other French kings. 19.
Shakespeare; other English poets, all of whom are inferior
to him. 20. The Falls of Niagara; other falls
in the United States.
ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS INCAPABLE OF COMPARISON.[129]— Some adjectives and adverbs have meanings which do not vary in degree: as, dead, perfect, wooden. Such adjectives cannot properly be compared or modified by the words “more,” “most,” “so,” “too,” and “very.”
[129] “Foundations,” p. 135.
Which of the following adjectives and adverbs do not vary in degree?— Absolutely, brave, cloudless, cold, conclusively, continually, entirely, essentially, extreme, faultless, French, fundamental, golden, happy, impregnable, inaudible, incessant, incredible, indispensable, insatiate, inseparable, intangible, intolerable, invariable, long, masterly, round, sharp, square, sufficient, unanimous, unbearable, unbounded, unerring, unique, universally, unparalleled, unprecedented.
MISPLACED ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.[130]—A word, a phrase, or a clause used as an adjective or an adverb should come next to the word, or words, which it modifies.
The word only requires special care. Observe how the position of only affects the meaning in the following sentences: “Only he lost his hat;” “He only lost his hat;” “He lost only his hat,” or “He lost his hat only;” “He lost his only hat.”
[130] “Foundations,” p. 136.
Correct the errors of position in the following sentences:—
1. Metal reflectors are only used now for cheap
search-lights. 2. I will only mention some of
the best. 3. I only had time to read “King
Lear.” 4. He only spoke to me, not to you.
5. Coons are only killed with the help of dogs.
The coon only comes out in
the night-time.
6. Lost, a Scotch terrier, by a gentleman, with
his ears cut close. 7. Canteens were issued to
the soldiers with short necks. 8. We all went
to the sea-shore for a little fresh air from the city.
9. At one time Franklin was seen bringing some
paper to his
printing-office from the place where
he had purchased it in a
wheelbarrow.
10. He went to Germany to patronize the people
in the little German
villages from which he came
with his great wealth.
11. The three young men set out and finally arrived
at the college dressed
in girls’ clothes.
12. The maskers were nearly dressed alike. 13.
Erected to the memory of John Smith accidentally shot
as a mark of
affection by his brother.
14. Lost, an umbrella by a gentleman with an
ivory head. 15. A piano for sale by a lady about
to cross the channel in an oak case
with carved legs.
16. He blew out his brains after bidding his
wife good-bye with a gun. 17. The Moor, seizing
a bolster, full of rage and jealousy, smothered
Desdemona.
18. Wanted, a handsome Shetland pony suitable
for a child with a long mane
and tail.
19. Wolsey left many buildings which he had begun
at his death in an
unfinished state.
20. My cousin caught a crab and took it home
in a pail of water which we
had for our tea.
21. I scarcely ever remember to have had a rougher
walk.
ADVERBS between TO and THE INFINITIVE.—“A careful writer will do well to avoid the construction which places the adverb between to and the infinitive. It is true that the construction is a common one; but it is also true that those who are most addicted to the practice are not those who count most as authorities on questions of good usage."[131]
[131] “Foundations,” p. 140.
Improve the arrangement in the following sentences—
1. Hermes caused the milk pitcher of the old
couple to never be empty. 2. His political enemies
tried to in this way impeach the courage of the
President.
3. He promises to earnestly try to do better.
4. To really know the man we must read his books.
5. Another project is to in some way modify the
power of the House of
Lords.
6. She dwelt upon what was comforting, though
conscious that there was
little to veritably console.
7. He proposed to either largely decrease the
appropriation or to wholly
do away with it.
OF PREPOSITIONS
MISUSED PREPOSITIONS.[132]—A writer, in choosing the proper preposition to express his meaning, must rely chiefly on his sense of idiom, that is, his knowledge of English usage, but he may find the following notes helpful.
AMONG, BETWEEN.—“Among is the proper word when the reference is to more than two persons or things, or groups of persons or things; between, when the reference is to two only."[133]
AT, IN.—Before names of places to denote “where,” at is used when the place is so small as to be treated as a mere point, or when, although large, it is viewed as a mere point; in is used when it is desired to make prominent the idea “within the bounds of:” as, “He arrived at Liverpool in the morning and remained in that city two days.” Before the name of the place in which the speaker dwells, if the place is of any size, in is generally preferred to at, unless the place is so remote that it dwindles in the mental vision to a point.
BACK OF.—Back of, though frequently heard in conversation and sometimes seen in print, is not in good use.
BESIDE, BESIDES.—Beside means “by the side of;” besides is now used only in the sense of “in addition to,” “other than:” as, “Who sits beside you?” “Who besides us knows this?”
BY, WITH.—To introduce the agent of an action by is now commonly used; the material instrument or tool is usually introduced by with: as, “Duncan was murdered by Macbeth with a dagger.”
DIFFERENT FROM, DIFFERENT TO.—Different from is preferable to different to and different than.
IN, INTO.—“In implies presence inside of, or within; into implies movement to the inside of. Before a man can move in a room, he must already have moved into it."[134]
IN, ON.—Before names of streets, in implies some reference to surroundings; on is less definite, indicating location only.
ON TO, ONTO.—“Good use does not support either on to or onto."[135]
WAIT FOR, WAIT ON.—To wait for means “to await,” as, “We will wait for you at the corner.” To wait on means “to attend on,” as, “At dinner the women waited on the men.”
[132] “Foundations,” pp. 142-148. [133] Ibid., p. 143. [134] Ibid., p. 145. [135] “Foundations,” p. 146.
Insert the proper preposition in each blank:—
AMONG, BETWEEN. 1. He divided the apples —— the five boys. 2. There was a generous rivalry —— the two friends. 3. I have no preference —— many of Tennyson’s poems. 4. There is bad feeling —— China and Japan. 5. The money was divided —— the six heirs.
AT, IN. 6. Napoleon died ——
Longwood, a villa on the island of St. Helena; Byron
died —— Missolonghi,
—— Greece.
7. Did he graduate —— Oxford
or —— Cambridge? 8. He is now
—— Ireland. 9. Milton was educated
—— Christ’s College. 10.
When shall we arrive —— Rome? 11.
I am eager to visit a hundred places ——
Florence. 12. We live —— New
York. 13. Macaulay lived ——
London.
BESIDE, BESIDES. 14. Have you nothing to tell us —— what we have already heard? 15. The boy stood —— her. 16. —— the large planets, there are hundreds of smaller planets called “asteroids.” 17. Let me sit —— you.
BY, WITH. 18. The door was fastened ——
nails —— the carpenter. 19.
The Great Charter was signed —— King
John. 20. Thebes was founded ——
Cadmus. 21. Truth finds an easy entrance into
the mind when she is introduced ——
Desire and attended ——
Pleasure.
22. He entertained us —— a
story. 23. He struck me ——
his cane.
IN, INTO. 24. The dog is —— the water. 25. Come —— the house. 26. Look —— my desk. 27. Put more life —— your speaking. 28. Throw it —— the fire. 29. What put this idea —— your head? 30. Carry the basket —— the kitchen. 31. She threw herself —— a chair.
IN, ON. 32. The cable cars —— Broadway. 33. Ellen and Harry are playing —— the street. 34. The Murray Hill Hotel is —— Fourth Avenue. 35. They carry on their business —— William Street.
“With certain words good use requires special prepositions. Among these words are the following:—
abhorrence of. absolve from. accord with. acquit of. adapted to or for. affinity between, to, or with. agree with (a person). agree to (a proposal). averse from or to. bestow upon. change for (a thing). change with (a person). comply with. center on (= give to). confer with (= talk with). confide in (= trust in). confide to (= intrust to). conform to. in conformity with or to. convenient for or to. conversant with. correspond to or with (a thing). correspond with (a person). dependent on (but independent of). derogatory to. differ from (a person or thing). differ from or with (in opinion). disappointed of (what we cannot get). disappointed in (what we have). dissent from. glad at or of. involve in. martyr for or to. need of. part from or with. profit by. reconcile to or with. taste of (food). taste for (art). Thirst for or after."[136]
[136] “Foundations,” p. 148.
I. Tell the difference in meaning between—
1. She confides in (to) her sister. 2. He differs from (with) me. 3. We are disappointed of (in) our guests. 4. He is in (at) New York. 5. He waited on (for) his mother.
II. Tell what prepositions are required with these words: Abhorrence, absolve, accord, acquit, adapted, affinity, agree, agreeable, averse, bestow, change (verb), comply, confer, confide, conform, in conformity, convenient, conversant, correspond, dependent, derogatory, differ, different, disappointed, dissent (verb), eager, exception, expert, glad, independent, involve, martyr, need (noun), part (verb), profit (verb), reconcile, taste (noun), thirst (noun), worthy.
Insert the proper preposition in each blank:—[137]
1. Please wait —— me; I will
come as soon as I can. 2. She married him ——
her father’s consent. 3. The cathedral
was rich —— all kinds of golden vessels.
4. Moses received the laws ——
the people on Mount Sinai. 5. Evangeline died
—— Philadelphia. 6. ——
whom did they rent the house? 7. ——
whom can I rely? 8. The boy went in search ——
his sister. 9. The streams ——
this region abound —— trout. 10.
The traces of a struggle were seen ——
the tree. 11. They got —— the
carriage and rode away. 12. He has moved ——
New York, where he lives —— an elegant
mansion. 13. He thought that he put the money
—— his pocket, but he found it ——
his shoe.
14. The paper was cut —— small
strips. 15. We stood —— the
landing. 16. The firemen went ——
the roof of the house. 17. He is down ——
the village. 18. What was the matter ——
him? 19. He died —— a fever.
20. When we were —— Rome we
stayed —— a small hotel. 21.
He lives —— a frame house ——
Cambridge. 22. Her unladylike behavior gave occasion
—— many unpleasant remarks. 23.
Caterpillars change —— butterflies.
24. She lives —— College Street,
—— No. 1009. 25. It was conducive
—— my comfort. 26. The calm
was followed —— a sudden storm.
27. The soil of Virginia is adapted ——
the production of hemp and
tobacco.
28. The flower is excellently adapted ——
catching insects. 29. Congress consists ——
a Senate and a House of Representatives. 30. ——
what does happiness consist? 31. ——
some sentences the conjunction is omitted. 32.
A judge who has an interest in a case is disqualified
—— hearing it. 33. He was accused
—— robbery. 34. He died ——
starvation, she —— pneumonia. 35.
You may rely —— what I say, and confide
—— my honesty. 36. The bird
flew —— the tree. 37. He let
the knife fall —— the creek. 38.
What is my grief in comparison ——
that which she bears? 39. Most persons feel an
abhorrence —— snakes. 40. He
aspires —— political distinction.
41. We were disappointed ——
the pleasure of seeing you. 42. There is need
—— great watchfulness. 43.
I have been —— New Orleans, and I
am now going —— New York. 44.
We lived —— a little village ——
the South. 45. I find no difficulty ——
keeping up with my class. 46. ——
every class of people selfishness prevails. 47.
He divided his estate —— his son,
his daughter, and his nephew. 48. He is very
different —— his brother. 49.
This was different —— what I expected.
50. Compare your work —— his,
and you will see the difference. 51. My old yacht
was small in comparison —— this.
52. He is adapted —— an out-door
life. 53. His disobedience was attended ——
serious consequences. 54. His mother was overcome
—— grief. 55. We were accompanied
—— our parents. 56. A man should
try to rid himself —— prejudice.
57. He will profit —— his experience.
OMITTED PREPOSITIONS.[138]—“Beware of omitting a preposition that is needed to make the meaning clear or the sentence grammatical."[139]
“Before ‘home’ the preposition ‘at’ should never be omitted, but the preposition ‘to’ is always omitted: e.g., ‘I am going home.’"[138]
[137] In this exercise the pupil must rely chiefly on his knowledge of English usage or on a dictionary. In some of the sentences more than one preposition is allowable, according to the sense. [138] “Foundations,” p. 149. [139] Ibid., p. 150.
Insert the necessary prepositions in the following sentences:—
1. What use is this piece of ribbon? 2.
The oak was five feet diameter. 3. My business
prevented me attending the last meeting of the committee.
4. I could not refrain shedding tears. 5.
The remark is worthy the fool that made it. 6.
It is unworthy your notice. 7. He lives the other
side the river. 8. He fled the country, and went
either to England or France. 9. Ignorance is
the mother of fear as well as admiration. 10.
Religion is a comfort in youth as well as old age.
11. It’s no use to give up. 12. This
side the mountain the country is thickly settled; the
other side
there are few inhabitants.
13. I wrote Mr. Knapp to come Wednesday, and
promised that he should find
us home.
14. Wealth is more conducive to worldliness than
piety. 15. He is not home, but I think he is
coming home to-night.
REDUNDANT PREPOSITIONS.[140]—Beware of inserting prepositions which are not needed.
[140] Ibid., p. 150.
Strike out the redundant prepositions:—
1. He met a boy of about eighteen years old.
2. Cadmus stood pondering upon what he should
do. 3. Let a gallows be erected of fifty cubits
high. 4. Hercules was very willing to take the
world off from his shoulders and
give it to Atlas again.
5. No one can help from loving her. 6.
From thence in two days the Greeks marched twenty miles.
7. There was much of wisdom in their plan. 8.
A workman fell off of the ladder. 9. On one day
I caught five trout, on another twelve. 10. We
must examine into this subject more carefully. 11.
A child copies after its parents. 12. The proposal
to go to the woods was approved of by all of the boys.
13. At about what time will father return? 14.
After having heard his story, I gave him a dollar.
15. The spring is near to the house. 16.
Bruno followed on after his master. 17. Wanted,
a young man of from sixteen to twenty-one years of
age. 18. They went on to the steamer soon after
dinner. 19. Look out of the window.
OF CONJUNCTIONS
VULGARISMS.[141]—Every educated person is expected to know the correct use of the following words:—
LIKE, AS.—In good use like is never a conjunction, and therefore it cannot be used instead of as to introduce a clause. It is incorrect to say, “Walk like I walk,” but one may say, “He walks like me,” or “He looks like his grandfather."[142]
EXCEPT, WITHOUT, UNLESS.—Except, which was originally a past-participle, was once in good use as a conjunction; but in modern use it has been displaced as a conjunction by unless, and is now a preposition only. We may say, “All went except me,” but we may not say, “Except you go with me, I will stay at home.” Another word not in good use as a conjunction, but often heard instead of “unless,” is without.
[141] “Foundations,” p. 152. [142] See page 109.
Insert the proper word in each blank:—
LIKE, AS. 1. Do —— I do.
2. She fears a chicken —— you
fear a snake. 3. Thin bushy hair falls down on
each side of his face somewhat ——
Longfellow’s hair did in his
later life.
4. I wish I could sing —— she
can. 5. I will be a lawyer ——
my father. 6. I will be a lawyer ——
my father was. 7. She looks ——
(if) she were crying. 8. He acted ——
(if) he were guilty. 9. Our snow-tunnel looked
—— we imagined Aladdin’s cave
looked. 10. He treated me ——
a cat treats a mouse. 11. Seventy-five cents
a day will not feed those men ——
they wish to be
fed.
12. The lines in this stanza are not forced ——
in other stanzas. 13. If I were a boy ——
Ralph is, I would try to stop the thing.
EXCEPT, WITHOUT, UNLESS. 14. I do not know how my horse got away —— somebody untied him. 15. Do not come —— you hear from me. 16. I will not go —— father is willing. 17. I will not go —— father’s consent. 18. —— you study better, you will be dropped. 19. It will be cool to-morrow —— a hot wave comes. 20. I cannot go —— money. 21. I cannot go —— father sends me some money. 22. I will be there promptly —— I hear from you. 23. Do not write —— you feel in the mood for it. 24. She has no fault —— diffidence. 25. She has no fault —— it be diffidence. 26. He cannot enlist —— with his guardian’s consent.
MISUSED CONJUNCTIONS.[143]—Conjunctions are few in number and are more definite in their meanings than prepositions. Most errors in using them spring from confused thinking or hasty writing. “A close reasoner and a good writer in general may be known by his pertinent use of connectives."[144]
AND.—And has, generally speaking, the meaning of “in addition to.”
BUT.—But implies some exception, opposition, or contrast. Equivalent, or nearly equivalent, expressions are “however,” “on the other hand,” “yet,” “nevertheless.”
AS.—“As has so many meanings that it is better, when possible, to use a conjunction that covers less ground."[145]
BECAUSE, FOR, SINCE.—The difference between these words is chiefly a difference in emphasis. “We will not go, because it is raining” is the strongest way of expressing the relation of cause and effect. In “Since it is raining, we will not go,” the emphasis is shifted from the cause to the effect, which becomes the prominent idea. In “We will not go, for it is raining,” the reason, “it is raining,” is announced as itself a bit of news. Often the choice between these words is decided by the ear.
HOW.—How properly means “in what manner” or “to what extent.” It is often misused for “that” to introduce an object clause.
NOR, OR.—Nor is the correlative of neither, sometimes of other negatives. Or is the correlative of either.
THEREFORE, SO.—In the sense of “for this reason,” therefore is preferable to so, since so has other meanings.
THOUGH.—Though means “notwithstanding,” “in spite of the fact that.”
AS IF, AS THOUGH.—“As if is, on the whole, preferable to as though."[146]
WHEN, WHILE.—When means “at the time that;” while, “during the time that,” “as long as.” “When fixes attention on a date or period; while fixes attention on the lapse of time."[147]
[143] “Foundations,” p.152. [144] Coleridge: Table Talk. Quoted by A.S. Hill in Principles of Rhetoric. [145] “Foundations,” p. 153. [146] “Foundations,” p. 156. [147] Ibid., p. 157.
Insert the proper conjunction in each blank, if a conjunction is needed. Do not confine your choice to those mentioned above:—
1. Roland was mild and modest, ——
Charles was coarse and boastful. 2. ——
they were without provisions, they thought they should
starve. 3. In Addison’s day innumerable
vices were prevalent, —— chief among
them
was the custom of drinking.
4. Charles was a large, brawny fellow, ——
Orlando was a slender youth. 5. When the barn
was full of people, the doors were suddenly shut and
bolted —— the
barn was set on fire.
6. Hereward’s men wanted booty, ——
Hereward took them to the Golden
Borough.
7. He read a short —— interesting
account of “Theobald’s.” 8.
Longfellow received a good education ——
he was not a poor boy. 9. He was disappointed
in the speed of his yacht, —— he
had expected her
to be very fast.
10. The man said “to sell” was not
needed on the sign —— no one would
expect the hats to be given
away.
11. There is no doubt —— the
earth is spherical. 12. I know very little about
the “Arabian Nights” ——
I have never read
that book.
13. When Gulliver began to pull, the ships would
not move —— their
anchors held them.
14. He had to be cautious in using his Bible
—— at that time reading it
was prohibited; ——
he fastened it with tapes on the underside of
a stool.
15. The Liberal Arts Building at Chicago had
twice as much iron in its
frame ——
the Brooklyn Bridge.
16. The lumbermen must keep open a road to the
railroad, —— all their
provisions must be brought
from the city.
17. Scarcely had I thrown in my line ——
I felt a nibble. 18. The fly seems to have been
created for no other purpose —— to
purify
the air.
19. At first you wonder where the boats are,
—— on entering the grove you
can see only a small cabin.
20. I do not doubt —— he will
succeed. 21. I cannot deny ——
he is honest. 22. He was dismissed, not so much
because he was too young —— because
he
was indolent.
23. The land is equally adapted to farming ——
to pasturage. 24. Proportion is ——
simple —— compound. 25. I wonder
—— he will come. 26. The last
of the horses had scarcely crossed the bridge ——
the head of
the third battalion appeared
on the other side.
27. He looked as —— he could
play football. 28. —— I saw her,
she was young —— beautiful. 29.
Bruce spoke of himself as being neither Scotch ——
English. 30. I could —— buy
—— borrow it. 31. He has no
love —— veneration for his superiors.
32. There was no place so hidden ——
so remote —— the plague did
not find it.
33. We need not, —— do not,
complain of our lot. 34. He could not deny ——
he had borrowed money. 35. There is no question
—— the universe has bounds. 36.
A corrupt government is nothing else ——
a reigning sin. 37. She thinks, I regret to say,
OMITTED CONJUNCTIONS.—Careless writers sometimes omit conjunctions that are necessary either to the grammar or to the sense. A common form of this fault is illustrated in “This is as good if not better than that”—a sentence in which “as” is omitted after “as good.” The best way to correct the sentence is to recast it, thus: “This is as good as that, if not better.”
Correct the faults in these sentences:—
1. Ralph is as young or younger than Harry. 2. Cedar is more durable but not so hard as oak. 3. I never heard any one speak more fluently or so wittily as he. 4. She is fairer but not so amiable as her sister. 5. Though not so old, he is wiser than his brother.
REDUNDANT CONJUNCTIONS.—[148] Careless writers sometimes insert conjunctions that are useless or worse than useless. A common form of this fault is the use in certain cases of “and” or “but” before the words “who,” “which,” “when,” or “where,” which are themselves connectives: as, “The challenge was accepted by Orlando, a young man little known up to that time, but to whom Rosalind had taken a great liking.” If the relative clause introduced by “who,” “which,” “when,” or “where” is to be joined to a preceding relative clause, the conjunction is proper: as, “The challenge was accepted by Orlando, a young man who was little known at that time, but to whom Rosalind had taken a great liking.”
[148] See “Foundations,” pp. 208-211.
Which conjunctions in these sentences are redundant?—
1. I have again been so fortunate as to obtain
the assistance of Dr.
Jones, a teacher of great experience,
and whose ideas are quite in
harmony with my own.
2. Franklin had noticed for some time the extreme
dirtiness of the
streets, and especially of the street
that he lived on.
3. This animal was considered as irresistible.
4. But how to get him there was a problem.
But it was decided to convey
him on one of the wagons used in
carrying the Emperor’s men-of-war from
the woods, where they were made,
to the water.
5. He forgot to pay for the wine—a
shortness of memory common with such
men, and which his host did not
presume to correct.
6. Next came Louis, Duke of Orleans, the first
prince of the blood royal,
and to whom the attendants rendered
homage as the future king.
7. So from all this you can see that such things
are not impossible.
8. Her expression of countenance induced most
persons to address her with
a deference inconsistent with her
station, and which nevertheless she
received with easy composure.
9. Our escort consisted of MacGregor, and five
or six of the handsomest,
best armed, and most athletic mountaineers
of his band, and whom he had
generally in immediate attendance
upon his own person.
10. The little town of Lambtos, Mrs. Gardiner’s
former home, and where
she had lately learned that
some acquaintance still remained.
11. He spoke in a deep and low tone, but which
nevertheless was heard from
one end of the hall to the
other.
MISPLACED CORRELATIVES.—When conjunctions are used as correlatives, as “both-and,” “either-or,” each of the correlated words should be so placed as to indicate clearly what ideas are to be connected in thought. This principle is violated in “He not only visited Paris, but Berlin also.” In this sentence the position of “not only” before the verb “visited” leads one to expect some corresponding verb in the second part of the sentence; in fact, however, the two connected words are “Paris” and “Berlin;” “visited” applies to both. This meaning is clearly indicated by putting “not only” before “Paris:” thus, “He visited not only Paris, but Berlin also.” As a rule the word after the first correlative should be the same part of speech as the word after the second correlative.
Correct the errors of position in—
1. Few complaints were made either by the men
or the women. 2. Search-lights are not useful
only on ships, but also on land. 3. Adversity
both teaches to think and to be patient. 4. My
uncle gave me not only the boat, but also taught me
to row it. 5. The prisoner was not only accused
of robbery, but of treason. 6. The wise ruler
does not aim at the punishment of offenders, but at
the
prevention of offences.
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS
The following suggestions are made in answer to many inquiries from teachers who perceive the rare excellence of the “Foundations of Rhetoric,” but who do not clearly see, because of the novel method of the book, how to turn its merits to account in their class-rooms. The suggestions outline one way in which the book has been used to great advantage.
It should never be forgotten that the illustrative sentences in the “Foundations” have no value except as they help the student to grasp a principle that he can apply in his own use of language. In every case the emphasis should be laid on the principle which is announced or illustrated. Merely learning the corrected sentences by heart is useless and should not be permitted.
In taking a class over PART I., which treats of words, it is the writer’s practice to assign a short lesson—from one to three pages—in connection with every recitation in English. The leading ideas and most typical sentences in each lesson are privately marked in the teacher’s book with colored pencil, so that they may readily catch his eye, and from five to twelve minutes of each recitation period are taken up with a rapid questioning on these leading ideas and typical sentences. Corrections or answers unaccompanied by reasons are not accepted. Attention is always fixed, not on the form of the illustrative sentence, but on the principle of usage under discussion. Pupils would rather commit to memory the sentences than trouble themselves about reasons; but they will master reasons when they find they must. After principles have been mastered, exercises in the choice of forms and words are needed in order that knowledge may be converted into habit.
In PARTS II. and III. the lessons are equally short and the emphasis is unceasingly laid on the question “Why?” If the subject is difficult, it is desirable, at the time that the lesson is assigned, to lead the class over the text and some of the illustrative sentences in order to open, as it were, the eyes of the pupils. Since these parts of the book treat not of single words, but of sentences and paragraphs,
A, an, or the, 12. Abbot, feminine
corresponding to, 21. Abbreviations, 22. Ability,
capacity, distinguished, 29. Abundance, plenty,
distinguished, 32. Accept, except, distinguished,
99. Acceptance, acceptation, distinguished,
25. Access, accession, distinguished, 25.
Accredit, credit, distinguished, 92. Actor,
feminine corresponding to, 21. Acts, actions,
distinguished, 25. Adherence, adhesion, distinguished,
29. ADJECTIVES, 109-133; defined, 109; vulgarisms
in the use of, 109-113;
singular and plural, 110; adjective or
adverb, 113-116; redundant, 117-118;
misused, 119-129; use of the comparative
and superlative degrees, 129-131;
adjectives incapable of comparison, 131-132;
misplaced, 132-133.
Admit, confess, distinguished, 95. Advance,
advancement, distinguished, 25. ADVERBS,
109-133; defined,109; vulgarisms in the use of, 109-113;
adverb or adjective, 113-116; redundant,
117-118; misused, 119-129;
use of the comparative and superlative
degrees, 129-131;
adverbs incapable of comparison, 131-132;
misplaced, 132-133;
between to and the infinitive,
133.
Advise distinguished from advertise,
99;
from persuade, 100.
Affect, effect, distinguished, 99. Affirm,
claim, maintain, distinguished, 94-95. Afraid,
scared, distinguished, 124. Aggravating, irritating,
distinguished, 119. Ain’t, 71.
Alienisms, defined, 10. Alight, light, distinguished,
Bachelor, feminine corresponding to, 21. Back
of, 134. Bacterium, plural of, 20. Balance,
rest, remainder, distinguished, 29. Barbarism,
defined, 10. Barge, for omnibus, 4.
Beau, plural of, 21. Because, for, since,
distinguished, 143. Began, begun, distinguished,
61. Begin, principal parts of, 61; distinguished
from
commence, start, 100-101.
Beseech, principal parts of, 61. Beside,
besides, distinguished, 134. Between, among,
distinguished, 134. BIBLE, quoted, 3. Bid,
principal parts of, 61. Blow, principal parts
of, 61. Bound, determined, distinguished, 122.
Both, each, every, distinguished, 119. Break,
principal parts of, 61. Bring, fetch, carry,
distinguished, 94. Broke, broken, distinguished,
61. Buck, feminine corresponding to, 21. Bullock,
feminine corresponding to, 21. Burglarize,
10. Burst, principal parts of, 61. But,
143. By, with, distinguished, 134.
Calculate, intend, distinguished, 94. Can
or may, 71. Can’t, 71. Canto,
plural of, 18. Capacity, ability, distinguished,
29. Captivate, capture, distinguished, 92.
Carry, fetch, bring, distinguished, 94.
Case, possessive, of nouns, 17; of pronouns, 43;
nominative or objective, 43-50.
Centre, middle, distinguished, 30. CENTURY
DICTIONARY, quoted, 25, 26, 32, 54, 92, 99, 116. Champion,
support, distinguished, 94. Change of pronoun,
56-58. Character, reputation, distinguished,
30. CHAUCER, quoted, 72. Cherub, plural
of, 21. Choose, principal parts of, 61. Claim,
assert, allege, etc., distinguished, 94-95.
COLERIDGE, S.T., quoted, 143. Colloquialisms,
defined, 10. Come, principal parts of, 61.
Commence, begin, start, distinguished, 100-101.
Common, mutual, distinguished, 119. Compare
with, compare to, contrast, distinguished, 99.
Comparative and superlative, use of the, 129-131.
Comparison, adjectives and adverbs incapable of, 131-132.
Complement, compliment, distinguished, 30.
Completion, completeness, distinguished, 26.
Compound nouns, possessive of, 16; plural of, 18.
Conditional mood, 85; sentences, 85-86. Confess,
admit, distinguished, 95. CONJUNCTIONS, 142-149;
vulgarisms in the use of, 142—143; misused,
143-146;
omitted, 146.; redundant, 146-148; misplaced
correlatives, 148-149.
Conscience, consciousness, distinguished, 30.
Construe, construct, distinguished, 99. Continual,
continuous, distinguished, 122. Contractions,
43, 71. Contrast, compare to, compare with,
distinguished, 99. Conversation and good use,
7. Convince, convict, distinguished, 99. Could,
distinguished from might, 71-72;
tense of the infinitive with, 79.
Council, counsel, distinguished, 30. Countess,
masculine corresponding to, 21. Credit, accredit,
distinguished, 92. Crisis, plural of, 21.
Curriculum, plural of, 21. Custom, habit,
distinguished, 30. Czar, feminine corresponding
to, 21.
Daresn’t, 71. Datum, plural of, 21. Deadly, deathly, distinguished, 122. Deception, deceit, distinguished, 30. Declare, assert, claim, etc., distinguished, 94-95. Decided, decisive, distinguished, 122. Delusion, illusion, allusion, distinguished, 25. Demand, ask, distinguished, 95. Dependent clauses, will or shall in, 73; tenses in, 78. Depreciate, deprecate, distinguished, 92-93. Detect, discriminate, distinguished,99. Determined, bound, distinguished, 122. Dictionaries, usefulness of, 9; quoted, see CENTURY and MURRAY. Die (noun), plurals of, 19. Different from, different to, 134. Disclose, discover, distinguished, 99. Discover, invent, distinguished, 31. Discriminate, detect,
Each, distinguished from all, 56; from
every and both, 119;
number of, 58, 89.
Earl, feminine corresponding to, 21.
EARLE, JOHN, quoted, 82. Eat, principal parts
of, 61. Effect, affect, distinguished, 99.
Egoists, egotists; egoism, egotism, distinguished,
30. Either, distinguished from any one,
55-56; number of, 58, 89. Either—or,
number of the verb with singular subjects
connected by, 89.
Electrocute, 10. Elegant, 124. Elicit,
eliminate, distinguished, 100. EMERSON, R.W.,
quoted, 124. Emigration, immigration, distinguished,
30. Eminent, prominent, distinguished, 123.
Enormity, enormousness, distinguished, 30.
Enthuse, 10. Esteem, estimate, estimation,
distinguished, nouns, 30; verbs, 100. Every,
number of, 58, 89; distinguished from each and
both, 119. Everywheres, 110. Evidently,
apparently, manifestly, distinguished, 122. Ewe,
masculine corresponding to, 21. Except, accept,
distinguished, 99. Except, without, unless,
distinguished, 142. Existing, extant, distinguished,
122. Expect, suspect, anticipate, distinguished,
101. Expose, expound, distinguished, 100.
Extant, existing, distinguished, 122.
Falsity, falseness, distinguished, 31. Fetch,
bring, carry, distinguished, 94. Fewer, less,
smaller, distinguished, 109. Figures, plural
of, 19. Find, locate, distinguished, 100.
Fish, plurals of, 19. Flee, principal
parts of, 61. Fled, flew, flown, distinguished,
61. Fly, principal parts of, 61. For, because,
since, distinguished, 143-144. For, on,
after wait, distinguished, 135. Foreign
origin, plural of nouns of, 20-21. Foreignisms,
defined, 10. Forget, principal parts of, 61.
FOUNDATIONS OF RHETORIC, A.S. Hill’s, 9;
quoted, 6, 17, 54, 67, 61, 62, 113, 119,
133, 134, 135, 136, 143, 144.
Frances, Francis, distinguished, 21. Freeze,
principal parts of, 61. Frighten, 100. Froze,
frozen, distinguished, 61. Funny, odd,
distinguished, 122.
Gallicisms, defined, 10. Gander, feminine
corresponding to, 21. Gender, nouns of different,
21. Genius, plural of, 21. Genus, plural
of, 21. Gerunds, 50-51. Get, principal
parts of, 61. Go, principal parts of, 61.
Good reading, the foundation of good writing and speaking,
8. GOOD USE, 3-11; defined, 6; conversation and,
7; newspapers and, 7;
not to be learned from any one book or
writer, 7; to be learned
from good reading, 8; and from dictionaries,
9; and from books
like the “Foundations of Rhetoric,”
9.
Good, well, distinguished, 109. Goose,
masculine corresponding to, 21. Gorgeous, 124.
Gotten for got, 61. Grand, 124.
Gums for overshoes, 4.
Habit, custom, distinguished, 30. Halo,
plural of, 18. Hang, principal parts of, 61.
Happen, transpire, distinguished, 96. Hart,
feminine of, 21. He, him, himself, proper choice
among, 43-45. He, his, him, for mankind in
general, 58. Healthy, healthful, wholesome,
distinguished, 122-123. Heifer, masculine corresponding
to, 21. Her, herself, she, proper choice among,
43-45. Hero, feminine corresponding to, 21.
HILL, A.S., quoted, 6, 8, 17, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32,
33, 54, 61, 62, 74,
89, 92, 95, 99, 100, 113, 119, 122, 123,
133, 134, 135, 140, 143, 144.
Him, his, before verbal nouns, 61. Him,
himself, he, proper choice among, 43-45. Hind,
masculine corresponding to, 21. Hire, let, lease,
distinguished, 95. His, him, before verbal
nouns, 51. Home, distinguished from house,
23; preposition before, 140. How, 144. Human,
humane, distinguished, 123. Hung, hanged,
distinguished, 61. Hypothesis, plural of, 21.
I, me, myself, proper choice among, 43-45. Identity, identification, distinguished, 31. Illusion, allusion, delusion, distinguished, 25. Illy, 110. Immigration, emigration, distinguished, 30. Import, importance, distinguished, 81. Improprieties, defined, 10. Impugn, impute, distinguished, 93. In, at, into, on, distinguished, 134-135. In addition to, words joined to the subject by, 89. Index, plurals of, 19. Indicative, use of the perfect, 78; indicative or subjunctive, 82-89. Infinitive, tenses of the, 78-79; adverbs between to and the, 133. Inquire, investigate, distinguished, 100. Insure, secure, distinguished, 100. Intend, calculate, distinguished, 94. Invent, discover, distinguished, 31. Investigate, inquire, distinguished, 100. It, its, before verbal nouns, 51.
Junto, plural of, 18.
Laid, lay, lain, distinguished, 61-62. Lasso, plural of, 18. Last, latest, distinguished, 123. Lay, lie, laid, lain, distinguished, 61-62. Learn, teach, distinguished, 95. Lease, let, hire, distinguished, 95. Leave, let, distinguished, 100. Lend, loan, distinguished, 93. Lengthy, long, distinguished, 123. Less, fewer, smaller, distinguished, 109. Lesser, 110. Let, leave, distinguished, 100. Let, lease, hire, distinguished, 95. Letters, plural of, 19. Liable, likely, apt, distinguished, 119. Lie, lay, distinguished, 61-62; principal parts of, 62. Light, alight, distinguished, 62. Light-complected, 110. Lighted, lit, distinguished, 62. Like, as, distinguished, 142. Like, likely, probably, distinguished, 109. Like, love, distinguished, 95. Likely, liable, apt, distinguished, 119. Limit, limitation, distinguished, 31. Lion, feminine of, 21. Loan, lend, distinguished, 93. Locate, find, distinguished, 100. Long, lengthy, distinguished, 123. Lot, number, distinguished, 31. Love, like, distinguished, 95. Lovely, 124.
Mad, angry, distinguished, 128. Magnificent,
124. Manifestly, evidently, apparently, distinguished,
122. Maintain, assert, allege, etc., distinguished,
94-95. Majority, plurality, distinguished,
31. Man after man, number of, 58. Many,
much, distinguished, 119. Many a, number
of, 89. Marquis, feminine of, 21. Materialize,
appear, distinguished, 95. May, can, distinguished,
71. Me, myself, I, proper choice among, 43-45.
Me, my, before verbal nouns, 51. Memento,
plural of, 18. Mention, refer to, allude
to, distinguished, 99. Middle, centre, distinguished,
30. Might, distinguished from could,
71;
tense of the infinitive with, 79.
Misplaced adjectives and adverbs, 132-133; correlatives,
148-149. Misused nouns, 22-42; verbs, 92-108;
adjectives and adverbs, 119-129;
prepositions, 134-139; conjunctions, 143-146.
Monk, feminine corresponding to, 21. Most,
almost, distinguished, 109. Much, many,
distinguished, 119. Muchly, 110. MURRAY’S
DICTIONARY, quoted, 54, 94, 101, 119. Must,
tense of the infinitive with, 78-79. Mutual, common,
distinguished, 119. My, me, before verbal nouns,
51, 52. Myself, me, I, proper choice among,
43-45.
National use, 4-6. Near, nearly, distinguished,
109. Need, tense of the infinitive with, 78-79.
Negligence, neglect, distinguished, 31. Neither,
number of, 58, 89; distinguished from no one,
55-66. Neither—nor, number
of the verb
with singular subjects joined by, 89.
New, novel, distinguished, 123. Newspapers
and good use, 7. Nobody, number of, 58.
Oasis, plural of, 21. Objective case,
43-50. Observance, observation, distinguished,
26. Obsolete, defined, 4, Octavo, plural
of, 18. Odd, funny, distinguished, 122. Of
after verbal nouns, 51. Of which, whose, choice
between, 54. Omitted articles, 13; pronouns,
60; adverbs, 117; prepositions, 140;
conjunctions, 146.
On, in, before names of streets, distinguished,
135. On, for, after wait, distinguished,
135. One, possessive and reflexive of, 56-57.
Only, distinguished from alone, 116;
position of, 132. Onto, 135. Oppose, antagonize,
distinguished, 94. Or, nor, use of, 144. Oral,
verbal, distinguished, 123. Ordinary, average,
distinguished, 122. Organism, organization,
distinguished, 31. Other, with comparatives
and superlatives, 129. Ought, tense of the
infinitive with, 78-79. Our, us, before verbal
nouns, 51. Ourselves, we, us, proper choice
among, 43-46.
Parenthesis, plural of, 21. Part, portion,
distinguished, 31. Participle, defined, 50.
Partly, partially, distinguished, 119.
Parts of verbs, principal, 61-62. Party, person,
distinguished, 23. Penny, plurals of, 19.
Perfect indicative, 78; infinitive, 78-79. Person,
change from one to another in pronouns, 56-57. Person,
party, distinguished, 23. Persuade, advise,
distinguished, 100. Phenomenon, plural of,
21. Piano, plural of, 18. Pitiable, pitiful,
distinguished, 123. Plea, argument, distinguished,
29. Plead, principal parts of, 62. Plenty,
distinguished from abundance, 32;
as adjective and adverb, 109-110.
Plural of nouns, 18-21; of pronouns, 58-60; of verbs,
89-92;
of adjectives, 110.
Plurality, majority, distinguished, 31. Portion,
part, distinguished, 31. Possessive case,
of nouns, 16; of pronouns, 43. Practicable, practical,
distinguished, 123. Predicate, predict, distinguished,
100. Predominance, prominence, distinguished,
32. PREPOSITIONS, 134-141; misused, 134-139;
Quantity, number, amount, distinguished, 29. Quarto, plural of, 18. Quite, very, distinguished, 119.
Raise, principal parts of, 62; distinguished
from rise, 62. Ram, feminine corresponding
to, 21. Rang, rung, distinguished, 62. Real,
really, very, distinguished, 124. Receipt,
recipe, distinguished, 32. Recourse, resource,
resort, distinguished, 32. Redundant articles,
13; pronouns, 60; adjectives and adverbs, 117;
prepositions, 140; conjunctions, 146-147.
Refer to, allude to, mention,
distinguished, 99. Reflexive pronouns, 45, 57.
Relation, relationship, distinguished, 26.
Relative, relation, distinguished, 32.
Relative pronouns, 53-54. Relieve, alleviate,
distinguished, 99. Remainder, rest, balance,
distinguished, 29. Repel, repulse, distinguished,
100. Reputable use, 6. Reputation, character,
distinguished, 30. Requirement, requisite, requisition,
distinguished, 32. Resort, resource, recourse,
distinguished, 32. Rest, remainder, balance,
distinguished, 29. Ride, principal parts of,
62; distinguished from drive, 4, 99. Rise,
principal parts of, 62; distinguished from raise,
62;
from arise, 92.
Run, principal parts of, 62.
Same as, same that, distinguished, 64. Sang, sung, distinguished, 62. Sank, sunk, distinguished, 62. Sat, set, sit, 62. Scared, afraid, distinguished, 124. Second, secondly, distinguished, 110. Secreting, secretion, distinguished, 32. Secure, insure, distinguished, 100. See, principal parts of, 62. Self, pronouns in, 44-45, 57. Sequence of tenses, 78. Seraph, plural of, 21. Series, succession, distinguished, 23. Set, principal parts of, 62; distinguished from sit, 62. Sewage, sewerage, distinguished, 32. Shake, principal parts of, 62. Shall or will, 72-77. She, her, herself, proper
Tableau, plural of, 21. Take, principal parts of, 62. Teach, learn, distinguished, 95. Teachers, suggestions to, 151-152. Tense, questions of, 78-82; in conditional sentences, 85; in wishes, 86. Testimony, verdict, distinguished, 23. Than, clause after, often omitted in part, 45 note 2. That distinguished from as after same, 54. That, those, 110. That, who, which, as relatives, 53-54. The or a, 12. The before verbal nouns, 51. Thee, thyself, thou, proper choice among, 43-45. Their, them, before verbal nouns, 51. Them, themselves, they, proper choice among, 43-45. Therefore, so, choice between, 144. These, this, 110.
Unbeknown, 110. Union, unity, distinguished,
33. Unless, verbs in clauses introduced by,
86;
distinguished from without and
except, 142.
Us or our before verbal nouns, 51.
Us, ourselves, we, pro per choice among, 43-45.
USE 3-11; defined, 6; conversation and, 7; newspapers
and, 7;
no one book or writer decisive of,
7-8; relation of dictionaries to, 9.
Use, present, 3-4; national, 4-6; reputable, 6.
Verbal nouns, construction with, 50-51.
Verbal, oral, distinguished, 123.
VERBS, 61-108; principal parts often misused, 61-70;
contractions, 71;
may or can, 71; will or shall,
72-76;
notional and auxiliary, defined, 72; would
or should, 74-77;
questions of tense, 78-82; indicative
or subjunctive, 82-89;
singular or plural, 89-92; misused, 92-108.
Verdict, testimony, distinguished, 23.
Very, distinguished from quite, 119;
from real, really, 124.
Visitor, visitant, 33.
Vocation, avocation, distinguished, 25-26.
Vulgarisms, defined, 10; in the use of adjectives
and adverbs, 109-113;
of conjunctions, 142-143.
Wait for, wait on, distinguished, 135. Wake, principal parts of, 62. We, us, ourselves, proper choice among, 43-45. Well, good, distinguished, 109. WENDELL, BARRETT, quoted, 7-8. Went, gone, distinguished, 61. What as a relative pronoun, 54. When, while, distinguished, 144. Which, who, that (relative), proper choice among, 53-55. Who, whom, choice between, 43-45. Who, which, that (relative), proper choice among, 53-55. Whoever, whomever, choice between, 45. Whole, all, distinguished, 23. Wholesome, healthy, healthful, distinguished, 122-123. Whose, of which, choice between, 54. Will or shall, 72-76. Wishes, moods and tenses in, 86. Witch, masculine corresponding to, 21. With, words joined to the subject by, 89; distinguished from by, 134. Without, except, unless, distinguished 142. Wizard, feminine corresponding to 21. Would or should, 74-77. Write, principal parts of, 62.