[Footnote 13:  On these economies, see Vol.  I, p. 298.]

[Footnote 14:  See ch. 17, sec. 4.]

[Footnote 15:  Since this was written the Federal Rural Credits Act has been passed, embodying the main idea here described.]

CHAPTER 12

PRINCIPLES OF INSURANCE

Sec. 1.  Chance, unavoidable and average.  Sec. 2.  Uneconomic character of gambling.  Sec. 3.  Borderland of gambling.  Sec. 4.  Insurance:  definition and kinds.  Sec. 5.  Insurance viewed as a wager.  Sec. 6.  Insurance as mutual protection.  Sec. 7.  Conditions of sound insurance.  Sec. 8.  Purpose of life insurance.  Sec. 9.  Assessment plan.  Sec. 10.  The reserve plan.  Sec. 11.  The mortality table.  Sec. 12.  The single premium for any term.  Sec. 13.  Level annual premiums and reserves.  Sec. 14.  Different features of policies.  Sec. 15.  Insurance assets and investments as savings.  Sec. 16.  Excessive costs of insurance operation.

Sec. 1. #Chance, unavoidable and average.# Every action and every movement in life has in it some element of chance.  There are what may be called natural chances, arising from the uncertainties of the seasons, or from rainfall, heat, hail, storm, flood, lightning, or land-slides.  Such chances must be taken both by the small enterpriser and by the large.  In earlier conditions of society natural chance dominated industry, and it still remains and must always remain important.  There is the chance of unexpected political events, such as war, riot, and legislation on money, tariffs, credit, and business relations.  These things are caused, it is true, by the action of men, but it is a collective action out of the control of the individual.  There is the chance of human carelessness causing fire, explosions, and wrecks on misplaced switches.  There is the chance of physical or mental collapse, as the sudden insanity or the sudden death of one performing responsible duties.  There is the chance of sickness that often wrecks the plans and the fortunes of a whole family.  There is the chance of economic alterations in methods of production and of transportation, in fashions and demand in this direction or for those materials.

Some of these chances are more connected with money-lending, others with manufacturing, some with agriculture, others with commerce; but all are present in some degree in every industry.  Some events are unique in nature and seem unlikely ever to occur again; others are of a kind occurring so irregularly that no reasonable prediction can be made as to the time and frequency of their occurrences.  Still others occur frequently and to many different persons; but no individual can tell when and how they will occur to him.  A general average of chances in different lines of business causes some to be called safe, others extra-hazardous.  Chance has its favorable as well as its unfavorable aspects.  Chances are averaged and added algebraically to the profit or loss in an industry, for an extra-hazardous enterprise must in general afford a higher average of profit in order to induce men to engage in it.  It is folly to take a risk without ascertaining its degree so far as general experience enables one to choose.  But inasmuch and in so far as the gains and losses fall unequally upon different individuals, income depends upon chance.