&Ssubdot;AddĀM &Hsubdot;Ussein

(born April 28, 1937, Tikrīt, Iraq—died Dec. 30, 2006, Baghdad) president of Iraq (1979–2003), whose brutal rule was marked by costly and unsuccessful wars against neighbouring countries.

&Ssubdot;addām was born into a peasant family in northern Iraq. He joined the Ba&ayn;th Party in 1957. In 1959 he participated in an unsuccessful attempt by Ba&ayn;thists to assassinate the Iraqi prime minister, &ayn;Abd al-Karīm Qāsim; wounded in the attempt, &Ssubdot;addām escaped, first to Syria and then to Egypt. He attended Cairo Law School (1962–63) and continued his studies at Baghdad Law College after the Ba&ayn;thists took power in Iraq in 1963. The Ba&ayn;thists were overthrown that same year, however, and &Ssubdot;addām spent several years in prison in Iraq. He escaped, becoming a leader of the Ba&ayn;th Party, and was instrumental in the coup that brought the party back to power in 1968. &Ssubdot;addām effectively held power in Iraq along with the head of state, President A&hsubdot;mad &Hsubdot;asan al-Bakr, and in 1972 he directed the nationalization of Iraq's oil industry.

&Ssubdot;addām began to assert open control of the government in 1979 and became president upon Bakr's resignation. He then became chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council and prime minister, among other positions. He used an extensive secret-police establishment to suppress any internal opposition to his rule, and he made himself the object of an extensive personality cult among the Iraqi public. His goals as president were to supplant Egypt as leader of the Arab world and to achieve hegemony over the Persian Gulf.

&Ssubdot;addām launched an invasion of Iran's oil fields in September 1980, but the campaign bogged down in a war of attrition. The cost of the war and the interruption of Iraq's oil exports caused &Ssubdot;addām to scale down his ambitious programs for economic development. The Iran-Iraq War dragged on in a stalemate until 1988, when both countries accepted a cease-fire that ended the fighting. Despite the large foreign debt with which Iraq found itself saddled by war's end, &Ssubdot;addām continued to build up his armed forces.

In August 1990 the Iraqi army overran neighbouring Kuwait. &Ssubdot;addām apparently intended to use that nation's vast oil revenues to bolster Iraq's economy, but his occupation of Kuwait quickly triggered a worldwide trade embargo against Iraq. He ignored appeals to withdraw his forces from Kuwait, despite the buildup of a large U.S.-led military force in Saudi Arabia and the passage of United Nations (UN) resolutions condemning the occupation and authorizing the use of force to end it. The Persian Gulf War began on Jan. 16, 1991, and ended six weeks later when the allied military coalition drove Iraq's armies out of Kuwait. Iraq's crushing defeat triggered internal rebellions by both Shī&ayn;ites and Kurds, but &Ssubdot;addām suppressed their uprisings, causing thousands to flee to refugee camps along the country's northern border. Untold thousands more were murdered, many simply disappearing into the regime's prisons.

As part of the cease-fire agreement with the UN, Iraq was prohibited from producing or possessing chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons. Numerous sanctions were leveled on the country pending compliance, and these caused severe disruption of the economy. &Ssubdot;addām's continued refusal to cooperate with UN arms inspectors led to a four-day air strike by the United States and Great Britain in late 1998 (Operation Desert Fox). Both countries announced that they would support efforts of the Iraqi opposition to unseat &Ssubdot;addām, whose regime had grown increasingly brutal under UN sanctions, but the Iraqi leader barred UN weapons inspectors from entering his country. In the interim it became clear that &Ssubdot;addām was grooming one of his sons—&ayn;Udayy or Qu&ssubdot;ayy—to succeed him. Both were elevated to senior positions, and both mirrored the brutality of their father. Moreover, &Ssubdot;addām continued to solidify his control at home, while he struck a profoundly defiant and anti-American stance in his rhetoric. Though increasingly feared at home, &Ssubdot;addām was viewed by many in the Arab world as the only regional leader willing to stand up to what they saw as American aggression.

In the wake of the September 11 attacks in the United States in 2001, the U.S. government, asserting that &Ssubdot;addām might provide terrorist groups with chemical or biological weapons, sought to renew the disarmament process. Though &Ssubdot;addām allowed UN weapons inspectors to return to Iraq in November 2002, his failure to cooperate fully with the investigations frustrated the United States and Great Britain and led them to declare an end to diplomacy. On March 17, 2003, U.S. President George W. Bush ordered &Ssubdot;addām to step down from office and leave Iraq within 48 hours or face war; he also indicated that, even if &Ssubdot;addām left the country, U.S. forces might be needed to stabilize the new government and search for weapons of mass destruction. When &Ssubdot;addām refused to leave, U.S. and allied forces launched an attack on Iraq on March 20.

The opening salvo of the Iraq War was an assault by U.S. aircraft on a bunker complex in which &Ssubdot;addām was thought to be meeting with subordinates. Although the attack failed to kill the Iraqi leader, subsequent attacks directed against &Ssubdot;addām made it clear that eliminating him was a major goal of the invasion. Always obstinate in his tone, &Ssubdot;addām exhorted Iraqis to lay down their lives to stop U.S. and British forces, but resistance to the invasion soon crumbled, and on April 9, the day Baghdad fell to U.S. soldiers, &Ssubdot;addām fled into hiding. He took with him the bulk of the national treasury and was initially able to evade capture by U.S. troops. His sons, &ayn;Udayy and Qu&ssubdot;ayy, were cornered and killed in Mosul on July 22, but it was not until December 13 that &Ssubdot;addām was finally captured. The once dapper leader was pulled, disheveled and dirty, from a small underground hiding place near a farmhouse in the vicinity of his native Tikrīt. Although he was armed, &Ssubdot;addām surrendered to U.S. soldiers without firing a shot.

In October 2005 &Ssubdot;addām went on trial before the Iraqi High Tribunal, a panel court established to try officials of the former Iraqi government. He and several codefendants were charged with the killing of 148 townspeople in Dujail, a mainly Shī&ayn;ite town, in 1982. Throughout the nine-month trial, &Ssubdot;addām interrupted the proceedings with angry outbursts, claiming that the tribunal was a sham and that U.S. interests were behind it. The tribunal finally adjourned in July 2006 and handed down its verdicts in November. &Ssubdot;addām was convicted of crimes against humanity, including willful killing, illegal imprisonment, deportation, and torture, and sentenced to death by hanging. &Ssubdot;addām's half brother (an intelligence officer) and Iraq's former chief judge also were sentenced to death. Days after an Iraqi court upheld his sentence in December 2006, &Ssubdot;addām was executed.

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