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Apologetics   APOLOGETICS. [This entry, which is restricted to consideration of monotheistic religions, places religious apologetics in comparative perspective and examines the difference between apologetics and polemics.] Apologetics is other-directed ... Study Pack: 3 Summaries About 34 pages (10,073 words) in 3 products

Archytas Archytas of Tarentumwas a Greek mathematician of the Pythagorean school who formulated the harmonic mean and was the first to integrate mathematics and mechanics. He also developed an ingenious geometric solution for the ancient Greek prob... Study Pack: 1 Biography, 3 Summaries About 13 pages (3,840 words) in 4 products

Roberto Ardigo ArdigÒ, Roberto(1828–1920) Roberto Ardigò, the principal figure in Italian positivism, was born in Casteldidone in Cremona. He became a Catholic priest, but left the priesthood when, at the age of forty-three, he found ... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 4 pages (1,099 words) in 1 product

Hannah Arendt   A Jewish refugee from Germany, Hannah Arendt (1906-1975) analyzed major issues of the 20th century and produced a brilliant and original political philosophy. Hannah Arendt was born in 1906 in Hanover, Germany, the only child of middle-cla... Study Pack: 2 Biographies, 2 Summaries, 1 Essay, 10 Criticisms About 181 pages (54,231 words) in 15 products

Aristippus Aristippus of Cyrene(C. 435 Stuttgart, Germany: F. Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden, 1988. Mannebach, Erich, ed. Aristippi et Cyrenaicorum fragmenta. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1961.... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 5 pages (1,540 words) in 1 product

Ariston of Chios Aristo of Chios(Third Century Bce) Aristo of Chios was a disciple of Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism. The scant biographical information that exists, from Diogenes Laertius (VII 160 189. Berkeley: University of California Press, 199... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 1 pages (429 words) in 1 product

Aristotle   Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. at Stagira, a small coastal town in northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, was a physician to the Macedonian ruler Amyntas II. His mother was Phaestis, a descendant of a family from Chalcis who had moved th... Study Pack: 9 Biographies, 13 Summaries, 2 Essays, 20 Criticisms About 777 pages (233,043 words) in 44 products

Indian philosophy INDIAN PHILOSOPHIES. Over the past four hundred years India has witnessed a break in its sociocultural and intellectual life with which it is still in the process of coming to terms. It is not, contrary to general belief, the legacy of col... Study Pack: 7 Summaries About 108 pages (32,335 words) in 7 products

Augustine Augustinianism , E. A Guide to the Thought of St. Augustine. Chicago: Regnery, 1960. Rist, John M. Augustine: Ancient Thought Baptized. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Rondet, H. Saint Augustine parmi nous. Paris, 1954. R... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 7 pages (1,935 words) in 1 product

J. L. Austin   The English philosopher John Langshaw Austin (1911-1960) taught a generation of Oxford students a rigorous style of philosophizing based on language analysis. John Langshaw Austin was born in Lancaster on March 26, 1911. In 1924 he entered... Study Pack: 2 Biographies, 1 Summary About 42 pages (12,695 words) in 3 products

Islamic philosophy   Averroism in Modern Islamic Philosophy Averroes (Ibn Rushd) largely disappeared from the Islamic world after his death in 1198, but returned through the influence of Ernest Renan, who in the nineteenth century presented Averroes as a hero o... Study Pack: 5 Summaries About 50 pages (14,887 words) in 5 products

Franz Xaver von Baader Baader, Franz Xavier Von(1765 hrigen Geburstagsfeier Baaders (Erlangen, Germany, 1865).... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 8 pages (2,314 words) in 1 product

Francis Bacon   "I have taken all knowledge to be my province," wrote Francis Bacon in 1592 to his uncle, Lord Burghley, the lord high treasurer. Bacon was just over thirty, but already he had begun the writing of his grand program for the renewal of huma... Study Pack: 6 Biographies, 5 Summaries, 2 Essays, 1 Criticism About 288 pages (86,317 words) in 14 products

Roger Bacon   The medieval English philosopher Roger Bacon (ca. 1214-1294) insisted on the importance of a so-called science of experience, or "scientia experimentalis." In this respect he is often regarded as a forerunner of modern science. Little is k... Study Pack: 4 Biographies, 4 Summaries, 23 Criticisms About 387 pages (116,054 words) in 31 products

Karl Friedrich Bahrdt Bahrdt, Carl Friedrich(1740 or 1741 bingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1913.... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 5 pages (1,359 words) in 1 product

Mikhail Bakunin   Russian revolutionary agitator Mikhail Aleksandrovich Bakunin (1814-1876) was the leading spirit of 19th-century anarchism. He viewed revolution as the necessary means of destroying the political domination of individuals by the state. Mik... Study Pack: 2 Biographies, 1 Summary, 7 Criticisms About 225 pages (67,367 words) in 10 products

Arthur Balfour   The British statesman and philosopher Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour (1848-1930), was prime minister of Great Britain. He later was chiefly responsible for the Balfour Declaration, favoring the establishment of Palestine as the ... Study Pack: 2 Biographies, 1 Summary About 36 pages (10,777 words) in 3 products

Karl Barth   The Swiss Protestant theologian Karl Barth (1886-1968), a giant in the history of Christian thought, initiated what became the dominant movement in Protestant theology up to the present day. Karl Barth was born on May 10, 1886, in Basel, t... Study Pack: 1 Biography, 3 Summaries About 46 pages (13,811 words) in 4 products

Roland Barthes   In 1976 Roland Barthes was appointed chair of literary semiology and elected to the Collège de France--the highest position in the French academic system. His lifelong pursuit of formally interpreting the sign systems that make up c... Study Pack: 1 Biography, 1 Summary, 28 Criticisms About 368 pages (110,423 words) in 30 products

Charles Batteux Batteux, AbbÉ Charles(1713–1780) In the history of aesthetic ideas, the abbot Charles Batteux was less of an innovator than an apt synthesizer of prevailing ideas and a late defender of the classical theory of imitation in the... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 4 pages (1,272 words) in 1 product

Simone de Beauvoir   Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986), a French writer, first articulated what has since become the basis of the modern feminist movement. She was the author of novels, autobiographies, and non-fiction analysis dealing with women's position in a ... Study Pack: 2 Biographies, 2 Summaries, 34 Criticisms About 424 pages (127,303 words) in 38 products

Robert Bellarmine The Italian theologian and Jesuit St. Robert Bellarmine (1542-1621) was a cardinal, an adviser to popes, and a strong defender of the Roman Catholic position in the controversies stemming from the Protestant Reformation. Robert Bellarmine ... Study Pack: 1 Biography, 2 Summaries About 14 pages (4,158 words) in 3 products

Nikolai Berdyaev   Nicholas Alexandrovich Berdyaev (1874-1948) was a Russian philosopher and religious thinker. He was a leading exponent of Christian existentialism and bridged the gap between religious thought in Russia and the West. Nicholas Berdyaev was ... Study Pack: 1 Biography, 3 Summaries, 11 Criticisms About 213 pages (64,008 words) in 15 products

George Berkeley   Anglican bishop George Berkeley (1685-1753) developed a unique type of idealism based on an empirically oriented attack on abstract philosophizing combined with a defense of immaterialism. Although born on March 3, 1685, at Dysert Castle i... Study Pack: 6 Biographies, 4 Summaries, 1 Essay, 12 Criticisms About 495 pages (148,432 words) in 23 products

Bernard of Clairvaux   The French churchman St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) was a Cistercian monk and founder and abbot of the monastery of Clairvaux. A theologian and Doctor of the Church, he dominated Europe through his eloquence and his counselling of po... Study Pack: 2 Biographies, 2 Summaries, 12 Criticisms About 288 pages (86,337 words) in 16 products

Ludwig von Bertalanffy Bertalanffy, Ludwig Von(1901–1972) Ludwig von Bertalanffy, one of the chief exponents of the "organismic" standpoint in theoretical biology, was born in Austria in 1901 and educated at the universities of Innsbruck and ... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 9 pages (2,543 words) in 1 product

William Blake by James Daugherty   In his Life of William Blake (1863) Alexander Gilchrist warned his readers that Blake "neither wrote nor drew for the many, hardly for work'yday men at all, rather for children and angels; himself 'a divine child,' whose playthings were su... Study Pack: 1 Study Guide, 5 Biographies, 1 Summary, 13 Essays, 14 Criticisms About 453 pages (135,760 words) in 34 products

Jakob Böhme   The German mystic Jacob Boehme (1575-1624) drew unique philosophical and religious ideas from his own spiritual experiences. His thought had a profound effect on German religious life and philosophy and influenced Quakerism in England. Jac... Study Pack: 2 Biographies, 2 Summaries, 1 eBook About 32 pages (9,462 words) in 5 products

Bohm interpretation Bohmian Mechanics While quantum mechanics as presented in physics textbooks provides us with a formalism, it does not attempt to provide a description of reality. The formalism is a set of rules for computing the probability distribution of... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 33 pages (9,740 words) in 1 product

Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux   The French critic and writer Nicholas Boileau-Despréaux (1636-1711) is best known for the theory of poetics expressed in his "Art poétique." Through this work he became the foremost exponent of French literary classicism. Nic... Study Pack: 2 Biographies, 1 Summary About 36 pages (10,746 words) in 3 products

Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke   Henry St. John, Viscount Bolingbroke, dazzled and perplexed his contemporaries. Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift revered his eloquence and charm, while Sir Robert Walpole despised his hypocrisy and untrammeled ambition. His precocious ris... Study Pack: 1 Biography, 1 Summary About 33 pages (9,980 words) in 2 products

Louis Gabriel Ambroise de Bonald Bonald, Louis Gabriel Ambroise, Vicomte De(1754 75.... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 4 pages (1,264 words) in 1 product

Bonaventure   The Italian theologian and philosopher St. Bonaventure (1217-1274) was very influential in the development of scholasticism in medieval thought. The quarter century from 1250 to 1275 has a particular character in the history of medieval th... Study Pack: 2 Biographies, 2 Summaries, 1 Essay About 55 pages (16,589 words) in 5 products

Dietrich Bonhoeffer   The German theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906-1945) had a major influence on post-World War II Protestant theology. Executed because of his part in the German resistance to Hitler, through his actions and writings he called for Christian... Study Pack: 1 Biography, 2 Summaries, 1 Essay About 47 pages (14,050 words) in 4 products

Rudjer Boscovich Rudjer Boscovic, also known as Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich, was a Jesuit mathematician and astronomer. He was born in Ragusa, Croatia (now Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia) on May 18, 1711, and died in Milan, Italy in February 13, 1787. Boscovic's fat... Study Pack: 1 Biography, 2 Summaries About 8 pages (2,391 words) in 3 products

Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet   The French prelate and writer Jacques Bénigne Bossuet (1627-1704) is best known for his sermons and orations. His ecclesiastical career traversed the principal milieus and encompassed the major religious questions of his time. Jacqu... Study Pack: 2 Biographies, 1 Summary About 28 pages (8,471 words) in 3 products

Henri, Comte de Boulainvilliers Boulainvilliers, Henri, Comte De(1658 173. Wade, I. O. The Clandestine Organization and Diffusion of Philosophic Ideas in France from 1700 to 1750. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1938.... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 5 pages (1,441 words) in 1 product

F. H. Bradley   The English philosopher Francis Herbert Bradley (1846-1924) based his thought on the principles of absolute idealism. He rigorously criticized all philosophies based on the "school of experience." Born in Clapham on Jan. 30, 1846, F. H. Br... Study Pack: 2 Biographies, 1 Summary About 51 pages (15,272 words) in 3 products

R. B. Braithwaite Braithwaite, Richard Bevan(1900–1990) Richard Bevan Braithwaite, an English philosopher, was educated at King's College, Cambridge, where he studied physics and mathematics before turning to philosophy. Braithwaite was Knightb... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 5 pages (1,483 words) in 1 product

Orestes Brownson   Orestes Augustus Brownson (1803-1876) was an American clergyman, transcendentalist, and social activist. He passed through the whole range of American religion, from nebulous Unitarianism to firmly disciplined Catholicism. Orestes A. Brown... Study Pack: 5 Biographies, 1 Summary, 9 Criticisms About 230 pages (69,099 words) in 15 products

Giordano Bruno   The Italian philosopher and poet Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) attempted to deal with the implications of the Copernican universe. Although he made no scientific discoveries, his ideas had much influence on later scientists and philosophers. ... Study Pack: 2 Biographies, 3 Summaries, 11 Criticisms About 274 pages (82,222 words) in 16 products

Léon Brunschvicq Brunschvicg, L on Brunschvicg. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1938.... Study Pack: 1 Summary About 4 pages (1,116 words) in 1 product

Martin Buber   The Jewish theologian and philosopher Martin Buber (1878-1965) was one of the most creative and influential religious thinkers of the 20th century. His book I and Thou has had a wide impact on people of all faiths. The life and thought of ... Study Pack: 1 Biography, 2 Summaries About 35 pages (10,374 words) in 3 products

Geluk DGE LUGS PA. The Dge lugs pa (Geluk pa) order of Tibetan Buddhism was founded in the early fifteenth century by Tsong kha pa (1357–1419) in the area of Lhasa, the capital of Tibet. He established a monastic university on a mountain ... Study Pack: 2 Summaries About 76 pages (22,919 words) in 2 products

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon The French naturalist Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707-1788), wrote the major general work on natural history of the 18th century and made the Royal Garden in Paris a center for scientific research. On Sept. 7, 1707, Georges Lo... Study Pack: 4 Biographies, 4 Summaries About 23 pages (6,792 words) in 8 products

Sergei Bulgakov BULGAKOV, SERGEI (1871-1944), Russian economist, philosopher, theologian, and Russian Orthodox priest. Sergei Nikolaevich was born in Livny, province of Orel, less than fifty years before the revolutions of 1917. The son of a Russian Ortho... Study Pack: 2 Summaries About 14 pages (4,115 words) in 2 products

Rudolf Bultmann   The German theologian Rudolf Karl Bultmann (1884-1976) altered the direction of biblical studies by his work in the interpretation of the New Testament. Rudolf Bultmann was born August 20, 1884, in Wiefelstede, the eldest son of an Evangel... Study Pack: 1 Biography, 2 Summaries About 18 pages (5,307 words) in 3 products

Jacob Burckhardt   The Swiss historian Jacob Christoph Burckhardt (1818-1897) was a philosophical historian whose books dealt with cultural and artistic history and whose lectures examined the forces that had shaped European history. Through the use of eyewi... Study Pack: 1 Biography, 1 Summary, 11 Criticisms About 115 pages (34,563 words) in 13 products

Jean Buridan   1300-1358 French Physicist and Philosopher More than three centuries before Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), Jean Buridan anticipated Newton's first law of motion when he stated that an object in motion will remain moving. This put him... Study Pack: 2 Summaries About 16 pages (4,652 words) in 2 products

Edmund Burke   The British statesman Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was a noted political theorist and philosophical writer. He was born in Ireland, spent most of his active life in English politics, and died the political oracle of conservative Europe. Edmund... Study Pack: 4 Biographies, 4 Summaries, 4 Criticisms About 298 pages (89,402 words) in 12 products