William Thomson Kelvin was born on June 26, 1824, in northern Ireland. He died on December 17, 1907, in Scotland. He was also known as Sir William Thomson, Baron William Thomson Kelvin of Largs, and Lord Kelvin. He was the son of James Thomson, a professor of engineering and mathematics at Belfast. Thomson was a major influence in the fields of physics and engineering during his time. His work on thermodynamics, electricity, and magnetism helped form the basis of modern physics.
Thomson's accomplishments were probably due, in part, to his personality. He was an active man, seeking answers and excitement and finding no rest until his curiosity was satisfied. He enjoyed traveling and rowing. He even risked his own life more than once while assisting in the laying of the first transatlantic cable. Thomson began his education at Glasgow, where he received numerous university awards. The professor of natural philosophy at the time, William Meickleham, had a profound influence on Thomson's career as a physicist. It was at Glasgow where Thomson discovered a love of mathematics and a respect for physical science. He was trained to question theories constantly and to work continuously to solve problems. Meickleham lent Thomson a copy of Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier's book The Analytical Theory of Heat, introducing the young student to abstract mathematics and the controversial theory of heat flow. Fourier's ideas became a driving force in Thomson's research career. At the age of 15, he received a gold medal for his article entitled An Essay on the Figure of the Earth. In writing this essay, Thomson demonstrated mathematical skills well beyond his years. He referred to this essay quite often during his lifetime and used it as a basis for many of his theories.
After he matriculated in 1834, Thomson attended Cambridge. While at Cambridge, he published his first two articles, both defending Fourier's theories of heat flow, which were not widely accepted at the time. Shortly before graduation, he was given another book, George Green's (1793-1841) An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism. This book, along with Fourier's, shaped the way Thomson regarded natural science, and as a result, his life's work. After graduating from Cambridge with high honors he traveled to Paris where he studied electricity under the direction of Henri-Victor Regnault (1810-1878). Working with Regnault, Thomson gained practical knowledge to complement the theoretical knowledge he obtained at Cambridge. After several years of study, he returned to Scotland at the age of 22 to replace his mentor, Meickleham, as the professor of natural philosophy. Thomson held this position for the rest of his career, until he retired at the age of 75.
Thomson's main assertion was that each of the numerous theories describing both matter and energy could be unified and described by one all-encompassing theory. He did not know if this theory would ever be articulated; however, all of his research was driven toward the goal of unification. One main tenet in Thomson's work was the demonstration that energy could be converted into different forms. James Prescott Joule performed experiments showing that mechanical energy could be converted into heat energy, the basis for thermodynamics. Joule's work strongly influenced Thomson, who believed that electricity, magnetism, light, and energy were all interrelated. Thomson supported Joule's theory when he published his work, On the Dynamical Theory of Heat. In this essay, Thomson described his version of the second law of thermodynamics, bringing the unification of theories closer to reality.
Thomson himself influenced scientist James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879). Thomson was Maxwell's mentor, and Maxwell used Thomson's ideas as the basis for his research. Maxwell developed his electromagnetic theory of light, demonstrating the interrelationship between electricity, magnetism, and light, based on Thomson's early research at Cambridge. Thomson also furthered the early theories of Fourier, Joule, and Michael Faraday. He was able to see the connections between individual experiments performed by these scientists in order to make generalizations about the dynamics of energy. Thomson was the first to show the similarity between heat flow in solid objects and electrical flow in conductors. He was also one of the first scientists to develop an absolute temperature scale, one in which the value of one degree is independent of temperature. His contributions to the fields of thermodynamics and electricity were critical to the development of the unifying theory he first imagined. This unifying theory, later developed as the laws of conservation of energy and of matter, was used to develop the absolute temperature scale used by scientists today, known as the Kelvin scale in Thomson's honor.
Thomson's work went well beyond that of theoretical electricity and thermodynamics. He also provided practical use of his theories, for example, when he worked on the first transatlantic cable project. He was first consulted to provide information regarding the rate of electric current passing through this long (3,000 mi [4,800 km]) cable. A delay was noted in the passing of current through the cable, and Thomson was asked to help solve this problem. Thomson demonstrated mathematically how this delay could be solved. The chief electrician for the project, E. O. W. Whitehouse, rejected Thomson's explanation, stating that his own practical experience outweighed the theoretical musings of Thomson. Whitehouse's plans were accompanied by numerous problems, and eventually Thomson's ideas were used. Thomson patented his first telegraph receiver, a mirror galvanometer, in 1858, which was eventually used on the transatlantic cable (only after Whitehouse was fired). Queen Victoria knighted Thomson in 1866 for his work on this project.
Thomson influenced the study of geology as well. He was the first to hypothesize that the Sun was slowly cooling down. He imagined early Earth underneath a sun with a much higher temperature than we know today. He stated that the temperature of Earth must also have been much greater, and that the planet was characterized by severe storms and completely different plant life. These theories opposed much of the theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and upset his scientific followers. Thomson had incorrectly estimated the age of Earth and the Sun, but had demonstrated that geologic theory followed the established theories of physics. Thomson also owned numerous patents on everything from an analog computer used to measure tides to electrical devices used to make measurements. He published a textbook as well, titled Treatise on Natural Philosophy. This textbook was used by and influenced modern physicists. Thomson was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society in 1851. He was the president of the Royal Society from 1890 to 1895. He published hundreds of papers in his lifetime, influencing physicists and engineers for years after his death.
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