Richard Marc Emerson Biography

Richard M. Emerson influenced the study of social structure by introducing the theory of social exchange which broke new ground in three areas. First, Emerson's paradigm focused on the interaction and relationship between individuals rather than their individual actions. In so doing, he circumvented the limitations of behaviorism and utilitarianism, thus allowing a fuller perspective of social structure. Second, social exchange theory emphasizes resource availability, power, and dependence as primary dynamics within a relationship. Doing so allows the researcher to ask the question, "why," about relationships rather than merely "what kind." Third, by creating a theory that focused on the interplay between two interacting parties, Emerson provided a means to address social structure at both the micro and macro levels. If relationships, not actors, are key, then the theory can be equally applied to person-person, person-group, and group-group relations.

Emerson first outlined his original concept of social relationships in "Power-Dependence Relations," which appeared in the February 1962 issue of the American Sociological Review. Over the next twenty years, he continued to develop and expand his understanding of social relations. He contributed "Exchange Theory, Part II: Exchange Relations and Networks" to Sociological Theories in Progress, Volume II (1972) and "Social Exchange Theory" to Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives (1981). He also published major articles in sociological journals, including "Power, Equity, and Commitment in Exchange Networks" (with Karen Cook, 1978) in American Sociological Review and "The Distribution of Power in Exchange Networks: Theory and Experimental Results" (with Cook, Mary Gillmore, and Toshio Yamagishi, posthumously, 1983) in American Journal of Sociology.

Emerson begins by identifying distinct types of social relations that are qualitatively unique, such as monopolies, coalitions, and markets. Not only are relations organized in different manners, they also differ in the type and amount of resources exchanged, such as money, friendship, and status. Given this network structure, Emerson argues that power and dependence are the primary dynamics that define the relationship. He devised a formal equation to denote this interaction: "The dependence of actor A upon actor B is (1) directly proportional to A'smotivational investmentin goals mediated by B, and (2) inversely proportional to the availability of those goals to A outside the A-B relation." In defining power, he states: "The power of actor A over actor B is the amount of resistance on the part of B which can be potentially overcome by A." In other words, when B has means to fulfill stated needs outside the relationship, B's dependence and A's power will be low. However, if B has a keen interest in resources that can only be provided by A, then B's dependence increases and A's power increases. Thus A's power over B is equal to B's dependence on A.

With power and dependence the defining characteristics of social relations, the potential for imbalance is constantly present. Imbalance in relationships occurs when one party has unequal access to or power to control resources; balance occurs when both parties have equal access to resources. Emerson argues that relationships tend to seek balance, which can be achieved through change that alters the power balance by remixing dependency variables. He offers four methods of balancing operations: (1) if B's desire for the resources offered by A is reduced; (2) if B finds other sources to fill the needs previously filled by A; (3) if A's desire for the resources offered by B is increased; and (4) if A can find no other sources to obtain the resources offered by B. He concludes that the greater the level of shared interdependence, the more cohesive the relationship and the more conflict it can endure without dissolving.

Imperative to understanding social exchange theory is the distinction between potential power and actual use of power. The relationship is determined by actual use, not potential use, of power. Even though A may have significant power over B, the relationship is altered only insofar as A employs this power to enact change. Certain social restraints can act upon A to limit the amount of potential power actually used, including friendship or commitment and organizational structure. External authority structures can also impede the use of power, acting as a third party in a triadic relationship with the two interacting participants.

Emerson was teaching at the University of Cincinnati in the early 1960s when he first introduced social exchange theory. He later found his academic home at the University of Washington, where he remained until his death on December 23, 1982, due to complications from surgery. At the time of his death, he was working on "Toward a Theory of Value in Social Exchange," a chapter that appears in its unfinished form in Social Exchange Theory (1987), a compilation edited by Cook and dedicated to Emerson.