Nicholas "Sadi" Carnot studied the process by which heat converts into other forms of energy. His unique mathematical theory pertaining to the conversion relationship between heat and work (energy) preceded and predicted the first and second laws of thermodynamics. A major interest to Carnot was industrial development and, in particular, the steam engine. He focused much of his research attempting to improve its effectiveness and efficiency, studying the relationship between pressure, temperature, and energy output.

Carnot was born in Palais du Petit-Luxembourg, the eldest son of Lazare Carnot, a French revolutionary and Napoleon's minister of war. In 1807, Lazare resigned his post to devote his time to educating his two sons, Sadi (named after a medieval poet and philosopher Sa'di of Shiraz) and Hippolyte. Carnot was an exceptional student and entered the Ecole Polytechnique at the age of 16, the youngest age for entry into the elite institute. Carnot interrupted...