Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, Marquis de Condorcet, was born on September 17, 1743, in Ribemont, Picardy, in southern France. His family had an ancient and noble heritage tied to the principality of Orange, and most of his male ancestors had pursued either military or ecclesiastical careers. His father died when Condorcet was four years old, and his mother, twice widowed, reacted by smothering her son in a blanket of protection. Dedicating him to the Virgin to protect him from the "Evil Eye," his mother dressed Condorcet as a girl until he was eight years old. Ending his informal education conducted by his mother at the age of 11, Condorcet was sent to his uncle, the Bishop of Lisieux, who arranged for a Jesuit tutor for Condorcet. In 1758, Condorcet enrolled in the University of Paris and studied philosophy and mathematics at the College of Navarre.
Upon graduation in 1760, Condorcet, as a young nobleman, was expected to embark on a military career. Instead, he proclaimed his intent to study mathematics. This shocked his family, who was violently opposed to the idea. Mathematics, as a branch of science, glorified the individual and progress, ideas which threatened the claims of hereditary power. Despite his family's resistance, Condorcet returned to Paris where he lived a quiet life of study, often reading mathematics for ten hours a day. In 1769, at the age of 26, Condorcet was elected as a junior academician to the Academy of Sciences. Subsequently, he was named Secretary of the Academy of Sciences and became Permanent Secretary in 1777, a position he held the remainder of his life.
In his association with the Academy of Sciences, Condorcet encountered highly regarded mathematician and philosopher Jean d'Alembert, who became a powerful friend and advocate. Condorcet also developed a close friendship with Turgot, a statesman and reformer, who drew Condorcet into the arena of politics, economics, and reforms. When Turgot became Minister of Finance in 1774, he appointed Condorcet as Inspector-General of the Mint. He also appointed Condorcet, along with d'Alembert, to the Commission of Three, which oversaw an extensive expansion of inland navigation via new canals.
Working within Turgot's circle of advisors, Condorcet was instrumental in the development of Turgot's reform plan. Unfortunately, Turgot was removed from office in 1776, before the work was presented to Louis XVI. Turgot's fall from power left Condorcet in despair. Critical of Turgot's replacement whose misguided financial policies pushed France toward revolution, Condorcet published his objections in two letters: Letter of a Laborer in Picardy and Memoir on the Corn Trade. Enraging his rivals, Condorcet resigned his government position. Believing that extending the common good was the highest calling, Condorcet wrote to Voltaire, a Turgot supporter: "It is cold comfort to labor for nothing but glory after flattering oneself for a time that one was working for the public good."
Over the next six years Condorcet attempted to formulate a comprehensive understanding of the social sciences. Elected to the influential French Academy in 1782, he introduced his social theory in his reception speech. Further developed in his 1785 paper Essay on the Application of Mathematics to the Theory of Decision-Making, Condorcet argued that the advancement of both moral and political sciences was bound by the same laws as the physical sciences. In other words, progress of morality, society, and nature all operated under the same law; therefore, just as nature progresses based on rational laws, so do all aspects of life.
In 1786, Condorcet married Sophie de Grouchy. The French Revolution broke out three years later, and in 1791 Condorcet was elected to the Legislative Assembly, serving first as Secretary and then as president. He helped draft both the proclamation that declared France to be a republic and the moderate (also known as Gerondist) version of the new constitution. However, the Jacobin leader, Robespierre, managed to block its passage and influence the development of a new constitution, which was hastily drafted by a revised committee. Outraged at the many defects in the document, Condorcet published the highly critical letter Advice to the French on the New Constitution. Although published anonymously, his authorship was discovered, and on July 8, 1793, Condorcet was denounced and charged with treason.
Avoiding arrest by hiding out in a sympathizer's home, Condorcet knew his time was limited. Working hastily, Condorcet began to work out his understanding of the progress of human thought, outlined as Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind. Within his final work, Condorcet advocates the possibility for the infinite perfectibility of the human race in all areas, including physical, mental, and moral development. Predicting the end to the major flaws of civilization, Condorcet believed that gradual, yet inevitable, progress would lead to the extinction of such evils as gender inequality, religious bigotry, disease, war, slavery, economic injustice, and the separation of societies based on exclusive languages.
In March 1794, Condorcet received a warning that he had been discovered, and soldiers were on their way to arrest him. Wishing to protect his kind hostess who had risked her life to hide him, Condorcet disguised his appearance and fled to the countryside. After several days of wandering without food or shelter, Condorcet entered a village tavern. He drew suspicion when, exhausted and muddled, he requested an omelet with a dozen eggs. When he could not produce the required identification papers, the police were called. Condorcet, who was so weak he had to be placed in a cart, was arrested and taken to jail. He was found dead in his cell two days later, on March 29, 1794. His Sketch was published posthumously in 1795.
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