Hakka
The Hakka are a Chinese ethnolinguistic minority group. The word "Hakka" means "guest people" or "newcomers" in Yue (Cantonese) and reflects their migration from central to southern China from about the ninth century into the early twentieth century. They tended to settle in distinct Hakka communities. There are about 40 million Hakka in China. Most live in southern China, with Guangdong Province having the greatest concentration, particularly in northern Meizhou Prefecture. There are also sizeable populations in Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Hainan Island, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. Estimates suggest that there may be more Hakka outside of China than in it, with large overseas communities in Malaysia, the United States, Canada, and Australia. The Hakka language is classified with Yue and Min as a southern Chinese language.
As an ethnolinguistic minority and late arrivals in southern China, the Hakka often had tense and sometimes violent relations with the Yue- and Min-speaking Han. The Han considered the Hakka to be inferior and a tribal people. Research indicates that their origins are Han Chinese, and the government classifies them as Han. Hakka men and women were known as skilled and hardworking farmers who grew sweet potatoes, rice, and vegetables on harsh land ignored by non-Hakka farmers. They also often served in the military and outside China worked in construction and on plantations. In cities, Hakka have been notably successful in academia, politics, and the professions. Well-known Hakka include China's leader Deng Xiaoping, Taiwan's President Lee Teng-hui, Singapore's President Lee Kwan Yew, and Myanmar's President Ne Win.
Both inside and outside China, the Hakka are known for their ethnic solidarity, which may be a product of centuries of discrimination by the Han. Hakka interests are advanced by the Tsung Tsin (Congzheng) Association and the United Hakka Association.
Further Reading
Constable, Nicole, ed. (1994) Guest People: Studies of Hakka Chinese Identity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Leong, S. T. (1997) Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History: Hakkas, Pengmin, and Their Neighbours. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Pan, L., ed. (1998) The Encyclopedia of the Chinese Overseas. Singapore: Chinese Heritage Centre.
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