The concept of “free energy” is a key concept to characterize physically relevant states in statistical mechanics (see, e.g., Mandl, 1988; Reichl, 1998). Given an equilibrium system of statistical mechanics with energy levels Ei of the...

A spontaneous process is one that proceeds by itself. Such a process may not occur without the addition of a certain amount of energy, such as the combustion of a fuel. However, once it has begun, the reaction will proceed until the reactants are...

Measure of the total combined energies within a system, derived from heats of transformation, disorder, and other forms of internal energy (e.g., electrostatic charges). A system will change spontaneously to achieve a lower total free energy. Thus,...

It looked simple. Stocks and stock funds were down. So gold funds rose in July.They gained 3.73% on average, according to Lipper. It was the group's first month in the top spot since November.In a bruising month for the overall market, it was the only...

Green is the new black. That is, efforts by organizations to "go green" are paying dividends beyond the environmental kind. More small enterprises than ever are warming up to the notion that they can save money, boost the value of their brand and make a...