Doctor of Medicine (M.D. or MD, from the Latin Medicinae Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine,") is an academic degree for medical doctors. It varies between countries, from being a first professional degree (medical diploma), to being a relatively rare higher doctoral academic research degree (usually if granted outside of the US and Canada).[1].
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History of the M.D. degree
According to Sir John Bagot Glubb, the first medical schools to issue diplomas were the Bimaristan hospital-universities of the medieval Islamic world. The first of these institutions was opened in Baghdad during the time of Harun al-Rashid. They then appeared in Egypt from 872 and then in Islamic Spain, Persia and the Maghreb thereafter. Physicians and surgeons at these hospital-universities gave lectures on Islamic medicine to medical students and then a medical diploma was issued to students who were qualified to be practicing physicians.[2] According to Douglas Guthrie,[3], who bases his account on L Thorndike,[4] medical men were first called "Doctor" at the Medical School of Salerno. He states that that the Emperor Frederick II decreed in 1221 that no one should practice medicine until he had been publicly examined and approved by the masters of Salerno. The course lasted 5 years, and to start one had to be 21 years old and show proof of legitimacy and of three years study of logic. The course was followed by a year of supervised practice. After the laureation ceremony the practitioners could call themselves "magister" or "doctor."
United States and Canada
The M.B. or Bachelor of Medicine was the first type of medical degree to be granted in the United States and Canada. The first medical schools that granted the M.B. degree were UPenn, Harvard, Toronto, Maryland, and Columbia. These first few North American medical schools that were established were (for the most part) founded by physicians and surgeons who had been trained in England and Scotland where basic medical education culminated with the M.B. qualification and later the Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS or MBChB) after surgery (or latin chirurgiae) became less the practice of barbers technicians and more the mainstay of general medical education. This degree is the oldest and the most traditional medical degree held by physicians and surgeons. North American Medical schools however began granting the M.D. title rather than the more traditional M.B. mostly throughout the 1800s. Sometimes, holders of the MD or MBBS degrees are referred to as "allopathic physicians"[5] or graduates of allopathic schools of medicine[6], although some claim this term is pejorative.[7][neutrality disputed]Students earning an M.D. degree are trained in accredited schools of medicine[8] which are overseen by the Association of American Medical Colleges and the Liaison Committee on Medical Education, both independent boards of the American Medical Association, the AMA. Admissions to medical schools in the United States are competitive, with less than half of the approximately 35,000 applicants matriculating to a medical school. Before graduating from a medical school and achieving the degree of Medical Doctor, students have to pass the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Step 1 and both the Clinical Knowledge and Clinical Skills parts of Step 2. The M.D. degree is typically earned in four years. Following the awarding of the M.D., physicians who wish to practice in the United States are required to complete at least one internship year (PGY-1) and pass the USMLE Step 3. Most, in order to receive Board Eligible or Board Accredited status in a specialty of medicine such as general surgery or internal medicine, then undergo additional specialized training in the form of a residency. Those who wish to further specialize in areas such as cardiology or interventional radiology then complete a fellowship. Depending upon the physician's chosen field, residencies and fellowships involve an additional three to eight years of training after obtaining the M.D. This can be lengthened with additional research years, which can last one, two, or more years. In Canada, the M.D. is the basic medical degree required to practice medicine. At McGill University in Montreal, M.D. C.M. (Medicinae Doctor et Chirurgiae Magister) degrees are awarded. Even though the M.D. is a first professional degree and not a doctorate of research (ie. PhD), many holders of the M.D. degree conduct clinical and basic scientific research and publish in peer-reviewed journals during training and after graduation. Some M.D.s choose a research career and receive funding from the NIH as well as other sources such as the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. A few even go on to become Nobel Laureates.[4]
Equivalent Degrees
- The Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery degrees (MB BS or MB ChB, and several variants) are medical qualifications that are equivalent to the North American MD degree.
- The Scandinavian Candidatus medicinae or Candidata medicinae degrees (Cand.med.) are equivalent to the North American MD degree.
- In all 50 of the United States, and some Canadian provinces, the osteopathic medical degree (D.O.) is identical to the training requirements and practice rights of the M.D. degree.[9]
- Further information: Comparison of the M.D. and D.O. degrees and Canadian practice rights of U.S. trained D.O.s
Philippines
Under American rule from 1898 - 1946, the Philippine government adopted all aspects of the American educational system. As a result, all accredited medical schools in the Philippines are mandated by law to award an MD (Doctor of Medicine) degree to all its graduates, which is similar to that of the United States. Most medical students enrolled in MD programs must have a bachelor's degree in any subject of their choice in addition to fulfilling all premedical requirements. Students then apply to medical schools where they attend four years to complete their medical education plus a required 1 year of clinical rotation in a public hospital and 2 years of additional clinical rotation to become a fully licensed general practitioner. In all, it takes 4 years of undergraduate plus 4 years of medical proper to attain an MD in addition to mandatory 3 years of clinical rotation to become a primary care physician.
United Kingdom, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries
In the United Kingdom and Ireland (and many Commonwealth countries) the MD is a postgraduate research degree in medicine. At some universities, this takes the form of a first doctorate, analogous to the PhD, awarded upon submission of a thesis and a successful viva. The thesis may consist of new research undertaken on a full- or part-time basis under the supervision of a senior academic, or a portfolio of previously-published work (see, for example, [5]). At some other universities (especially older institutions such as Oxford and Cambridge) the MD is a higher doctorate awarded upon submission of a portfolio of published work representing a substantial contribution to medical research.[1]. In the case where the MD is awarded (either as a first or higher doctorate) for previously-published research, the candidate is usually required to be either a graduate or a full-time member of staff, of several (typically seven to ten) years' standing of the university in question (see, for example, [6]). The entry-level professional degree in these countries for the practice of medicine is that of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MB BS or MB ChB). This degree typically requires between four and six years of study and clinical training, and is equivalent to the North American MD.
Other postgraduate clinical degrees
There is also a similar advanced professional degree to the postgraduate MD: the Master of Surgery (usually ChM or MS, but MCh in Ireland, Wales and at Oxford and MChir at Cambridge). In Ireland, where the basic medical qualification includes a degree in obstetrics, there is a similar higher degree of Master of the Art of Obstetrics (MAO).
India
In India, an M.D. is a higher degree awarded by many medical colleges to MB BS graduates after two or three years of study and examination in a pre-clinical or clinical subject of a non-surgical nature. The original research element is not as prominent here, as this is primarily a clinical qualification resembling the professional doctorates of the USA. In surgery and gynaecology the equivalent degree is Master of Surgery (M.S. or M.Ch.). A few institutions confer a higher doctorate (abbreviated D.M.) after study and training in a subspecialty, e.g. cardiology, or in fields such as neurosurgery a higher master's degree (M.Ch.). They may follow the same research learning pathway as the first two years of a Ph.D., allowing clinical fellows to pursue combinations of laboratory and clinical-based research under the supervision of senior clinical and research members of the School. Given good progress (at an unspecified instiution) and by adding a further year, students can convert to a Ph.D. programme.
References
- ^ a b CF Hawkins, "Write the MD Thesis" in "How To Do It" London: British Medical Association 2nd ed. 1985 ISBN 0-7279-0186-9
- ^ Sir John Bagot Glubb (cf. Dr. A. Zahoor (1999), Quotations on Islamic Civilization)
- ^ Douglas Guthrie, A History of Medicine. London: Thomas Nelson 1945, p. 107
- ^ L Thorndike, History of Magic and Experimental Science. New York 1934 - 41, Vol. 2 of 6
- ^ Physicians and Surgeons. Occupational Outlook Handbook. Bureau of Labor Statistics. U.S. Dept of Labor. [1]
- ^ Physician Education, Licensure, and Certification. American Medical Association.[2]
- ^ Atwood KC (2004). "Naturopathy, pseudoscience, and medicine: myths and fallacies vs truth". MedGenMed : Medscape general medicine 6 (1): 33. PMID 15208545. Retrieved on 2007-08-17.
- ^ Physician Education, Licensure, and Certification. American Medical Association.[3]
- ^ Dennis L. Kasper, Eugene Braunwald, Anthony S. Fauci, Stephen L. Hauser, Dan L. Longo, J. Larry Jameson, and Kurt J. Isselbacher, Eds. Chapter 10. Complementary and Alternative Medicine Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 16th Edition. 2005. McGraw Hill.
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